The Harappan civilization is the vedic civilization : the river behaviour approch

Dr. Sumanben H. Pandya* 1. PREFACE

Globalization has not spared even the Harappa Civilization which is now being named as the South Asian Civilization or the South Asian Bronze Age. It is an established fact that the Harappa Civilization is one of the greatest civilizations of the ancient world and has remarkable achievements in the fields of astronomy , monumental architecture, the town planing, the scientific water managements, overseas trade and the commerce, various arts and crafts, the metallurgy, socioeconomic and political institutions and the script etc. Many of these traditions are still being lived by the Indians. Secondly, there is a continuity of this civilization. A rare case indeed ! Now, the present names of the civilization ignores all these achievements, the geography and the ecology and the Sarasvati water regime where this civilization had originated, urbanised and formed the genesis of the present Indian civilization. Even the term Indian civilization is not sufficient to identify these achievements and the role the Sarasvati river played. Therefore, in the light of the multidisciplinary data, the palaeochannels of the Vedic Sarasvati river is interpreted through the corresponding Vedic informations and the discipline of the river behavior and the flood mechanism. Further, in light of the river behavior and the flood mechanism, behavior of the Sarasvati river is understood and the archeological evidences are interpreted. They show that the early farming was originated in Rajasthan in the valley of the vedic Sarasvati river. They also show that the Harappa or the Indus valley Civilization is the vedic Civilization. Shifting and drying of the Sarasvati river played a great role in shaping this civilization. The Vedic texts also show that the Sarasvati and the Sindhu river are interwoven with this civilization. Therefore, this civilization should, now, be termed as the vedic civilization or the Sarasvati Sindhu civilization.

ANARTA : Journal of North Gujarat University, Patan. Vol. 9, 2001 P.78-99 *Prin. D.P.C.B.L. Mahila Arts & Commerce College, Dhansura., Dhansura 383310.

2. RIVER BEHAVIOUR Right from the 19 th century various scholars have identified dry bed of the Ghagger-Hakado-Wahind as the Reg Vedic Sarasvati river. Very recently a Large number of investigations using remote sensing techniques have brought to light numerous palaeochannels in Punjab,Hariyana,Rajasthan, Sindh and Gujarat (Rajwat et al.1999;2001). These channels are now being identified as the Vedic Sarasvati river (Radhakrishna et al. 1999). Based on the geomorphic land forms and the aerial photo informations Flam has tried to reconstruct the palaeochannels of the Indus river in the flood plain and their implication over the Harappa Civilization. (Flam. 1999:35-65).However, here, a different discipline of the river behavior and the flood mechanism is used to understand the flood mechanism of the Vedic Sarasvati river and have tried to understand and interprete the Haappa civilization differently. It is an established fact that the during the high floods, the mature river s have typical behavior. Therefore, study of the behavior of the river is very useful to understand, origin, growth and urbanization of the inhabitants living on the natural levees in the flood plains and their shiftings. To understand behavior and the nature of the Vedic Sarasvati river, here it is mentioned briefly. Behavior of any river is controlled mainly by the catchment area, the type, nature and duration of the precipitations and its inputs into the channel, geology of the area through which the river passes, the channel and its gradients, the floodings, their frequencies and the durations, the flood levels, the flood load and the flood discharge and 2

also the energy mechanism. 2.1

generated

and

released

through

flood

The Flood Mechanism

It is briefly like this. When a mighty river is in spate of various magnitudes, it overflows its banks, erodes its own banks and the beds. Usually, this phenomenon takes place in the flood plains where gradually, the gradient of the flood plain and the channel decreases to the zero level. The flood water carries tremendous loads. The transporting and floating of the load follows the law of gravity. Hence the sand and the silts travel at the upper levels. Secondly, the velocity of the flood water loaded with the flood loads generates high energy which grinds and brushes on the river sections, and the river bed and erodes them. During this mechanism, the river also deposits its flood loads in a particular manner and at the particular places. By eroding and cutting the banks the river accomodates its access flood waters and controls its own behavior. this is a self controlling natural, yet scientific mechanism. It has two behavior. They are erosional and the depositional. 2.1.1 and horizontal. Erosional: This is sub-divided into two: vertical

Vertical Erosion : The flood water of the high to very high magnitudes of the long duration having very high velocity generates high energy. The heavy flood load grinds on to the less compact lower section of the bank. This mechanism erodes and cuts that part of the bank resulting into collapsing of the upper portion automatically. By this mechanism, the river widens its own channel and also forms meanders. The Horizontal Erosion : It takes place during the flood of very high magnitudes and of long durations having very high velocity. The high energy of the overflowing flood water cuts horizontal new channels and diverts its excess flood water through them. Usually, this phenomenon takes place at the head of the fresh meanders. In each passing flood thus the channel is gradually deepens and widens and in the long history of the river it becomes a disbutary channel of significance. In the long history of a mature river, especially in the flood plain, the river cuts more than one channels. During each flood of the high magnitude the river passes its access flood water into these channels ! Interestingly, some times it shifts its main flow into the equally wide mature channel , deserting the current one. The flood water also grinds on to 3

