UNIT-II

SHAPER MACHINE
INTRODUCTION
§ In a shaper, rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating movement by the
mechanism contained within the column of the machine.
§ The ram holding the tool gets the reciprocating movement. Thus the shaper mechanism should be
so designed that it can allow the ram holding the tool to move at a comparatively slower speed
during the forward cutting stroke, the cutting speed depending upon the type of material and
machining condition, whereas during the return stroke it can allow the ram to move at a faster rate
to reduce the idle return time. This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism.
The reciprocating movement of the ram and the quick return mechanism of the machine are usually
obtained by any off of the following methods:
1. Crank and slotted link mechanism
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism
3. Hydraulic shaper mechanism
FEED MECHANISM:
§ In a shaper both downfeed and crossfeed movements may be obtained.
§ Crossfeed movement is used to machine a flat horizontal surface.
§ The rotation of the bull gear causes the driving disc 8 to rotate in a particular direction. The
driving disc 8 is T-slotted and position of the crank pin 9 attached to the connecting rod may be
altered to give different throw of eccentricity. The other end of the connecting rod is attached to
the rocking any by a
§ The rocking arm houses a spring loaded paw which is straight on one side and bevel on the other
side. As the driving disc rotates, the connecting
§ The amount of feed may be altered by shifted the position of crank pin with respect to the centre.
Greater the throw of eccentricity, more will be the rocking movement of the arm and the pawl will
pass through three or four teeth on the ratchet wheel at a time imparting greater feed movement.

PLANER MACHINE
§ The planer like a shaper is a machine tool primarily intended to produce plane and fiat surfaces by
a single point cutting tool.
 § A planer is very large and massive compared to a shaper and capable of machining heavy
workpieces which cannot be accommodated on a shaper table.
§ The fundamental difference between a shaper and a planer is that in a planer the work which is
supported on the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and the feed is supplied by the
lateral movement of the tool, whereas in a shaper the tool which is mounted upon the ram
reciprocates and the feed is given by the crosswise movement of the table.
TYPES OF PLANING MACHINE
Different classes of work necessitates designing of different types of planing machine to
suit to various requirements of our present day industry. The different types of planer which are most
commonly used are:
1. Double housing planer.
2. Open side planer.
3. Pit planer
4. Edge or plate planer.
5. Divided table planer.

STANDARD OR DOUBLE HOUSING PLANER:

§ The standard or double housing planer is most widely used in workshops. A double housing planer
has a long heavy base on which a table reciprocates on accurate guide ways.
§ The length of the bed is little over twice the length of the table. Two massive vertical housings or
uprights are mounted near the middle of the base, one on each side of the bed.
OPENSIDE PLANER:
§ An open side planer has a housing only on one side of the base and the crossrail is suspended from
the housing as a cantilever.
§ This feature of the machine allows large and wide jobs to be clamped on the table and reciprocated
past the cutting tool. One side of the planer being opened, large and wide out of the table and
reciprocate without being interfered by the housing.
§ In a double housing planer, the maximum width of the job which can be machined is limited by
the distance between the two housings
PIT PLANER:
§ A pit type planer is massive in construction. It differs from an ordinary planer in that the table is
stationary and the column carrying the crossrail reciprocates on massive horizontal rails mounted
on both sides of the table.
 § This type of planer is suitable for machining a very large work which cannot be accommodated on
a standard planer and the design saves much of floor space.
§ The length of the bed required in a pit type planer is little over the length of the table, whereas in a
standard planer the length of the bed is nearly twice the length of the table.
§ The uprights and the crossrail are made sufficiently rigid to take up the forces while cutting.

EDGE OR PLATE PLANER:

§ The design of a plate or edge planer is totally unlike that of an ordinary planer.
§ It is specially intended for squaring and bevelling the edges of steel plates used for different
pressure vessels and ship-building works. One end of a long plate which remains stationary is
clamped with the machine frame by a large number of air operated clamps.
§ The cutting tool is attached to a carriage which is supported on two horizontal ways of the planer
on its front end. The operator can stand on a platform extending from the carriage.
§ The carriage holding the tool reciprocates past the edge of the plate. The feed and depth of cut is
adjusted by the tool holder which can be operated from the platform.

DIVIDED TABLE PLANER:

§ This type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately or together.
This type of design saves much of idle time while setting the work.
§ The setting up of a large number of identical workpieces on the planing machine table takes quite
a long time. It may require as much time for setting up as may be necessary for machining.
§ To have a continuous production one of the table is used for setting up the work, while the other
reciprocates past the cutting tool finishing the work.
§ When the work on the second table is finished, it is stopped and finished jobs are removed. Fresh
jobs are now set up on this table while the first table holding the jobs now reciprocates past the
tool.
§ When a heavy and large job has to be machined, both the tables are clamped together and are
given reciprocating movement under the tool.
PLANER MECHANISMS
The two important mechanisms of a planer are:
1. Table drive mechanism.
2. Feeding mechanism.
The different mechanisms used to drive the table are:
 I. Open and cross belt drive.
2. Reversible motor drive.
3. Hydraulic drive.

