Page 1 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS SEMINAR REPORT On

CRASH TESTING OF CARS

Submitted To

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY JNANA SANGAMA, BELGAUM

In the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of The Degree

BACHELORS OF ENGINEERING
In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
By

ARJUN B.A. (USN: 1RR09ME007)

Under the Guidance Of

ANAND A. Asst Prof, M.E.Dept

RAJARAJESWARI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING KUMBALAGODU, BENGALURU 560074.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 2 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

RAJARAJESWARI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

#14, Ramohalli, Kumbalagodu, Mysore Road, Bengaluru - 560074.
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the seminar work entitled, CRASH TESTING OF CARS, is a bonafide work carried out in the department by ARJUN B.A. bearing USN: 1RR09ME007 in the partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelors of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), Belgaum during the academic year 2012 - 2013. It is certified that all corrections /

suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been incorporated in the report deposited in the departmental library. The seminar report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of seminar work prescribed for the said degree.

Signature of the Guide (ANAND A.)

Signature of the HOD (Dr .SHANKAR REDDY)

Signature of the Principal (Dr. M. S. BHAGYASHEKAR)

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deep gratitude to almighty, the supreme guide, for bestowing his blessings upon me in my entire endeavor.

I would express my heartfelt thanks to Dr. M.S. Bhagyashekar for his continuous support and encouragement.

I would like to my sincere thanks to Dr. R. Shankar Reddy head of department of Mechanical Engineering for all his assistance.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to associate professor Anand .A Department of Mechanical Engineering who guided throughout the seminar.

Finally, I would also like to thank all the lecturers of Mechanical department for their valuable suggestions.

ARJUN B.A. (USN: 1RR09ME007)

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 4 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION CRASH TEST DUMMIES INSTRUMENTATION ABSORPTION MECHANISM OF CRASH ENERGY TYPES OF CRASH TEST
FRONTAL CRASH TESTING FRONTAL OFFSET CRASH TESTING SIDE CRASH TESTING POLE CRASH TEST

5 6 7 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 20 21 22 23 25 26 27

SAFETY FEATURES CASE STUDY:HONDA CR-V

IIHS FRONTAL CRASH TEST IIHS FRONTAL OFFSET CRASH TEST IIHS SIDE CRASH TEST

CRASH TEST RATINGS OF THE CARS BY NHTSA

NHTSA RATINGS FOR HONDA CR-V

CRASH TESTING CENTERS CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 5 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

ABSTRACT
Driving a car is a high in itself, but safety is important too. Choosing a safer car is very important to help prevent crashes and accidents. While cars are becoming safer each year and fatality rates are falling, car crashes continue to be one of the primary causes of death and injury. Thus, a thorough crash -testing program is critical for the car makers (Carmakers themselves crash many vehicles each year!) and has contributed significantly to the improving safety of cars. Finding out whether newly improved safety features will perform efficiently in an accident is the crash- testing facilitys responsibility. The idea is to use every part of the vehicle in some way to save the occupant rather than the vehicle. One would be amazed at how much thought and preparation goes into making sure that safe cars are on the roads! In this paper I try to present all about automotive crash testing types, ratings, infrastructure required for conducting tests, dummies and safety improvements.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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INTRODUCTION
Every year, over 80,000 people die on Indian roads; every five road accidents leave one dead. Yet, it's just a statistic, which hardly changes our apathy towards road safety. Yes, road safeties are an unpleasant, boring subject, but remember, it affects us all. In recent years, cars have got much safer. One reason is that safety is now a selling point in new cars. Frontal collisions, offset collisions, cars hitting another vehicle or object in the traffic environment they are all tested using cars of different sizes. Each vehicle's overall evaluation is based on three aspects of performance measurements of intrusion into the occupant compartmen t, injury measures from a dummy positioned in the driver seat, and analysis of slow-motion film to assess how well the restraint system controlled dummy movement during the test. The different aspects of the crash testing are discussed below: -