the bed of the channel and erodes the bed load and deepens the channels. This mechanism increases the flood load. When the flood recedes the river may flow through any of these channels abandoning its former channel and often swing from one channel into another. Therefore, in the flood plain more than one channel of the same river exits. The abandoned meanders and the channels form crecentic oxbow and the lakes of the cut off channel. The abandoned channel lakes have shapes of the channel and they also contain bed loads. These lakes are usually found along the main channel of the river. However, in the mightier river of the long history, they are documented in all over the flood plain. Now, both these lakes have natural levees. These lakes are recharged by the surface run off and also by the access flood water of the river. In the flood plain they are perennial water resource and always have attracted the human habitation. 2.1.2 Dispositional : It is of three types. One, within the channel and second, outside the channel. The third is at the zero level, usually at the mouth. This is directly related to the sudden change in the gradient of the channel where the earlier floods have deposited the flood load right in the channel. From here the river starts overflowing its banks. Sudden loss in the velocity and the transporting energy of the overflowed water of the flood of a high magnitude throws sand along the banks. Amount of the sand and their distance from the channel is directly related to the nature of the flood and the gradient of the channel. These sands form dunes of the varying heights and are deposited parallel to the channel. In the moderate floods, the overflowed water deposits its sand and the silt load right on the banks and forms a levee. In the flood plains these natural levees are the higher and safer places for the human settlements. Later on the overflowed flood water with the decreasing velocity gradually spreads over the vast area of the flood plain recharging the lakes and depositing the silt. This mechanism also recharges the ground water resources, increases the fertility of the land and prosperity of the inhabitants. At the mouth the river has following behavior. With decreasing the gradient and the velocity gradually, the river reaches to the zero level. Here, because of the zero gradient the river braids into many channels and deposits its load of sand and silt and forms sand banks of the braided channels. They are also known as the sand bars.

Now, we shall apply this knowledge to the behavior of the Sarasvati river and its flood mechanism. 3. BEHAVIOUR AND FLOOD MECHANISM OF THE SARASVATI RIVER This can be reconstructed and understood through the various geomorphic feature coming from Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Sindh and Gujarat and also through the Vedic references. Geomorphic evidences include dried buried and disintegrated palaeochannels of the river Sarasvati and its tributaries, their shifted and abandoned courses, the lakes and the land depressions of Rajasthan, Haryana and Sindh, the natural levees, linear sand dunes, the bed loads and the channel fills, the Kankar deposits and also alluvial deposits of varying heights. Kar (1994 : 50-70) and Bakliwal (1999 : 113119) have identified more than one paleochannels in Rajaasthan, the Gagghar Hakado is the last one. Now these paleochannels have been named as the Vedic Sarasvati river by many scientists as they very well correspond with the description of the Sarasvati river in the Rig Veda. Now, the very width of these channels clearly show that the Sarasvati river was quite mightier, mightier than the present Sindhu as in Sindh present channel of Sindhu including the water of the Satlej is 2 km. wide. This difference also shows long history and maturity of the Sarasvati river. Secondly, these various channels especially from the Rajasthan indicate that the some of these channels might be disbutaries of the Sarasvati. They might have been cut during the long history of the river Sarasvati through the horizontal erosions of the floods of the high magnitudes. The thick fluvial deposits of Rajasthan having in the north - east to the south - west directions and often buried underneath the aeolian sands clearly show that the main channel of the Sarasvati river was flowing from the north- east to the south- west direction. This was deposited by the mighty Sarasvati river system. These deposits have also indicated that the Sarasvati river had its origin in the Himalaya ( Singh, Surendra, 1992 : 198). Therefore, the Sarasvati must be subjected to the frequent floodings of the very high magnitudes. A large bed of the conglomerate gravel along the dried bed of the Gagghar in Punjab and Haryana (Anand et al. 1985 : 193-210), alluvium with gravels around Nagaur and Didwana buried below the sand dunes ( Bakriwal et al. 1999 : 114) and also alternative layers of the Kankar and sand deposits of 5

varying thickness around Jodhpur clearly show that the floods of the Sarasvati river must be of the very high magnitudes having very high velocity to generate and release such a high power energy to carry and transport such a heavy flood loads at such a high level to deposit it. The alternative layers Kankar and sand also show different magnitudes and velocity of the floods. A large number of lakes and playas and the depressions are reported from the Haryana, Rajasthan and southeast of Sindh. They are highly concentrated in Rajasthan. At present. Some of them are saline. They are said to be associated with the climatic changes. The unequal pollen distribution and salinity variations of these lakes have generated scholarly discussions. However, the simple fact is that if these lakes are not recharged regularly, the stagnant water evaporates increasing the salinity. Interestingly, the distribution and the shapes of some of them having natural levee clearly show their riverine origin. They indicate presence of the mighty river Sarasvati which had through its flood mechanism of very high magnitude through the horizontal erosions had cut and formed many oxbow and riverine lakes in the flood plain of the Rajasthan. Investigation of the dug samples of the Puchch Bhadraa lake, a riverine lake of the Sarasvati near Puchch Padraa in Barmed district in Rajasthan has exposed bed load of the high energy river (Rai. 1992 : 145). This is dated to 50000 yrs. B.P. showing that during this time , the Sarasvati was flowing in the Rajasthan and it was mighter. Now, above brief picture of the river behaviour and the flood mechanism of the river clearly shows that the sarasvati was a mature river system. It used to flooding frequently. Most of the floods were of very high magnitudes with very high velocity to cut the meanders and the new channels. These high floods must have thrown sands and the silts and formed sand dunes and the natural levees. In Rajasthan , these are needed to be identified and studied thoroughly. The fact is that the Rajasthan seems to be the core region of the river Sarasvati which has documented maximum number of the signatures of the Sarasvati water regime. 4. BEHAVIOUR AND THE FLOOD MECHANISM OF THE SARASVATI RIVER IN THE VEDIC TEXTS A large number of the references of the Sarasvati river come from the Reg Veda, the most ancient literacy work of the world. At the first glance, the hymns are seemed to be the prayers. But in the analytic eyes, they reveal valuable historical information of the palaeaoclimate, the types of rains, the waters in the mountains and also on the earth, the clouds and their formations, the draughts, the river beds, the floods 6