OPEN AND CROSS BELT DRIVE: The open and cross belt drive of the table is used in a planer of
smaller size where the table width is less than 900 mm

DRILLING MACHINE
INTRODUCTION
§ The drilling machine is one of the most important machine in workshop In a drilling machine
holes may be derived quickly and at a low cost.
§ The hole is generated by the rotating edge of a cutting tool known as the drill which exerts large
force on the work clamped on the table.
TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling machines are made in many different types and sizes, each designed to handle a class of
work or specific job to the best advantage. The different types of drilling machines are
1. Portable drilling machine.
2. Sensitive drilling machine. (a) Bench mounting,
3. Upright drilling machine. (a) Round column section,
4. Radial drilling machine. (a) Plain (c) Universal
5. Gang drilling machine.
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine.
7. Automatic drilling machine.
8. Deep hole drilling machine. (a) Vertical
(b) Flour mounting
GANG DRILLING MACHINE
§ When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side by side on a common
base and have a common worktable, the machine is known as the gang drilling machine.
§ In a gang drilling machine four to six spindles may be mounted side by side.
 MULTIPLE SPINDLE DRILLING MACHINE
§ The function of a multiple spindle drilling machine is to drill a number of holes in a piece of work
simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a
mass production work.
§ Once the work is loaded at the first machine, the work will move from one machine to the other
where different operations can be performed and the finished work comes out from the last unit
without any manual handling.
§ This type of machine is intended purely for production purposes and may be used for milling,
honing and similar operations in addition to drilling and tapping.
DEEP HOLE DRILLING MACHINE
§ The machine is operated at high speed and low feed. Sufficient quantity of lubricant is pumped to
the cutting points for removal of chips and cooling the cutting edges of the drill.
§ A long job is usually supported at several points to prevent any deflection. The work is usually
rotated while the drill is fed into the work.
§ This helps in feeding the drill in a straight path. In some machines both the work and the drill are
rotated for accurate location.
§ The machine may be horizontal or vertical type. In some machines step feed is applied. The drill is
withdrawn automatically each time when it penetrates into the work to a depth equal to its
diameter. This process permits the chip to clear out from the work.

THE SIZE OF A DRILLING MACHINE

§ The size of a drilling machine varies with the type of machine being considered The sensitive and
upright drilling machines are specified by the diameter of the largest piece that can be centered
under the spindle.
§ Thus in the case of a 600 mm size upright drilling machine, the spindle placed at a distance is
slightly greater than 300 mm from the front face of the column.

UPRIGHT DRILLING MACHINE PARTS

The different parts of an upright drilling machine are as follows:
1. Base 4. Head
2. Column 5. Spindle, quill and drill head assembly
3. Table 6. Spindle drive and feed mechanism
Base: The base is that part of the machine on which vertical column is mounted.
Column: The column is the vertical member of the machine which supports the table and the head
containing all the driving mechanism.
Table: The table is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots for clamping the work directly on
its face
Spindle drive mechanism:
The spindle drive mechanism of a drilling machine incorporates an arrangement for obtaining multiple
speed of the spindle similar to i lathe to suit to various machining conditions. Multiple speed of the
spindle may be obtained as follows:
1. By step cone pulley drive.
2. By step cone pulley drive with one or more back gears.
3. By gearing.
Step cone pulley drive
§ Iillustrates a spindle driving mechanism incorporating a step cone pulley. The motion is transmitted
from an overhead line shaft to the countershaft mounted on the base of the machine..
§ Step cone pulley drive with back gear In order to obtain larger number of spindle speeds back gears
are incorporated in the machine in addition to the step cone pulley.
§ With backgears “out” the speed of the spindle is increased and the machine is used for drilling
smaller boles. For drilling larger diameter holes or for tapping, the spindle speed is reduced by
engaging the backgears.
Spindle drive by gearing:
§ Modem heavy duty drilling machines are driven by individual motor mounted on the frame of the
machine. The multiple speeds may be obtained by sliding gear or sliding clutch mechanism or by
the combination of the above two methods.
§ The sliding gear and sliding clutch mechanism in drilling is similar to that described in Art. 3/7.
FEED MECHANISM:
§ In a drilling machine, the feed is effected by the vertical movement of the drill into the work. The
feed movement of the drill may be controlled by hand or power.
§ The hand feed may be applied by two methods:
I. Quick traverse hand feed
2. Sensitive hand feed
RADIAL DRILLNG MACHINE PARTS
The different parts of a radial drilling machine have been illustrated in Fig.5.3. They are as follows:
 1. Base 4. Drill head
2. Column 5. Spindle speed and feed mechanism
3. Radial arm

BASE:
The base of a radial drilling machine is a large rectangular casting that is finished on its top to support a
column on its one end and to hold the work table at the other end
COLUMN :
The column is a cylindrical casting that is mounted vertically at one end of the base
RADIAL ARM :
The radial arm that is mounted on the column extends horizontally over the base.
]DRILL HEAD :
The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and drives the drill spindle. It encloses all the mechanism
for driving the drill at multiple speed and at different feed.
SPINDLE DRIVE AND FEED MECHANISM:
There are two common methods of driving the spindle. A constant speed motor is mounted at the
extreme end of the radial arm which balances partially the weight of the overhanging arm.

WORK HOLDING DEVICES

Before performing any operation in a drilling machine it is absolutely necessary to secure
the work firmly on the drilling machine table. The work should never be held by hand, because the drill
while revolving exerts so much of torque on the work piece that it starts revolving along with the tool and
may cause injuries to the operator.
The devices commonly used for holding the work in a drilling machine are
1. T-bolt and clamps.
2. Drill press vise.
3. Step blocky
4. V-block.
5. Angle plate.
6. Drilljigs

DRILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS

The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are:
 1. Drilling. 6. Spot facing.
2. Reaming. 7. Tapping.
3. Boring. 8. Lapping.
4. Counterboring. 9. Grinding.
5. Countersinking. 10. Trepanning.