Infrastructure:
Crash testing needs infrastructure that could best simulate the real road conditions, and capture the details required for crash analysis. The basic infrastructure, any crash testing facility would need are: A crash laboratory with an advanced high-tech crash barrier. An outdoor test track that accommodates research for different weather conditions. Highly advanced crash simulator Lighting system, this can provide up to 750,000 watts of illumination without glare to film tests in slow motion. The resulting pictures must be clear and dramatic. Equipment for advanced component testing. Supercomputers that crash tests non-existing cars. A system that propels vehicles to impact, accelerating full-size pickups up to 50 mph.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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CRASH TEST DUMMIES

Meet the Drivers
Hybrid III and Euro SID II have experienced dozens of crashes firsthand. Their role is vital: the accident simulations rely on having a driver and passenger aboard to provide a full picture of likely injuries in a crash, alt hough the pedestrian safety tests use simulated limbs to chart what happens in a collision.

What Dummies Know

Dummies provide vital clues to what happens in a crash. Our limb - by-limb anatomy guide explains how data is sourced.

Crash Test Dummies

The dummy's job is to simulate a human being during a crash, while collecting data that would not be possible to collect from a human occupant. The dummies come in different sizes and they are referred to by percentile and gender. A dummy is built from materials that mimic the physiology of the human body. For example, it has a spine made from alternating layers of metal discs and rubber pads. All crash tests are conducted using the same type of dummy (Nowadays the most commonly used is the Hybrid III) With the help of a number of specially built rigs, studies are being conducted to discover what happens when parts of the human body collide with parts of the interior or exterior of a car. Crash test dummies are carefully calibrated and then positioned in vehicles to mimic the movement of humans and record crash forces during the tests. Each complex dummy includes 25 to 40 sensors to record the forces on various parts of the body. Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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Head
The head is made of aluminum and covered in rubber 'flesh'. Inside, three accelerometers are set at right angles, each providing data on the forces and accelerations to which the brain would be subjected in a crash .

Neck
Features measuring devices to detect the bending, shear and tension forces on the neck as the head is thrown forwards and backwards during the impact.

Arm
Neither carries any instrumentation. In a crash test, the arms fly around in an uncontrolled way, and although serious injuries are uncommon, it is difficult to provide worthwhile protection against them.

Chest (front impact)

Hybrid Ill's steel ribs are fitted with equipment that records deflection of the rib cage in the frontal impact. Injuries result if forces exerted on the chest, such as from the seat belt are too great.

Chest (side impact)

The side-impact dummy, Euro SID II, has a different chest from the others and three ribs are instrumented to record compression of the chest and the velocity of this compression

Abdomen
Euro SID II is equipped with sensors to record forces likely to cause abdominal injury.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 9 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

Pelvis
Euro SID II has instruments fitted in its pelvic girdle. They record lateral forces that may result in fractures or hip-joint dislocation.

Upper Leg
In Hybrid III, this area is made up of the pelvis, femur (thigh) and knee. Load cells in the femur provide data in frontal impacts on likely injury to all sections, including the hip joint, which can suffer fractures and dislocations. A 'knee slider' is used to measure forces transmitted through the dummy's knees, particularly if they strike the lower fascia.

Lower Leg
Instruments fitted inside the dummies' legs measure bending, shear, compression and tension, allowing injury risks to the tibia (shin-bone) and fibula (connecting knee to ankle) to be assessed.

Feet and Ankles

Assessment of injury risk in the rental impact is made by afterwards measuring distortion and rearward movement of the drivers foot well area.

Fig: Euro SID II Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Fig: Hybrid III

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INSTRUMENTATION
The dummies contain following three types of instrumentation: -

1. Accelerometers: - Measure the acceleration in a particular direction. This data

can be used to determine the probability of injury. Inside the dummy's head, there is an accelerometer that measures the acceleration in all three directions (fore-aft, up-down, leftright). There are also accelerometers in the other parts of the body.