and the river, the floodings and the waters, digging or eroding of the new channels, the takes and so on. (Griffith; 1889; Shri Swami.1972). They are interwoven in the prayers. Reg Veda clearly describes the origin of the Sarasvati, its whole course, the nature and the behavior and its flood mechanism. It also describes its role in shaping of the life of the people residing in the flood plain. Maximum number of the references on the Sarasvati river come from the Mandala 2 nd , 6 th and 7 th of the early text (Singh, Shivaji. 1998 : 29-33). Reg Veda clearly mentions that the Sarasvati had its origin in the Himalaya and not in the Siwalik Hills. It clearly mention that the Ekachetaat Sarasvati Nadinaam Suchiryati Giribhya aa Samudrat. (RV :VII :95:2) This is conformed by the work of puri. The renowned glaciologist (Puri.1998 per commu.) The Rig Veda also informs us that when the Sarasvati was in spate the river was becoming uncontrollable and its current was the swiftest of the swifts. It further says that the velocity of the Sarasvati was so high that it broke the hill ranges and the river carried them ( as the flood load) down like lotus stems - see below: Iyam Shushmebhihibisakhaa Evaarujaatsaanu Girinam Tevishebhirumibhih Paravaathdhaneemavase Sruvruktibhihi Sarasvatimaa Vivaasemadhitibhihi. ( RV: 6:61:2) Yasya Ananto Ahutastveshashacharishnuranavah Amashcharati roruvat (RV: 6:61:8) :

The flood water was also overflowing both the banks and the flood waters filled or say inundated the earth, that is the vast urea of the flood plain and the heaven that is the Himalayan region. Aaapashushi paarthivaanyuru Sarasvati Nidaspaatu rajo antariksham

When in spate the might of river was sweeping away all the other waters and was mightiest among all the other rivers.

Prayaa Mahimna Apasaampastma Rath eva Bruhati Sarasvati. (RV: 6:61:13)

Mahinsu Vibhvane

Chikite

Dhumnebhiranya Chikitushaa

Krutopastutya

Now to know the might of the Sarasvati over all the other rivers here, it is essential to know the Sindhu Flood mechanism as it has also a long history of the floodings. The Imperial Gezeteer notes ( Enthovon 1909:164-65,167-168). "Before taming, upstream to the confluence with the five river including the Satlej, the ancient Satudri, the width of the Sindhu is about half a Km. When the river was on its peaks of the floods, the velocity of the flood discharge at the up treamwas 8 km. per hour and the flood discharge was about 250 cms. to 800 cms. per second. But downstream the confluence, the river Sindhu becomes mightier and larger and the Sindh where the gradient is very low the width of the river channel varies from one km. to one and half km. and during the flood of the high magnitude the width of the channel increases to two kms. However, in the flood of the high magnitude, the velocity in Sindh is about 12 km. per hour and the flood discharge increases to 27000 cms to 28000 cms. per second". This behavior of the river Sindhu is recorded right from the ptolemy, the Greek auther of the Medieval writers. The records indicate that when in spate the Sindhu erodes new channels, meanders and suddenly shifts its water into the newly cut channels, recharges these lakes and the abandons channels and swings towards the west as the flood plain slopes towards the south- west. This comparison of the Sindhu with the Sarasvati also clearly shows that the how mightier Sarasvati could be when the shatudri - present Sutlej was its tributary and how moderate the Sindhu could be without Shatudri - Present Sutlej ! Secondly, this overflowed water of the Sarasvati used to bring tremendous water and fertile silt for agriculture and faunal and floral wealth. Therefore, in praying the river, the Reg Veda described the Sarasvati as Ambitame Naditame Devitame Sarasvati Aprashastaa Eva Smasi Prashastim Amba Naskrudhi (RV 2: 16:41) It says that the Sarasvati was superior to all the other rivers, best of the mother rivers as the Sarasvati was the main source of the prosperity and survival and was the life line of the inhabitants residing over there on the flood plain. The Sarasvati was also best of the goddesses as it used to bring 8

prosperity in tremendous. The text describes its flow white in complexion indicating it was a glacial fed river. The Reg Veda describes the Sarasvati as Saptathi and Sindhumaataa Aam Yat Saakam Yashaso Vavashaataa Sarasvati Saptathi Sindhumaataa (RV 7:36:6) This indicates including the Sarasvati, There were seven rivers. This shows that the river had six tributaries and disbutaries. The word Sindumaataa denotes two things. One, the Sarasvati was the mother of all the rivers, the disbutaries. Second, the river was abundance in water to feed - fill the ocean like a mother feeding her child. The Sarasvati being the mightiest river must have brought such a large volume of the water into the sea, the present Ranns of Kachch, the then sea, showing her might ever the sea. This statement of the Reg Veda is supported by the numerous deltas and the bets in the Great Rann of Kachchh. ( Malik et. al 1999 : 163-174). And also in the little Rann of Kachchh. Secondly, the very name of the Sarasvati denotes the river of having many lakes. Reg Veda refers many lakes. Among these, the Sharyanaavaan and the Dronkalash are the examples. Now, in the Rajasthan, several lakes and playas having riverine origin have been reported ( Rammurthy. 1999:158), this strengthens the very meaning and the name of the Sarasvati and also the Reg Vedic description of the river. So, from the Reg Veda following picture of the Sarasvati emerges out. That the Reg Vedic Sarasvati had its origin in the Himalaya and it used to fall into the sea. In the flood plain the Sarasvati had the seven channel an it was the mightiest among all the rivers. When not in spate its glacial fed water was pure and white and the channel had golden sand. The river was very rich in the lakes, the channels and the silts. However, when the Sarasvati was in spates of the high magnitudes and of the long duration it used to become fierce, uncontrollable and destructive. During the floodings, its current was extremely swift and fast having very high velocity which naturally generated and released high degree of the energy. The river had very amount of the flood discharge which must have cut the meanders and the disbutaries. During the floodings the river was roaring. The frequent floods used to spread over the vast areas recharging the lakes and bringing abundant water, silt and fertility and food and prosperity to all. That is why Sarasvati was praised by the Rsis. 9