DRILLING:
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal by the rotating edge of a
cutting tool called the drill.
REAMING:
Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has previously drilled. In order to
finish a hole and to bring it to the accurate size, the hole is drilled slightly undersize.
BORING:
Boring is performed in a drilling machine for reasons stated below
1. To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only one cutting edge. This is
necessary where suitable sized drill is not available or where hole diameter is so large that it
cannot be ordinarily drilled.
2. To finish a hole accurately and to bring it to the required size.
3. To machine the internal surface of a hole already produced in casting.
4. To correct out of roundness of the hole.
5. To correct the location of the hole as the boring tool follows an independent path with respect to
the hole.
LAPPING:
§ Lapping is the operation of sizing and finishing a small diameter hole already hardened by
removing a very small amount of material by using a lap. There are many kinds of lapping tools.
§ The copper head laps are commonly used. The lap fits in the hole and is moved down while it
revolves.
GRINDING:
Grinding operation may be performed in a drilling machine to finish a hardened hole.
TREPANNING:
It is the operation of producing a hole by removing metal along the circumference of a
hollow cutting tool.
NOMENCLATURE OF DRILL TOOL:
The following are the twist drill elements.
Axis: The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
Body: That portion of the drill extending from its extreme point to the commencement of the neck,
if present, otherwise extending to the commencement of the shank.
Body clearance : That portion of the body surface which is reduced in diameter to provide
diametric clearance.
Chisel edge :
§ The edge formed by the intersection of the flanks. The chisel edge is also sometimes called
dead centre. The dead centre or the chisel edge acts as a flat drill and cuts its own hole in the
workpiece.
§ A great amount of axial thrust is required to cut a hole by the chisel edge. In some drills
chisel edge is made spiral instead of a straight one. This reduces the axial thrust and
improves the hole location. Chances of production of oversize holes is also reduced.
Chisel edge corner: The ‘ corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the chisel edge.
Face: The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the chip impinges as it is cut
from the work.
Flank: That surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to the following flute.
Flutes: The groove in the body of the drill which provides lip
The functions of the flutes are: I
1. To form the cutting edges on the point.
2. To allow the chips to escape.
3. To cause the chips to curl.
4. To permit the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
Heel:
The edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance.
Lands :
The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of the drill flutes. The width of the land is
measured at right angles to the flute helix. The drill is full size only across the lands at the point end. Land
keeps the drill aligned.
Lip (cutting edge) :
The edge formed by the intersections of the flank and face. The requirements of the drill lips are:
1. Both lips should be at the same angle of inclinatory with the drill axis,
 2. Both lips should be of equal length.
3. Both lips should be provided with the correct clearance.
Neck : The diametrically undercut portion between the body and the shank of the drill. Diameter
and other particulars of the drill are engraved at the neck.
DRILL MATERIAL
The materials for the manufacture of twist drills are as follows
1. One piece construction’ : High speed steel or carbon steel.
2. Two piece construction:
Cutting portion —High speed steel.
Shank portion — Carbon steel with a minimum tensile strength of 70 kg per sq mm.
High speed drills are more widely used due to its greater cutting efficiency. Cemented carbide
tipped drills are also used in mass production work.

BORING MACHINES
§ The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tools used to bore holes in large
and heavy parts such as engine frames, steam engine cylinders, machine housings, etc.
§ which are practically impossible to hold and rotate in an engine lathe or a drilling machine.
§ Boring machines have, therefore, been developed primarily to do this.
§ In addition to its primary purpose of boring the range of speeds and feeds provided to the
various traversing components allow drilling, milling and facing to be performed with equal
facility.
§ By the fitting of simple attachments, the use of the machine can be extended still further to
include screw cutting, turning, planetary grinding, or gear cutting.
TYPES OF BORING MACHINES
The boring machines may be classified under the four headings:
1. Horizontal boring machine.
(a) Table type.
(b Floor type.
(c) Planer type.
(d Multiple head type.
2 Vertical boring machine.
(a) Vertical turret lathe.
(b) Standard vertical boring machine.
3. Precision boring machine.
 4. Jig boring machine.
(a) Vertical milling machine type.
(b)Planer type.
HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE
In a horizontal boring machine, the work is supported on a table which is stationary and the tool
revolves in a horizontal axis. A horizontal boring
Multiple head type horizontal boring machine: The machine resembles a double housing planer or a
piano-miller. The table is supported on a long bed on which it reciprocates. There are two vertical
columns at two sides of the bed, nearly at the middle of the bed. The two columns are bridged by a
crossrail. The machine may have two, three or four headstocks. This type of machine may be used both
as a horizontal and vertical machine. The machining operations can be performed simultaneously at
different work surfaces