2. Load Sensors: - Inside the dummy are load sensors that measure the amount of
force on different body parts during a crash. The maximum load in the bone can be used to determine the probability of it breaking.

3. Movement Sensors:

- These sensors are used in the dummy's chest. They

measure how much the chest deflects during a crash. Before the crash-test dummies are placed in the vehicle, researchers apply different colors of paint to the parts of the dummies' bodies most likely to hit during a crash. The paint marks in the car will indicate what part of the body hit what part of the vehicle inside the cabin. This information helps researchers develop improvements to prevent that type of injury in future crashes.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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ABSORPTION MECHANISM OF CRASH ENERGY

Obviously the ideal crash would be no crash at all. But, let's assume you are going to crash, and that you want the best possible chances of survival. How can all of the safety systems come together to give you the smoothest crash possible?

Surviving a crash is all about kinetic energy. When the body of occupant is moving (say at 35 mph), it has a certain amount of kinetic energy. After the crash, when it comes to a complete stop, it will have zero kinetic energy. To minimize risk of injury, removing the kinetic energy as slowly and evenly as possible is done by some of the following safety systems in the car: 1. As soon as car hits the barrier the seatbelt can then absorb some of your energy before the airbag deploys. 2. Milliseconds later as the driver moves forward towards the airbag, the force in the seatbelt holding him back would start to hurt him, so the force limiters make sure that the force in the seatbelts doesn't get too high. 3. Next, the airbag deploys and absorbs some more of your forward motion while protecting you from hitting anything hard. In a crash it is desirable that most of the crash energy is absorbed and dissipated in the deformation of components of each vehicle. For this purpose: Crumple Zones are vacant spaces in the front portion of the car that act as cushions, where metal parts are supposed to deform and absorb all the kinetic energy of the vehicle. The engine on most cars is mounted so that in a crash, it is forced backwards and downward so that it won't come into the cabin and injure the occupant. Increasing the use of engine/suspension cradles allows designers to better control this deformation and to by-pass very rigid components such as engine blocks, which are not effective energy absorbers. To avoid load concentrations it is important that the crash forces are spread across the face of the deformable barrier. In a collision between two vehicles the occupants of the heavier vehicle would

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 12 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS generally be better off, due to the physics of the collision. In the case of four-wheeldrive vehicles colliding with passenger cars, however, this advantage can be diminished by a stiff front structure. Integrity of the passenger compartment should be maintained in the crash test. The steering column, dash, roof, roof pillars, pedals and floor panels should not be pushed excessively inwards, where they are more likely to injure the occupants.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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TYPES OF CRASH TESTS

Simulating every accident type is impossible, which is why there are number of standardized crash tests (which may resemble most of the crashes that may take place) based on international classifications and industry practices are used in the development of the vehicle. This defines a repeatable way of conducting crashes, so that improvements can be quantified and modifications made. The four standard crash tests conducted are: Frontal Crash Test Offset Crash Testing Side Impact Test Pole Crash Test

Frontal Crash Testing :

At 35 mph (56 kph), the car runs straight into a solid concrete barrier. This is equivalent to a car moving at 35 mph hitting another car of comparable weight moving at 35 mph. The kinetic energy involved in the frontal crash test depends on the speed and weight of the test vehicle. Crashing the full width of a vehicle into a rigid barrier maximizes energy absorption so that the integrity of the occupant compartment, or safety cage, can be maintained well in all but not in very high-speed crashes. Full-width rigidbarrier tests produce high occupant compartment decelerations, so they're especially demanding of restraint systems (Figure.1)

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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Frontal Offset Crash Testing:

Fig.1

Fig. 2

In offset tests, only one side of a vehicle's front end, not the full width, hits the barrier so that a smaller area of the structure, about 40% of the width of the front of the vehicle on the driver's side must manage the crash energy. This means the front end on the struck side crushes more than in a full-width test, and intrusion into the occupant compartment is more likely. In the offset crash test the vehicle is travels at 64kph (40mph) and collides with a crushable aluminum barrier, which makes the forces in the test similar to those involved in a frontal offset crash between two vehicles of the same weight. The resulting crash forces place severe demands on the structure of the vehicle, particularly on the driver's side. This test is also conducted by using two vehicles of same weight, at 40mph. (Figure: 2) The test results can be compared only among vehicles of similar weight. The vehicle structure affects the outcome of an offset frontal crash in two main ways: -absorption and dissipation of crash energy and integrity of the passenger compartment. The bottom line is that full-width tests are especially demanding of restraints but less demanding of structure, while the reverse is true in offsets. Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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Side Crash Test:

Fig.3

Fig.4 In the side test a sled (of about 1,368-kg) with a deformable "bumper" runs into the side of the test vehicle at around 31mph. The test simulates a car that is crossing an intersection being sides wiped by a car running a red light. Side impacts can be of two types: - perpendicular impact and angled impact (as shown in figure above). The protection of occupants in side impacts is more important as the space between the cars body and the occupant is much less than with the front and rear. Side impact crash test ratings can be compared across vehicle type and weight categories, while frontal crash test ratings cannot. This is because the kinetic energy involved in the side impact test depends on the weight and speed of the moving barrier, which are the same in every test. (Figure 3)

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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Pole Crash Test:

A series of tests are carried out to replicate accidents involving child and adult pedestrians where impacts occur at 40kph (25mph). Impact sites are then assessed and rated fair, weak and poor. As with other tests, these are based on European Enhanced Vehicle-safety Committee guidelines Accident patterns vary from country to country within Europe, but approximately a quarter of all serious-to-fatal injuries happen in side impact collisions. Many of these injuries occur when one car runs into the side of another. To encourage manufacturers to fit head protection devices, an optional pole or head protection test

may be performed, where such safety features are fitted. Side impact head airbags help to

protect the head by providing a

padding effect and by preventing the head from passing through the

window opening. In the test, the car tested is propelled sideways at 29kph (18mph) into a rigid pole. The pole is relatively narrow, so there is major penetration into the side of the car. In an impact without the head protecting airbag, a driver's head could hit the pole with sufficient force to cause a fatal head injury. Typically a head injury criterion of 5000 is possible, five times that which indicates the likelihood of serious brain injury. In contrast, the head injury criterion in these new crash tests with a head protection airbag is around 100 to 300, well below the injury reference value. A side impact airbag with head protection makes this kind of crash survivable despite the severity

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 17 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

SAFETY FEATURES
1. Anti-lock Brake Systems
Prevent a car's wheels from locking during 'panic' braking and allow the driver to maintain steering control as the car slows down. It keeps the car going straight, even after applying brakes on a slippery surface.

2. Side Impact Bars/Side Door beams

Side impact bars are made from high strength steel tubes and are fitted into the central portion of the door panels, thus increasing their strength. Stronger doors protect passengers during a side impact.

3. Three - Stage Protective Bumper

It includes Unique plastic energy absorber and reinforced steel Impact. Energy absorber that crushes upon collision that prevents severe damage to body. Reinforced Impact Beam and Bracket that perform a double shock absorbing function.

4. Roll Control
A Roll Control device in the front suspension imparts greater stability and prevents the car from toppling over while negotiating sharp curves at high speeds.

5. Fuel Tank safety

In some cars the fuel tank is designed to stay intact even in a big accident allowing no leaks at all. The fuel tank is also centrally located for safety and performance-keeping it out of way in the event of an accident.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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6. Seat Belts
They hold the person in an optimal position in the event of a car crash. They also reduce the risk of collision with the steering wheel, dashboard or windshield.