This Reg Vedic descriptions thus clearly show that during the early Reg Vedic period, the Sarasvati was the most superior, the mightiest, mature and the most important river of this part of the continent. In the time of Yajur Veda, which seems to be a recomposition of the Reg Veda Mandal - 6, .the Sarasvati enjoyed the same status and the might. The details of the channels are recorded in the Vaj Sanehi Samhita of the Shukla yajur Veda. It says, Panchanadhya Sarasvatimapi Yanti Sasroyasah Sarasvati to Panchadhaa sodeshe abhavat sarit.( Y.S.34:19). This indicates that the river had five mouths - the disbutaries. This clearly shows that like other mighty, mature rivers, in the flood plain of the Rajasthan, the Sarasvati eroded five channels through the horizontal erosions of the frequent floods of the very high magnitudes and used to flow through these five channels. This description of the Yajur Veda is supported by occurrence of more than one channels in Rajasthan and the deltas in the Sindh, South - west of the Rajasthan and in the Great Rann of Kachchh ( Malik et al.1999; 163 - 174, also see the figures). This also confirms the statement of the Reg Veda that Sarasvati was Saptathi meaning the Sarasvati had five disbutaries and two tributaries of the Satudri and Drashadvati. Now, these texts do not speak about the aridity, desert conditions in the region, the change and the shift in the water regime and drying of the Sarasvati river. The fact is that these compositors knew only the mighty and the mature river. Secondly, this also shows that there is very little or no time gap between composition of the Mandal 2 nd ,6 th and 7 th and original text of the Yajur Veda. 5. THE VEDIC CULTURE The very description of the Sarasvati river in the Reg Veda and the Yajur Veda and the behavior and the flood mechanism of the Sarasvati river as we have seen above clearly shows that the compositors of these Vedas were aborigines of this region and that they new the behavior of the river very well. They were composed by the deferent Rsis and their progenies. Therefore, these Vedas are also called Gotra or the Vamsh Mandals. Screening of these Mandals clearly shows that the Mandal 2 nd 4 th and 6 th and 7 th are composed earlier. Shivaji Singh has also noted the maximum references of the Sarasvati river coming from the Mandal 6 th and the 7 th (1998 :27 - 29). 10

Interestingly, in these Mandals as Singh has noted there is no referance of the river Sindhu at all. The Mandal four is said to be latest among these earlier Gotra Mandals. In this Mandal 4 th , instead of the Sarasvati, the Sindhu river makes its appearance for the five times ! From the above details, it becomes clear that the Mandal 2 nd ,6 th and the 7 th were composed in the regions of the Sarasvati water system which correspond with the Rajasthan. That they were composed by the aborigines of this region of the Rajasthan who knew the geography and the river very well. Now, as these books are the Gotra Mandals their prime aim was to pray and praise the deities. Therefore, they contain prying hyms and the general environment of the region with whom they were attached and were part of it.

Secondly, as the texts go the Vedic culture was essentially a self reliant non urban culture of small settlements spreading over on the banks of the lakes, the disbutories and the river. They were subsisting on the agriculture, and the domestication of the cattle i.e. cows and the bulls. Naturally in such a culture economic-political complexity like those of the Mature/urban Harappan cannot be expected. Now, as we have seen earlier, the central and the southwest part of the Rajasthan was the core region of the Early Vedic people, so, some archaeological remains, as many archaeologists expect should come from these areas. But so far they are said to be absent. It is true that the Rajasthan has documented continuity of the human adoptions indicated through the various stone age culture dated back to 200000 yrs. B.P. to 25000 yrs. B.P. These cultures have also shown the population increase (Misra 1992:85-91). This clearly shows that the Rajasthan was hospitable right from the 200000 yrs. B.P. to the 25000 yrs. - 16000 yrs B.P. ( Misra :1992:85), the floral remains from the Rajasthan also have indicated wet climate in Rajasthan. (Mertia et al : 1992: 105). This shows that the general environment of the region was suitable for the human adobtion and the growth. This was due to the Sarasvati water system supporting the humidity and the growth of the vegetations. Now, non availability of the archaeological remains of the Vedic culture in this region of the Rajasthan can be explained through the following discussion. 11

Based on the palynological evidences from the Rajasthan lakes Gurdip Sing has indicated beginning of the earliest emergence of the cereal agriculture in Rajasthan around 7500 yrs. B.C.( Singh 1971: Singh et al. 1974). He was in opinion that the relics of this earliest farming community is buried underneath the sand. However, recent researches of the other lakes of the Rajasthan do not correspond with Singh's palynological data and the hypothesis of the wet climate and the climate changes ( Kajale et al.1999:16-17). Yet, pollen and spores investigations from the Kanod playa has reveled existence of some communities around the sand dunes and the fresh water in the playas of Kanod, Khanowala, Khara (Saline) and Mitha (fresh) dated back to early Holocene. (Deotare; et al 2000: 15-16). Secondly, Misra has also strongly denied Gurdip Singh's climate views, mentioning that the extensive exploration in the western Rajasthan and the North Gujarat have not documented any such archaeological relics. To him absence of the massive aeolian sand activities after 2000 B.C. does not support burying of this relics of the earliest farming community ( Misra. 1984 :486). However, now many Amri and Kot-Diji related the Pre-Harappan sites have been reported from the North Gujarat. Thirdly, the Vedic culture as we shall see is prior to the Pre-Harappan in chronology and far earlier to the 2000 B.C. The aridity in the Rajasthan set only after shifting of the Sarasvati and the Drashadvati from the Rajasthan that is as discussed later, around the 5 th Millennium B.C. This must have accelerated drifting of the sands from the dried channels through the south-west high winds leading to the massive aeolian sand deposits. Dalal (1980:35) has the similar observation in the Drashadvati and the Sarasvati valley of the Rajasthan. Very recently Rajawat has also observed that the many palaeochannels of the Sarasvati river are still buried under the aeolian sand cover in the Rajasthan. ( Rajwat. et al. 2001:12-13). The above evidences clearly indicate possibility of the burring of the archaeological remain of the earliest farming community i.e. the remain of the Vedic culture in the central, south-west of the Rajasthan and the eastern Sindh. The fact is that this area very well correspond with behavior of the Sarasvati river of the early texts of the Reg veda and the Yajur Veda. These phenomenon might have taken place after total drying of the Rajasthan and setting of aridity. 6. CHRONOLOGY OF THE VEDIC CULTURE