PARTS OF A HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE

The different parts of a horizontal boring machine are
Bed:
The bed is that part of the machine which is fitted on the floor of the shop and has a box like casting.
The bed supports the columns, tables and other parts of the machine.
Headstock supporting column :
§ The column provides support to the headstock and guides it up and down accurately by the guide
ways provided on the face of the column.
§ The column which is hollow houses the counterweights of the headstock, and is heavily ribbed to
add rigidity. Some columns are stationary, others may be made to slide along the bed.
End supporting column :
§ The end supporting column situated at the other end of the bed houses the bearing block for
supporting a long boring bar.
§ The column may be adjusted on the sideways of the bed towards or away from the spindle for
supporting different lengths of boring bars or it may be moved at right angles to the spindle as. in
the case of a floor type machine.
Headstock:
§ The headstock mounted on the column supports, drives, and feeds the tool. The spindle revolves
within a quill. The spindle provides rotary movement to the tool and the quill may be moved
longitudinally to provide feeding movement of the boring cutter or any tool mounted on the
spindle.
 § The spindle nose is provided with a taper hole for receiving taper shanks of the boring bar or any
other tool.
§ The headstock may be moved up and down on the column for setting the tool for different heights
of the work. The headstock and the end supporting bearing block arc raised or lowered in unison
by the help of screws.
Saddle and table :
§ The table supports the work and is therefore provided with T-slots for clamping the work or for
holding various devices. The saddle permits the work to be moved longitudinally on the bed.
§ The table may be moved crosswise on the saddle. These movements may be slow or rapid and is
performed by hand or power.
Boring bars:
The boring bar supports the cutter for boring operations on jobs having large bore diameters. For short
holes the bar may be supported on the headstock spindle end only, whereas for long work the bar is
supported on the spindle end and on the column bearing block.

BORING MACHINE MECHANISM

The machine contains different controls for movements of the different parts of the
machine. A table type machine has the following movements:
1.The headstock and the end supporting block may be moved up and down.
2.The spindle may be rotated. The spindle has different speeds.
3.The spindle may be, moved in or out by hand or power for feeding.
4.The saddle and the table may be moved by hand or power.
5.The columns may be moved by hand or power.

JIG BORING MACHINE

§ The jig boring machine is the most accurate of all machine tools.
§ The machining accuracy is very high, within a range of 0.0025 mm. A jig boring machine
resembles in appearance to a vertical milling machine, but so far its operation and accuracy are
concerned there cannot be any comparison between the two.
§ This machine are extremely rigid to resist deflection and the vibration is minimum. The spindle
runs in preloaded antifriction bearings.
§ The spindle housings are made of invar having a very low coefficient of linear expansion. The jig
boring machine requires to be operated in temperature controlled rooms where temperature can
be maintained constant.
§ This is essential to prevent inaccuracy in Jig boring machine the machine and in the work being.
Types of jig boring machines:
There are mainly two types of jig boring machines:
1. Vertical milling machine type.
2. Planer type.
Vertical milling machine type:
§ It resembles in construction to a vertical milling machine. The spindle rotates on a vertical
column and the horizontal table rests on the bed in front of the column
§ The positioning of the work mounted on the table may be obtained by compound
movements of the table, perpendicular and parallel to the column face.
Planer type:
§ It consists of two vertical columns at the two sides of the table and is mounted on the base. The
table has reciprocating movement for adjustment of the work.
§ The spindle is mounted on the crossrail bridging the two vertical columns. In a planer type jig
borer, two co-ordinate movements for hole location are provided by the longitudinal movement of
the table and the cross movement of the spindle along the crossrail.

BROACHING MACHINE
§ Broaching is a method of removing metal by pushing or pulling a cutting tool called a broach
which cuts in fixed path.
§ The tool may be pulled or pushed through the surfaces to be finished. Surfaces finished by
broaching may be flat or contoured and may be either internal or external. Broaching is generally
limited to the removal of about 6 mm of stock or less.
§ The term broaching may have derived from an ancient Roman word braces, which meant an object
having projecting teeth.
§ The operation itself dates only to the 1850’ s when broaching tools, then called “drifts” were
hammered in blacksmith shops through the work or pushed through with an arbor press.
BROACHES
A broach is a multiple-edges cutting tool that has successively higher cutting edges along the length of
the tool.
TYPES OF BROACHES :
Broaches may be classified in various ways, according to:
1. Type of operation: internal or external.
2. Method of operation: push or pull.
 3. Type of construction: solid, built-up, inserted tooth, progressive cut, rotor cut, double jump, or
overlapping tooth.’
4. Function : surface, keyway, round hole, splint, spiral, burnishing, etc.
BROACH MATERIAL:
Most broaches are made from 18-4-1 tungsten chromium vanadium steel ground after hardening.
Carbide broaches are. used extensively in the broaching of cast iron in the automotive field. They are also
used for surface broaches, for high production and for finishing broaches.
BROACHING METHODS:
Broaching, according to the method of operation, may be classified as follows
1.Pull broaching:
The work is held stationary and the broach is pulled through the work. Broaches are usually long and
are held in a special head. Pull broaching is used mostly for internal. broaching but it can do some surface
broaching.
2.Push broaching:
The work is held stationary and the broach is pushed through the work. Hand and hydraulic arbor
presses are popular for push broaching, This method is used mostly for sizing holes and cutting keyways.
3.Surface broaching:
§ Either the work or the broaching tool moves across the other. This method has rapidly become as
important means of surface finishing. Fixtures are most important in broaching operations.
§ They are used particularly for two reasons first, because of the high pressures used and because of
the manner in which the cutting is done ; second, broaching being essential a mass-production
operation, fixtures speed up the operation and help to keep it accurate.
§ BROACHING OPERATION
§ Broaching is applied for machining various internal and external surfaces, for round or irregular
shaped holes from 6 to 100 mm in diameter, for external flat and contoured surfaces. Certain types
of surfaces, for example, splint holes, are machined at the present time only by broaching due to
the exceptional difficulties in machining such surfaces by other methods.
§ Most broaching operations are completed in one pass, but some are arranged for repeated cuts to
simplify the design of the broach.
§ The teeth of a gear or splint may be broached altogether or one or a few at a time. A comparatively
simple broach can be made to cut one or a few tooth spaces, After one pass, the gear blank is
indexed, and more of its teeth are cut. Successive passes are made until all the teeth are finished.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF BROACHING
Broaching has been adopted for mass production work because of the following
outstanding features and advantages:
1. Rate of production is very high. With properly applied broaches, fixtures, and machines, more
pieces can be turned per hour by broaching than by any other means,
2. Little skill is required to perform a broaching operation. In most cases the operator merely loads
and unloads the workpiece.
3. High accuracy and a high class of surface finish is possible. A tolerance of ± 0.0075 mm and a
surface finish of about 0.8 microns (1 micron =0.001mm) can be easily obtained in broaching.
4. Both roughing and finishing cuts are completed in one pass of the tool.
5. The process can be used for either internal or external surface finishing.
6. Any form that can be reproduced on a broaching can be machined.
7. Cutting fluid may be readily applied where it is most effective because a broach tends to draw
the fluid into the cut.
Certain reasons, however, limit the application of the broaching process. They are:
1. High tool cost. A broach usually does only one job and is expensive to make and sharpen.
2. Very large workpieces cannot be broached.
3. The surfaces to be broached cannot have an obstruction.
4. Broaching cannot be used for the removal of a large amount of stock.
5. Parts to be broached must be capable of being rigidly supported and must be able to withstand
the forces that set up during V Cutting.