7. Air Bags
Airbags are very useful in avoiding two types of accidents: rear-end and head-on collisions. They are very important in a crash because depending on the speed at impact and the stiffness of the object struck, front air bags inflate to prevent your head and face from striking your car's interior, especially the dashboard, steering wheel and windshield. In a head-on crash, sensors take less than 1/20th of a second to alert the inflators that fill the bag. Using air bags in conjunction with automatic safety belts provides much more protection than using either one alone. Side air bags reduce the risk of occupants hitting the door or object that crash through it. They provide additional chest protection by inflating instantly during many side crashes; some, also provide head protection.

8. Head Restraints
Head restraints are extensions of the car's seats that limit head movement during a rear-impact crash, thus, reducing the probability of neck injury.

9. Collapsible Steering
The steering wheel column in a collapsible steering works in two stages to absorb impact in the event of an air crash. This protects the driver from being trapped between the steering wheel and seat, during a collision.

10.

Non-jamming Doors
During a heavy collision the front doors are pushed over the outer skin of the rear

doors, leaving them free to open.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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CASE STUDY: CRASH TEST CONDUCTED ON A HONDA CR-V BY INSURANCE INSTITUTE FOR HIGHWAY SAFETY (IIHS)
The Honda CR-V is a compact SUV, manufactured since 1995 by Honda. It was loosely derived from the Honda Civic. The "CR-V" stands for Compact Recreational Vehicle". It is produced in both four-wheel drive and front-wheel drive, with availability differing by market.

TESTED VEHICLE SPECIFICATIONS:

2013 Honda CR-V EX 4wd Class: Small SUV Weight: 3,512 lbs. Wheelbase: 103 in. Length: 178 in. Width: 72 in. Engine: 2.4 L 4-cylinder Side airbags: front and rear head curtain airbags and front seat-mounted torso airbags Rollover sensor: designed to deploy the side curtain airbags in the event of an impending rollover

Electronic stability control Antilock brakes Daytime running lights

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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IIHS FRONTAL CRASH TEST

TEST DETAILS:
Restraints/dummy kinematics Dummy movement was well controlled. The driver side curtain and side torso airbags deployed during the crash. After the dummy moved forward into the frontal airbag, it rebounded into the seat without its head coming close to any stiff structure that could cause injury. Injury measures Measures taken from the dummy indicate a low risk of any significant injuries in a crash of this severity.

OVERALL EVALUATION:

Injury measures Restraints/dummy kinematics

Structure/safety cage

Head/neck

Chest

Leg/foot, left

Leg/foot, right

Good

Acceptable

Marginal

Poor

IIHS FRONTAL OFFFSET CRASH TEST

TEST DETAILS:

Driver the dummys head was protected from being hit by any hard structures, including the intruding barrier, by a side curtain airbag that deployed from the roof and a side airbag that deployed from the seat.

The frontal airbag also deploys during the test.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 21 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

OVERALL EVALUATION:

Injury measures Restraints/dummy kinematics

Structure/safety cage

Head/neck

Chest

Leg/foot, left

Leg/foot, right

Good

Acceptable

Marginal

Poor

IIHS SIDE CRASH TEST

TEST DETAILS:

Driver Measures taken from the dummy indicate that a fracture of the pelvis would be possible in a crash of this severity. The risk of significant injuries to other body regions is low.

Rear passenger Measures taken from the dummy indicate a low risk of any significant injuries in a crash of this severity.

OVERALL EVALUATION:

Injury measures Head/neck Driver Torso Pelvis/leg Head protection Structure/safety cage

Rear passenger

Good

Acceptable

Marginal

Poor

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 22 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS

CRASH TEST RATINGS FOR THE CARS BY NHTSA (NATIONAL HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORT SAFETY AUTHORITY)

In frontal crashes, the worst score on the following three criteria determines the star rating:

Head Injury Criteria (HIC) Chest deceleration Femur load

Ratings for Frontal-Impact Tests # Of Stars 5 4 3 2 1 Result 10% or lower chance of serious injury 11% to 20% chance of serious injury 21% to 35% chance of serious injury 36% to 45% chance of serious injury 46% or greater chance of serious injury