12

As the RigVeda and the Yajur Veda do not make any referance to the desert condition and describe the mighty, full flowing river Sarasvati in detail, it can be presumed that during composion of these early texts of the Mandal 2 nd ,6 th and the 7 th the general environment of the Rajasthan was wet and not dry. Secondly it is established that during the Holocene period of the ( 12000 yrs. B.P.) wet condition was prevailing in Rajasthan and the green forest existed. Now, the bed load of the Puchchh Bhadraa lake near Pucchch Parda in the Barmed district of Rajasthan is dated to 50000 yrs. B.P. indicating active fluvial conditions. This general environment correspond with the description of behavior and the flood mechanism of the Sarasvati river in the early texts of the Reg Veda. Therefore, the Reg Vedic and the Yajur Vedic culture of the earliest farming community may be dated between 12000 yrs. B.P. to 50000 yrs B.P. 7. SHIFTING OF THE SARAVATI FROM RAJASTHAN

Now, very reason of this shift seams to be attributed to the unstable Himalaya and the tectonic upheavals in the Hissar - Hansi - Bhivani; Nohar and Manot and Surat Garh region which must have controlled and compelled the Sarasvati Drashadvati to take and unusual, sudden westward elbow turn and the shifts deserting Rajasthan ( Ramashwami. 1999 : 159160). There is a reference of tectonic upheavals in the Reg Veda Mandal 2. It is described as the following Yah Pruthavi Vyathamaanaamohadomhad Yah Parvatan Prakrupitaam Aramnaat yo antriksh am vimame vareeyo dhyamstabhaat Sa Janans Indrah. (RV 2:12:2). Interestingly, ethnographic information from Rajasthan also indicates this shift, saying that the water of the Rajasthan has gone to Multan - Sindh ! ( Salecha. 1995 :73). After passing through these upheavals again the Sarasvati - Drashadvati flowed through natural gradient as the present dried bed of the Ghaggar - Hakado, the last course of the Sarasvati. The abrupt, sudden shifts of the Sarasvati water regime can be postulated through the unusually 6 to 8 km. wide shallow channel of the last course of the Sarasvati. Now, this shift of the water regime of the Sarasvati must have disrupted the general environment and the hydraulic set up of the protohistoric Rajasthan. This must have accelerated dehydration, aridity and process of the desertification in the once, wet, hospitable core region of the human adoption. 13

8. MIGRATION OF THE VEDIC PEOPLE TOWARDS THE SHIFTED COURSE AND THE SINDHU This can implications. be elaborated through the archaeological

In the Cholistan desert Mughal has brought to light nearly 414 prehistoric sites. Among these 99 sites belong to the preHarappan Hakra were people. Out of these, 52 sites represent temporary or camp sites ( Mugal. 1984:90-91). Secondly, the settled Hakra were ceramic traditions are hand made having mud applique on the exterior, and also wheel made. Before, a few decades mud application ( applique) on the exterior of the cooking vessels were known in Saurashtra. The coarse material was to be added in the mud as a temper and it was applied by hand. This method was called as Paankho Karvo. The mud applique was known as Paankho. This would retain the heat for long time and applique which might get soot while on heat can be removed easily by removing the applique. It can be put again whenever needed. This was also used to apply on the round jars of drinking water which would keep the water cool. These pots with the mud applique have similar appearance like those of the Hakra mud applique ware. The Hakra wares have been reported from Harappan period, I, Amri period, I, Jalilpur-I, and also from the others sites. The material culture of the Hakra ware period includes T.C. figuries of cows and bulls, the bangles and the grinding stones, the lithic industries of the parallel sided blades, borers, the leaf shaped arrow heads, scrapers and cores and also the klin. The material culture shows limited industrial activities. Now, the Hakra ware people are spread over a total area of 643 ha. land. Secondly, the highest spread that is of the non-camp sites are dated to 3800 B.C. - 3200 B.C. Therefore, the camp sites must be earlier than that and fall in the beginning of the 4 th Millennium B.C. or the and of the 5 th Millennium B.C. Now, the location, nature, the type, the spread, the chronology and the Vedic references and the circumstantial evidences clearly indicate that the Hakra ware people were the immigrants from the deserted Rajasthan, who, after shifting of the Sarasvati and desertification of the Rajasthan had moved towards the shifted course of the Sarasvati. This seams to be a dire need and psychology of the inhabitants of the flood plains 14

who for survival and prosperity always follow the shifted courses of the river ( Pandya. 1984: 18-30). Major General Heig had the similar observations about shifting of the Sindhu river into the new channel, deserting the old one ! This has forced the inhabitants to leave their home lands just in search of the new settlements. Now, as he observed, during the high winds the drifted sands of the dry channel had swept over the deserted relies burring them (Crindle. 1885 :84-85). 9. CHRONOLOGY OF THE SHIFTS OF MIGRATION OF THE VEDIC PEOPLE THE SARASVATI AND