GRINDING MACHINES
INTRODUCTION
§ Grinding is metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating abrasive wheel that acts as a
tool. This is used to finish workpieces which must show a high surface quality, accuracy of shape
and dimension.
§ Mostly grinding is the finishing operation because it removes comparatively little metal, 0.25 to
0.50mm in most operations and the accuracy in dimensions is in the order of 0.000025 mm.
KINDS OF GRINDING
Grinding is done on surfaces of almost all conceivable shapes and materials of all kinds. Grinding may be
classified broadly into two groups
I. Rough or non-precision grinding.
2. Precision grinding.
Rough grinding:
§ The common forms of rough grinding are snagging and off-hand grinding where the work is held
in the operator’ s hand. The work is pressed hard against the wheel, or vice -versa. The accuracy
and surface finish obtained are of secondary importance.
§ Snagging is done where a considerable amount of metal is removed without regard to the accuracy
of the finished surface. Examples of snag grinding are trimming the surface left by sprues and
risers on castings, grinding the parting line left on castings, removing flash on forgings, the excess
metal on welds, cracks, and imperfections on alloy steel billets.

Precision grinding:
This is concerned with producing good surface finish and high degree of accuracy. The wheel or work
both are guided in precise paths.
Grinding, in accordance with the type of surface to be ground, is classified as
1. External cylindrical grinding. 3. Surface grinding.
2. Internal cylindrical grinding. 4. Form grinding.
External cylindrical grinding
§ produces a straight or tapered surface on a workpiece. The workpiece must be rotated about
its own axis between centers as it passes lengthwise across the face of a revolving grinding
wheel. It produces internal cylindrical holes and tapers.
§ The workpieces are chucked and precisely rotated about their own axis. The grinding wheel
or, in the case of small bore holes, the cylinder wheel rotates against the sense of rotation of
the workpiece.
Surface grinding produces flat surface. The work may be ground by either the periphery or by the
end face of the grinding wheel. The workpiece is reciprocated at a constant speed below or on the end
face of the grinding wheel.
Form grinding is done with specially shaped grinding wheels that grind the formed surfaces as in
grinding gear teeth, threads, splined shafts, holes, and spheres, etc.
In Grinding machines, according to the quality of surface finish, may be classified as:
1. Rough grinders.
2. Precision grinders.
ROUGH GRINDERS:
Rough grinders are those grinding machines whose chief work is the removal of stock without any
reference to the accuracy of the results. They are mainly of the following types:
 1. Floor stand and bench grinders.
2. Portable and flexible shaft grinders.
3. Swing frame grinders.
4. Abrasive belt grinders.
PRECISION GRINDERS:
Precision grinders are those that finish parts to a very accurate dimensions.
According to the type of surface generated or work done they may be classified as follows
1. Cylindrical grinders
(a) Centre-type (Plain)
(b) Centre-type (Universal)
(c) Centreless
2. Internal grinders
(a) Chucking
(i) Plain
(ii) Universal (b) Planetory (c) Centreless
3. Surface grinders
(a) Reciprocating table
(i) Horizontal spindle
(ii) Vertical spindle
(b)Rotating table
(i) Horizontal spindle (ii) Vertical spindle
4. Tool and cutter grinders
(a) Universal
(b) Special
5. Special grinding machines
FLOOR-STAND AND BENCH GRINDERS
The simplest type of grinder is the floor-stand grinder. A floor-stand grinder has a horizontal
spindle with wheels usually at both ends and is mounted on a base or pedestal.
1.There is provision for driving the wheel spindle by belt from motor at the rear, at floor level.
2. The headstock can be swiveled at an angle in a horizontal plane.
3. The wheel head and slide can be swivelled and traversed at any angle. The wheelhead can also
be arranged for internal grinding by the addition of an auxiliary wheelhead to revolve small
wheels at high speeds.
CENTRELESSS GRINDERS
§ Centreless grinding is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical, tapered, and formed surfaces on
workpieces that are not held and rotated on centres.
§ The principal elements of an external centreless grinder are the grinding wheel, regulating
or back up wheel, and the work rest. Both wheels are rotated in the same direction.
§ The work rest is located between the wheels. The work is placed upon the work rest, and the latter,
together with the regulating wheel, is fed forward, forcing the work against the grinding wheel.
§ The axial movement of the work past the grinding wheel is obtained by tilting the regulating wheel
at a slight angle from horizontal. An angular adjustment of 0 to 8 or 10 degrees is provided in the
machine for this purpose. The actual feed (s) can calculated by the formula:
where,s = feed in mm per minute.
n = revolution per minute.
d = diameter of regulating wheel in mm.
a = angle if inclination of wheel.
Centreless grinding may be done in one of the three ways : (a) through feed, (b) infeed and (c) end feed.