In side-impact crashes, there are three criteria: Driver and passenger injury measures Head protection Structural performance

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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Ratings for Side-Impact Tests # Of Stars 5 4 3 2 1 Result 5% or lower chance of serious injury 6% to 10% chance of serious injury 11% to 20% chance of serious injury 21% to 25% chance of serious injury 26% or greater chance of serious injury

Tata Indigo has passed all the standards of full frontal and offset frontal crash tests as well as endurance safety tests. Tata has also recently tested Indica, Sierra and Safari successfully.

Ford's Freestyle, a midsize SUV introduced for the 2012 model year, earned the highest rating in a 40 mph frontal test.

NHTSA ratings for the 2013 Honda CR-V EX 4wd

Other, Overall Rollover Rating:.. Side - Pole, Side - Pole: Side, Rear Seat: Overall, Overall: .

Side - Pole Barrier combined, Side - Pole Barrier combined (REAR): Front, Overall Front:

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

Page 24 of 27 CRASH TESTING OF CARS Side - Pole Barrier combined, Side - Pole Barrier combined (FRONT):. Front, Driver's: .. Side, Front Seat:. Side - Barrier, Side - Barrier: Front, Passenger's:.. Side, Overall Side:.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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CRASH TESTING CENTERS

Throughout the world there are many institutes who crash test vehicles, each organizations test results are generally for vehicles sold in its respective country or region. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS- U.S) http://www.hwysafety.org/vehicle_ratings/ratings.htm NHTSA (National Highway and Transport Safety Authority New Car Assessment Programme USA) provides individual ratings for frontal impact, side impact and roll-over resistance out of five-stars. Euro NCAP: Established in 1997 and now backed by five European Governments. www.euroncap.com New Car Assessment Japan: evaluates the safety of automobiles currently on the Japanese market. http://www.nasva.go.jp/english Australian NCAP (ANCAP): Australian and New Zealand automobile clubs supports Australian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP).

http://www.aaa.asn.au/ancap.htm India has centers for crash testing at the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) and Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) in Bangalore. Tata Motorss is the only carmaker in India that has a crash-test facility located at huge plant in Pune established in 1996.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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CONCLUSION
The safety deficits of cars observed in accident statistics can be alleviated if the structures of these cars are designed and optimized for the situation they will most likely encounter in a real world situation.

One of the prime reasons for the alarming increase in deaths due to accidents in India is that crash testing of vehicles is not mandatory. Every carmaker emphasizes that his make is better. But the consumer has to change his approach and consider that car, which can best avoid injuries to him in a crash. This will force the carmakers to crash test all the vehicles they launch and provide all the necessary information to the consumer, and facilitate him in buying a safe car.

Crash testing leads to improvement of the safety systems. These systems again have to be tested for their workability during a crash. Hence crash testing plays a vital role in continuous improvement of the safety systems. Design changes in vehicles like the

crumple zones and the location of engine block have been the results of evolution of crash testing. Therefore in future, crash testing could suggest many more design changes, which could further minimize the probability of injury during a crash. These observations stress that any car make would not be complete without crash testing. Thus crash testing can be a major factor that will make driving a more secure and reliable experience.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Paper on Offset crash tests Observations about vehicle design and structural performance- by Michael Paine; Vehicle Design and Research Pty Limited; Donald McGrane Crash lab, NSW Roads and Traffic Authority; Jack Haley NRMA Limited. http://www.tata.com/tata_motors/articles/index.htm http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/ncap/ www.howstuffworks.com www.aj.com http://www.iihs.org/ratings/rating.aspx?id=586 http://www.driveandstayalive.com/info%20section/crash%20testing/aaaindex_crash-testing-index-and-intro.htm http://www.cars.com/honda/cr-v/2013/safety-ratings/

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RRCE