Earlier it is presumed that the Reg Veda and Yajur Veda were composed some time between 12000 yrs. B.P. and 50000 B.P. Now, at present the Hakra ware camp sites of Cholistan desert fall in the beginning of the 4 th Millennium B.C. or earlier. Therefore, logically, the migrations must have taken place sometime after 12000 yrs B.P. and before 5000 yrs. B.C. However, the tectonic upheavals and the shifting of the rivers must have taken place still earlier. After this phenomenon, the lakes must be holding some water for sometime. Therefore, the inhabitants must have lingered over there for some centuries and migrated only when the aridity increased and the actual desert condition set in the Rajasthan. If we accept Gurudeep Singh's wet phase of the pollen zone of 7500 year B.C. then it is probable that the desert condition must have set in between 7500 B.C. to 5000 B.C. Secondly, the circumstantial evidences show there is a possibility of more Hakra ware camp sites at the lower courses and the disbutaries of the shifted Sarasvati, at the southwest of the Rajasthan and southeast of Sindh and also in the North West Gujarat. This is indicated through the occurrence of the Early Harappan Amri, Kot - Diji and Nal type pottery from the two burial sites from Nagwada and the very early radio carbon date of 3698 cal.B.C. from the Loteshwar. These sites and the pottery have showed some migratory links with the site of Garo Biro and Kot-Kori of the lower Sindh ( Sonawane et. al. 1994:136). Therefore, as seen earlier the relics of the Vedic people - culture might have been burried underneath the drifted sands of the later period when the aridity had set in. 10. THE EARLY HARAPPAN AND HARAPPAN THE LATE VEDIC PEOPLE THE MATURE/URBAN

15

Interestingly the Harappan settlements in the Cholistan Sarasvati are located in the same area of the Hakra ware. They are now only 45 in number occupying only 256 ha. land. This change from the camping to the settled life and decreasing number with some econo-socio developments can be explained through the further north west ward march of the Hakra ware people - The late Vedic people from the Cholistan Desert and also from the south - west rajasthan to the lower Sindhu river and the Sindh. This is clearly documented in the 1 st and 10 th Mandal of the Reg Veda and also in the archaeological materials which correspond with the geography of the lower Sindhu river and the Sindh. Analytic approach of the Reg Vedic Mandal 10 th clearly indicates its later composition (Patel. 1990:95). In the Mandal 1 st and 10 th the Sindhukshit, a resident of the Sindhu area, Sindhu dvip and Kakshivan, both residents of the lower Sindh in the vacinity of the Sindhu river describe the Sindhu river, the geography, the trade and the commerce of the inhabitants of the lower Sindh (Singh Shivaji. 1998: 29-31). Secondly, the agricultural and the other cultural details of the Reg Veda Mandal 10 th ( Patel. 1990 : 362-372) correspond with the archaeological remains of the Early Harappan of the Sindh and the Cholistan Desert. Occurrence of the Hakra Mud applique ware at Amri - IA, and RD - 89 site Anupgarh Tehsil of the Rajasthan ( Mughal. 1982 : 90 - 92) clearly indicate link between the Hakra ware the migrated Vedic people and the Early Harappans - the late Vedic people. Now, the Radio carbon dates from Early Harappan of Amri culture period I is dated to mid of the 4 th Millennium B.C. At Raheman Dheri, it is around 3200 B.C., at Harappa, it is in the 3400 B.C. The other Early Harappan sites fall in the general broad line of 3500 B.C. to 3300 B.C. Therefore, the Early Harappans of the lower Sindhu and the Sindh who were compositors of the Mandal 1 st and 10 th were the same people who had marched towards lower Sindh and Sindhu and prospered there. Now, in the Mandal 10 th instead of the Sarasvati river, the Sindhu river is Similarly praised ( Singh Shivaji. 1998 :29) by these immigrants. Arrival of these Early Harappans or the Late Vedic People in the Sindhu region may be dated in the late early or the mid of the 4 th Millennium B.C. This is clearly supported by presence of the Hakra Mud Applique ware from the Amri period IA. In the North at Harappa and the other sites, which are dated into the mid of the 4 th Millennium to the 3200 B.C. Even archaenological evidences of the Early Harappans correspond with the Increase 16

of the trade and commerce in the lower Sindh and the flood plain of the Sindhu river. This was probably due to moderate course of the Sindhu river, the Sindhu without Satudri and its low water volume in the flood plain of Sindh. The Late Vedic People's further westward march from Sindh towards Sindh Kohisan and the Kirthar range is documented through the occurrence of the large number of the Early Harappan i.e. Amri and the Kot Diji type sites heavily concentrated in the Kohistan (Flam. 1981 : 54). However, here, this Late Vedic People could not urbanise like in Saurashtra as the Kohistan ecosystem could not accelerate the process of the urbanism like the flood plains of the Sindh. At Balakot, the Amarians are found mingled with the Balakotian Period- I indicating its arrival around the last quarter of the 4 th Millennium B.C. Secondly, based on the frequently mention of the Sindhu river in the Mandal 1 st and the 10 th geographical plants and the other details Shivaji Singh also thinks of exodus of the men and even ideas from the Sarasvati Valley, particularly towards west and the southwest (1998 : 34-36). Though, no scientific determinations are available for the Early Harappan culture at Dhola Vira in the Khadir island of the Great Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat, the geographical references and description of the trade and the commerce in the Mandal 1 st and the 10 th clearly indicate occupation of the Khadir island in the last quarter of the 4 th Millennium B.C. This must have happened during the west and the southwest ward movements of the Late Vedic People from shifted course of the Sarasvati. Most of the sites from Kachchh mainland also show stronger tie with Sindh. 11. URBANISATION OF THE LATE VEDIC PEOPLE

There are archaeological and the chronological evidences showing development of the Mature/urban Harappan from the Early Harappans - Late Vedic Culture. Obviously, this process of the urbanism might not be simultaneous and equal at every settlement and at every region, yet it clearly indicates transformations of the Early Harappans- Late Vedic People into various degree of urbanism based on the various factors. They are the exploitation of the local and the regional resources, the wide exposures and the interactions with the outside world. Possehl has summarized these data (1999:24-25). To him the highest number of the Mature/Urban Harappan sites numbering 310 are in Gujarat. The other 218 in the east, 174 in the Cholistan and 86 in the Sindh. 17