§ Internal grinders of chucking type may be classified as plain and universal grinders.
§ In a plain internal grinder, the workhead can be swivelled to grind a straight hole tapers upto
450 included angle. The wheel head is moved into and away from the bole and can be cross
fed into the work.
§ In a universal grinder, which is basically the same as a plain internal grinder, the workhead
is mounted on a cross-slide as in the wheel head, and can be swivelled through a 9O0angle
SURFACE GRINDERS
§ Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces. They are also capable of
grinding irregular, curved, convex, and concave surfaces.
§ Conventional surface grinders may be divided into two classes One class has reciprocating tables for
work ground along straight lines, while the other covers the machines with rotating work tables for
§ The first two are most commonly used for repetitive work by hand operation or with simple
fixtures. The third type is widely used for production operations where parallel surfaces are
ground simultaneously.
TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDERS
§ Tool and cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen and recondition multiple tooth cutters like
reamers, milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs and other types of tools used in the shop.
 § With various attachments they can also do light surface, cylindrical, and internal grinding to finish
such items as jig, fxture, die and gauge details and sharpen single point tools. They are classified
according to the purpose of grinding, into two groups:
§ Universal tool and cutter grinders.
§ Single —purpose tool and cutter grinders.
§ Universal tool and cutter grinders are particularly intended for sharpening of miscellaneous cutters.
§ Single-purpose grinders are used for grinding tools such as drills, tool-bits etc in large production
plants where large amount of grinding work is necessary to keep production tools in proper
cutting
condition. In addition, tools can be ground uniformly and with accurate cutting angles

Universal tool and cutter grinders

The universal tool and cutter grinders made by different manufacturers vary more or less as to details,
but they are similar in their general arrangement and operate on the same general principle.
The grinder has the following principal parts.
Base: The base 4 gives rigidity and stability to the machine. It is heavy, rugged and box-type.
Tapered face straight wheels primarily used for grindiag thread, gear teeth, etc.
Cylinder or wheel ring is used for producing flat surfaces, the grinding being done with the end face
of the wheel.
Cup wheel No. 6 is used for grinding flat surfaces by traversing the work past the end or face of the
wheel. Flaring cup wheel No.11 is used for grinding in tool room.
Dish wheel No. 12 is also used for tool room work. The thinness of the wheel permits it grind the
surface at narrow places. Saucer wheel No. 13 is generally used for sharpening of circular or band saws.
The principal dimensions of a grinding wheel are the outside diameter, bore diameter, and the
width.
Segmented wheels are used chiefly on vertical spindle, rotary, and reciprocating-table surface
grinders and way grinders.
Grinding wheels of the straight wheel type can be supplied with a large variety of face : flat,
pointed, concave, convex, etc. These faces are used for grinding special contours and sharpening saws.
MOUNTED WHEELS
Mounted wheels are small shaped wheels (50 mm dia and below) mounted securely and permanently to
steel spindle or mandrel by cementing or other means. Mounted wheels and points are shown
Great care should be taken in using mounted wheels and points.
 Pressure between wheel and work small at no time be so heavy that any considerable springing of
the spindle will result. It is particularly important to observe this rule in connection with small wheels and
points where the end of the mandrel entering the wheel is of reduced diameter.
STANDARD MARKING SYSTEM
The Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels (IS: 551-1954) has been prepared with a
view to establishing a uniform system of marking of grinding wheels to designate their various
characteristics, to give a general indication of the hardness and grit size of any wheel as compared with
another.
Each marking shall consist of six symbols,
1. Abrasive type 3. Grade 5. Bond type
2. Grain size 4. Structure 6. Manufacturer’ s record

SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS

§ It is customary for grinding wheel manufactures to provide, through their published literature,
information on the selection and use of grinding wheels, but it may not always be possible or
convenient for users to take advantage of such consultative service.
§ The need for ready to use general guide on grinding wheels hp been keenly felt and the Indian
Standard (IS:1249-1958) gives recommendations on the general considerations which should
guide the selection of grinding wheels for different applications.
§ In selecting a grinding wheel there are four constant factors and four variables given in Table
GRINDING WHEEL SELECTION FACTORS

Constant factors Variable factors

I. Material to be ground 1. Wheel speed
2. Amount of stock to be 2. Work speed
removed
3. Area of contact 3. Condition of the
machine
4. Type of grinding 4. Personal factor
machine

1. The material to be ground This influences the selection of (a) abrasive, (b) grain size, (c) grade, (d)
structure, and (e) bond.
 As general guide the grit and grade ranges given in Table would be suitable for the class of work
shown against each
(a) Aluminum Oxide abrasive is recommended for materials of high tensile strength and silicon
carbide for low tensile strength.
(b) Fine grain is used for hard and brittle materials and coarse grain for soft ductile metals.
(c) Hard wheel is used for soft materials and soft wheel for hard materials.
(d) Generally, close spacing is required for hard and brittle materials and wide for soft and ductile.
(e) The class of work usually dictates the bond to be used. Bond selection, of course, can be safely
left to the manufacturers, if the class of work for which the wheel is required is clearly stated.
However, majority of wheels are manufactured with vitrified bonds.

2. Amount of stock to be removed: This involves accuracy and finish. Coarse grain is used for fast
cutting and fine grain for fine finish ; wide spacing for rapid removal and close for fine finish ; resinoid,
rubber, and shellac bond for high finish.
3. Area of contact: Area of contact influences the selection of (a) grit size, (b) grade, and (c) structure
number.
Fine grain and close grain spacing are useful where the area of contact involved is small, and coarse
grain and spacing are employed where a large area of contact is concerned.
4. Type of grinding machine: Type of grinding machine determines to an extent the grade of the wheel.
Heavy rigidly constructed machines take softer wheels than the lighter more flexible types. The
combination of speeds and feeds on some precision machines may affect the grade of wheel desirable for
best results.
(i) Wheel speed : The wheel speed influences the selection of grade and bond. The higher the wheel
speed with relation to work speed, the softer the wheel should be. Vitrified bond is usually specified for
speeds upto 2000 s.m.p.m. (or 6~00 s.f.p.m.) and rubber, shellac or resinoid bonds for speed over 2000
s.m.p.m. (or 6500 s.f.p.m.).
(ii) Work speed: The work speed with relation to the wheel speed determines the hardness of the
wheel. The higher the work speed with relation to the wheel speed, the harder the wheel should be.
Variable work speed are often provided on grinding machines to preserve the proper relative surface
speeds between the work and wheel as the wheel diameter decreases because of wear.
MOUNTING THE GRINDING WHEELS
Great care must taken in mounting the grinding wheels on the spindle because of the high cutting speeds
of the grinding wheel.. The following points are important in connection with mounting the wheel.
I. All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to make sure that they have not
been damaged in transit, storage, or otherwise. The wheel must first be subjected to the ringing
test. For this purpose, the grinding wheel is put on an arbor while it is subjected to slight
hammer blows. A clear, ringing, vibrating sound must be heard. If a grinding wheel contains
fine cracks, discordant sound that fail to vibrate will be emitted. This test is applicable to
vitrified and silicate wheels. Shellac, resinoid or Rubber loaded wheels will not ring distinctly.
2. The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindles or locating spigots. They should
not be forced on.
BALANCING GRINDING WHEELS
§ If wheels become out of balance through wear and cannot be balanced by truing or dressing, they
should be removed from the machine and discarded. Wheels should be tested for balance
occasionally and rebalanced if necessary.
§ Wheels that are out of balance not only produce poor work but may put undue strains on the
machine. Small wheels may be balanced by milling a short recess on the inside of the flanges and
filling with lead. Large wheels should be placed on a balancing stand and balanced by moving
weights around a recessed flange. Now-a-days, grinding wheel mounts are provided with devices
to enable balancing to be done whilst the wheel is running and between grinding operations.

SURFACE FINISHING PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION
§ In a manufacturing plant, a product may be shaped, turned, milled or drilled, and left in that
condition as being satisfactory for use. However, If a better finish is desired, for looks, for
accuracy, for wearing qualities, or for any other reasons, one of the micro finishes that include
lapping, honing, super finishing, polishing, buffing, may be employed.
§ In some cases other operations are done only -to get durable finishes.
LAPPING
§ Lapping is an abrading process that is used to produce geometrically true surfaces, correct minor
surface imperfections, improve dimensional accuracy, or provide a very close fit between two
contact surfaces. Very thin layers of metal (0.005 to 0.01 mm) are removed in lapping and it is,
therefore, evident that lapping is unable to correct substantial errors in the form and sizes of
surfaces.
 § It is, however, low efficiency process and is used only when specified accuracy and surface finish
cannot 1e obtained by other methods.
§ Small flat surfaces may be lapped by holding the work against a rotating disc, or the work may be
moved by hand in an irregular path over a stationary faceplate lap. In equalizing lapping the work
and lap mutually improve each others surface as they slide on each other.
§ There are three important types of lapping machines. The vertical axis lapping machine laps flat or
round surfaces between two opposed laps on vertical spindles. The centreless lapping machine is
designed for continuous production of round parts such as piston pins, bearing races and cups,
valve tappets and shafts. The centreless lapping machine operates on the same principle as
centreless grinding. The abrasive belt lapping machine laps bearings and cam surfaces by means
of abrasive coated clothes.
HONING
§ Honing is grinding or a abrading process mostly for finishing round holes by means of bonded
abrasive stones, called hones. Honing is therefore a cutting operation and has been used to remove
as much as 3 mm of stock but -is normally confined to amounts less than 0.25 mm.
§ Honing is done on general purpose machines, such as the lathe, drill press, and portable drills, as
an expedient. But more economical results can be obtained by honing machines for production
work. There are two general types of honing machines Horizontal and vertical. A honing machine
rotates and reciprocates the hone inside holes being finished. The two motions produce round and
straight holes that have a very fine surface finish of random scratches. Vertical honing machines
are probably more common. Horizontal honing machines are often used for guns and large bores.