This difference indicates two things. One, during the mid of the 4 th Millennium B.C. to the mid of the 3 rd Millennium B.C., the courses of these two the Hakra - Sarasvati and Sindhu rivers, the flood plain and the general environment of these regions must be stable to generate and accelerate the process of the urbanism leading to the econo - socio institutional growth and the developments. This was possible because of the furtile land resource and the abundance of the surface and the sub-soil sweet water of the flood plains and the surface water systems. This water resource can be exploited even away from the channels throughout the year by digging the dug wells. The soft soil can be easily tilled with the wooden ploughs. These water and soil resource could produce fodder and the other crops in abundance which can support men and their domestic animals and the other faunal and floral wealth. This surplus can generate the process of the urbanization. This is documented in the archaeological evidences coming from the Mature/urban or the Late Vedic sites. Interestingly this urbanism and the econosocio st th development is echoed in the 1 and the 10 Mandal of Reg Veda and also in the Brahman literature where numerous economic activities, overseas trade and commerce, the socioeconomic institutions and the various crops and plants and the burial rights etc. are documented which correspond with the Mature/urban material culture. (Patel. 1990:331-382). 12. SOUTHWARDMOVEMENT OF THE LATE VEDIC PEOPLE IN GUJARAT In Gujarat most of the Saurashtra settlements have not documented typically Mature/urban material culture and the econosocial complexity like those of the Sarasvati river system and the Sindhu river. Saurashtra Harappan ceramic traditions are thick and thin Red ware and the Buff ware and follow the Rangpur sequence of period IIA and IIB. Occurring in the limited shapes, they fall in the general category of the Harappan ceramic traditions known elsewhere. However, the southward movements of the Late Vedic people towards Gujarat can be explained through the archaeological materials coming from the Padri (Gohil-ni), Oriyo Timbo, Nagwada, Loteshwar and the other sites of North Gujarat. 18

The earliest levels and the ceramic traditions of Loteshwar and the Nagwada have shown links with the Early Harappan - Late Vedic Settlements of Sindh and Rajasthan. Chronologically Loteshwar fall in the early of 4 th Millennium B.C. whereas the others fall in the end of the 4 th Millennium B.C. The Oriyo Timbo, falls in the beginning of the 4 th Millennium B.C. (Paul.et.al. 1990:140) chronologically indicating presence of the Late Vedic People in Gujarat. Secondly, there is no typical as such the Sorath ware and the Mature/Sorath Harappans as the so-called Sorath ware is not unique. The same ware have been unearthed and reported from most of the Harappan sites of Saurashtra. The earliest phase of Rojdi A is dated to 2500 B.C. to 2200 B.C. whereas the Harappan and the Early Harappan- Late Vedic Ceramic traditions at Padri ( Gohil-ni) Nagwada, Loteshwar and Oriya Timbo are earlier to the Rojdi Period A. The chronological sequence at Rojdi indicates inward movements of the Late Vedic People in Saurashtra. The very fact is that the ecology, the thin and scattered soil cover and the water resource of Saurashtra could not accelerate process of urbanism like the Sarasvati and the Sindhu Regions. Except at Lothal, such complexed material of varying degree of the urbanism come from the geographically strategically located sites of Kuntasi, Bagsara, Nageshwar etc. which had marine access and could exploit the strategic locations and the local resources. Secondly 3698 cal.B.C. date from Loteshwar pushes back the arrival of the late Vedic People in the first half of the 4 th Millennium B.C. This might be because of the easy excess to the region. Other important ethnographic information regarding the Late Vedic People in Gujarat come from the Audichya meaning northerners, Reg Vedic and the Yajur Vedic Brahmanas of Gujarat who claim to be progeny of the compositor Rsis of the Reg Veda and the Yajur Veda. They trace their origins in the north that is the place of the origin and composition of the Vedas and nowhere else outside India. Even today, they have retained many Vedic right and the traditions and the names of the Rsis, the compositors of the Vedas. These chronological, archaeological and ethnographical evidences clearly indicate occupation of Saurashtra and Gujarat by the Late Vedic People before their urbanism elsewhere. 19

Jodhpur - Ganeshwar culture of the northeast of Rajasthan is dated to the beginning of the 3 rd Millennium B.C. Though it seems to be earlier. Its relations with the shifted Drashadvati sites clearly indicate moving of some of the Late Vedic People towards north-east of the Rajasthan. From there at the North and the northwest and urbanized in the Drashadvati velley. Occurrence of Hakra ware and the C-14 date falling of 3300 B.C ( PRL 1032) at Hulas in the Western Uttar Pradesh shows the link. Now, the ecological factors of the shifted courses of the Sarasvati water regime and the Sindhu and their flood plains could urbanize the migrated Vedic people but elsewhere they could not urbanise. In the Baluchistan, the Early and the Mature Harappans i.e. the Late Vedic People could not grow and urbanize like the core regions of the Sarasvati and Sindhu Valleys but transformed and mingled down with the local cultures resulting into the material absence of the post urban/post Vedic people there. 13. POST URBAN HARAPPAN - THE POST VEDIC PEOPLE

A large number of the small post urban/Harappan settlements showing nonurban economy and the settlement pattern still keeping the Harappan i.e. the Vedic thread at the centre is reported from the northeast the northwest Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. There is a drastic increase of the post urban/Harappan sites numbering more than 1100 and highly concentrated in the east i.e. the northwest Uttar Pradesh (853) and Gujarat (198) and Punjab, Haryana and nearly disappearance of the Mature Harappan/Late Vedic sites in the core region of the Cholistan and the Sindh around 2000 B.C. This demographic shifts and the non-urban materials are indicative of some ecological environmental changes in these core regions and disintegration of the forces which had accelerated the process of the urbanism and the concentration of the population. Absence of the Harappan sites in the present valleys of the Yamuna and the Satlej and the numerous palaeochannels of the Shatudri - the ancient Satlej clearly show some changes in the water regime in these regions of Cholistan and Sindh. This seems to be attributed to the second tectonic upheaval in the Shatudri region which shifted the Shatudri towards the Sindhu.The severity of this upheaval can be imagined through the shattering of the Shatudri channels draining towards the Sarasvati river. The splitting and shifting of the Shatudri might 20