SUPERFINISHING

§ Supervising is an operation using bonded abrasive stones in a particular way to produce an

extremely high quality of surface finish in conjunction with an almost complete absence of defects
in the surface layer.
§ A very thin layer of metal (0.005 to 0.02 mm) is removed in super finishing. This operation may
be applied for external and internal surfaces of parts made of steel, cast iron and non-ferrous
alloys, which have been previously ground or precision turned. It is most frequently used to obtain
very fine surface finish.
§ In super finishing, a very fine grit (grain size 400 to 600) abrasive stick is retained in a suitable
holder and applied to the surface of the work piece with a light spring pressure. The stick is given
a feeding and oscillating motion, and the work piece is rotated or reciprocated according to the
 requirements of the shape being super finished, In this process, the work rotational speed is low (2
to 20 in/mm.) the longitudinal feed ranges from 0.1 to 0.15mm per work piece revolution, the
abrasive stick oscillates rapidly in short strokes (2 to 5mm) with a frequency from 500 to 1,800
strokes per minute and the springs hold the stick against the work with a force from 2 to 10 kg. A
special lubricant, usually a mixture of kerosene and oil, is used to obtain a high quality of surface
finish,
§ Special general-purpose machine tools are available for super finishing. Other types of ordinary
machines, in particular, lathes, are sometimes employed for this purpose. Single purpose machine
tools for example, for finishing crankshaft journals, camshafts, etc. are also used.

PART-A

1. The one and only basic machine is________

2. State any two other basic machines.

3. Mention the types of other basic machine, which are w

4. What is shaper?

5.List any four important parts of a shaper.

6. Define one pass of the cutting tool

7. In which stroke, the speed of the ram is faster?

8. Define cutting ratio of a shaper.

9. List any two types of quick return mechanism.

10. How the feed and depth of cut is given to the shaper?

11. State the various types of flat surface produced on a shaper.

12. What are the various types of shaper according to various conditions?

13. What are the other types of shaper?

14. Mention any four-shaper speafications.

15. Why the apron is fitted away from the machined surface machining?

16. State the important part to control and divert the flow of oi4

17. State any two advantages of hydraulic drive?

18. State the type of mechanism followed on a shaper and how it works?

19. What are the precautions to be carried out before machining anp surfaces?

20. State any two reasons for making the stroke length greater than work length.

21. List any four types of work holding devices?

22. What are the various types of tool?

23. How the tool is fitted on the tool head for machining inclined surfaces?

24.How the dovetail is machined?

25. What are the various types of recessing that can be made by 1h

26.How the fred and depth of cut are given to the shaper while machining irregular surfaces?

27.Define feed and depth of Cu I.

28. Write down the formula for calculating no. of strokes and passes required in a shaper.

29.Define the metal removal rate.

PART-B

1. Describe the principle of operation of a shaper with a neat sketch.

2. Explain briefly the various parts of a shaper with neat sketches.

3. Write short notes on

a. Universal shaper

b. Draw cut shaper

4. Describe the working of a hydraulic drive quick return mechanism.

5. Explain crank and slotted link mechanism and how quick return principle is achieved.

6. 1-low the stroke length and position are adjusted? Explain briefly with a neat sketch.

7. Describe the automatic feed of the shaper table with a suitable sketch.

8. List all work holding devices and explain any two in detail.

9. Explain with neat sketches the machining of inclined and irregular surfaces.

10. Write a short notes on machining shots, grooves and keyways.

11. A shaper is operated at 130 cutting strokes per minute and is used to machine a work piece of 300mm
in length and 122mm in widtlt Use a feed of 0.7mm per stroke and a depth of cut of 5mm. Calculate the
total machining time for machining the component The forward stroke is completed in 220°. Calculate the
percentage of the time when the tool is not contacting the work piece.

12. Calculate the power required for shaping steel with a depth of cut of 2.6mm, cutting speed 73 rn/mm
and the work length 54 mm. The feed rate is 0.6mm/rev. Take machining constant k as 79x 10

13. Estimate the shortest machining time required in a shaper to machine a plate of 220 x 80mm under the
following conditions.

Cutting speed = 13.3m/min

Feed = 0.67mm/double stroke

Ratio of cutting speed to rapid return

14. The cross-feed on a shaper consists of a lead screw having 0.25 threads per mm. A ratchet and pawl
on the end of the lead screw is driven from the shaper crank such that the pawl indexes the ratchet by one
tooth during each return stroke of he ram. Ratchet has 23 teeth.

(a)Find the cross feed in mm.

(b) If a plate 120mm wide has to be machined in 15 minutes. Find the cutting speed in rn/s. The ratio of
return to cutting speed is 2.5:1 and the length of the stroke is 130mm.