have been sudden bringing tremendous hydraulic pressure into the moderate channel of the Sindhu resulting into the catastrophic situation in the lower Sindh, resulting into vertical and horizontal erosions. This sudden hydrological change must have threatened the inhabitance of the lower Sindh. Mohajo Dado located on the natural levee of the Sindhu river must have faced vertical and even horizontal erosions both. Secondly, overflowing of the banks of the Sindhu must have forced the inhabitants to run away from the flood plains. It seems that the stabilization of the channel of the Sindhu river with the Shatudri river water must have taken some decades which could not return the very safety of the people and the protohistoric urbanism again in Sindh. Even sudden shifts of the Satlej might have threatened the Harappa leading to its abandonment. However, gradual capture of the Drashadvati by the eastern river that is to be Ganga seems to be later indicated through the heavy concentration of the post urban Harappan/Post Vedic sites in the northwest Uttar Pradesh. This may be indicated through the deferent land forms of the Hakra flood plain (Flam. 1981:58). 14. CHRONOLOGY OF THE SHIFTINGS OF THESE RIVERS / THE POST VEDIC PERIOD This can be postulated through the archaeological evidences and the post Vedic literary evidences. In contrast to the Reg Veda and the Yajur Veda for the first time change in the origin, behavior, decreasing of the flow and even disappearance of the Sarasvati river in the desert appear on the post Vedic literature. After composition of the Reg Veda Mandal 2 nd , 6 th in the Brahamna Granths and the Mahabharata for the first time Plax Prasavana said to be located some ware in the Siwalik Hills, is mentioned as the place of the origin and the Vinaashan is as the place of the disappearance of the Sarasvati. Aitariya Brahaman of the Yajur Veda mentions desert along the course of the Sarasvati river ( Pandya. 1968 : 49). The Tandya Brahmana of the Sam Veda describes weak, yet meandering flow of the Sarasvati Referring to the Kaamayaka Vana the Mahabharata in the Vana Parva mentions its location at the head of the dsesert and also refers to the dry soil and the area of the scanty water supply and the bed of the Sarasvati turning into 21

the pools of water and the smooth with the sands ( Pandya. 1968: 49; Suryavanshi, 1980: 144-145). These references clearly reveal that during this period the last course of the Sarasvati was gradually drying. Second, that the Tirthas, the lakes and the forests located north of the desert, the present Thar ( Sthal) desert of the Rajasthan in Punjab, Haryana had some privileges of the water of the drying Sarasvati, indicating the water pools of the lakes of the river beds. Secondly, most of the archaeological material culture and their scientific determinations have shown change in the culture around end of the 3 rd Millennium B.C. and the beginning of the 2 nd Millennium B.C. This can be taken at the upper limit of the shifts. Presence of the P.G.W. sites right in the dry bed of the Kakra Sarasvati dated at present around 1000 B.C. clearly indicate total drying of the last shifted course of the Sarasvati. 15. CONCLUSION

From the above discussion it becomes clear that the beginning of the agriculture, settled, life, domestication of the cows and the bulls- the first cereal farming community of India had originated in the Rajasthan during the Vedic period dated between 12000 yrs. B.P. to 50000 yrs. B.P. in the valleys of the Sarasvati water system. However, sudden shifting of the Sarasvati water system as the present Ghaggar - Hakada Wahind deserted Rajasthan compelling the inhabitants to follow the shifted course of the Sarasvati river at Cholistan and even Southwest of Rajasthan in around the 5 th Millinnium B.C. However, these migration must have taken place after some times when the actual desert conditions had set in the Rajasthan. Gradual shift of the Vedic people toward the Northwest and the Western Rajasthan and from here to the still northwest is documented at Jalilpur I and period I at Harappa and the other sites. From the lower Rajasthan, the migration took place toward Sindhu river and the Sindh Kohistan and in the Kirthaar range and further west. In south, they migrated to Gujarat. The ecological factors could urbanize the Late Vedic Peoples in these flood plain of the Sarasvati and the Sindhu water systems. However, Gujarat and Kohistan ecology could not accelerate the process of the urbanism therefore, here they transformed in to the rural face of the culture. The abrupt and the sudden shift of the Shatudri into the Sindhu river oversized in the Sindhu river resulting into the hyper hydrographic situation. This catastrophic situation 22

shacked the demographic concentration which disintegrated the very foundation of the urbanism in Sindh compeling the inhabitants to migrate especially at the northwest and at the south. The new circumstances new environment transformed them into the regionalism still keeping the old traditions. Mughal has the similar observations that the hydrographic factors of the changing and the drying of the river courses have influenced the life and history of the Civilization (1992:114). Sarasvati- Sindhu Civilization : It is observed that the Harappan Script and the Brahmi and the Sanskrit Script show some links having some letter/sign common, Glaring example come from yajur Veda ( YS. 2:14, 2:4,)and a copper tablet coming from Mohenjo-daro ( Pandeya 1982 : 268 270: Fig: 35:1). This leads to think that the Brahmi and the classical Sanskrit might have evolved from the Harappan Script. It also leads to think the Harappan script is originated in India and is Vedic and ProtoBrahmi and Proto Sanskrit in nature. Secondly, geographic, geomorphic, archaeological and chronological evidences and the Vedic and the Post Vedic refernces clearly show that the Sarasvati river was in the centre of the beginning, development and the urbanism of the Vedic and the Late Vedic people residing over there. The Last course of the Sarasvati along with its its tributories was the cradle of this growth of the urbanization. Further, their westward march towards Sindhu and their references in the later part of the Vedic texts are sufficient enough to term this civilization as the Vedic civilization. This civilization can also be termed as the Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization highlighting the importance of these two great rivers and the country which played significant role in the emergence, growth, urbanization and even diffusion of the inhabitants and the culture/civilization.

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