CST Review Notes from S.S.

Review at SMS
7.1 The Roman Empire
Strengths *Adaptable: -Adapted ideas into own -Was the strongest military force at the time -Technologically and socially advanced -Latin language predominated the empire Weakness *Size of Empire: -Lack of control over areas ~As a result, leadership grew progressively weaker Main/Major Contributions: -Latin Language adopted by English language such as in roman proverbs -Voting "veto" -Roman Proverbs as mentioned -Republic (Not the political parties) form of society -Roads, cement, arches -Suffixes & prefixes ______________________________________________________________________________ -Roman Empire extends to areas of Europe, Asia, and Africa -It started in Italy, then to Greece, and later parts of Africa such as West Africa, Egypt, France, Germany, and etc. -The empire itself was centered on the Mediterranean Sea. ______________________________________________________________________________

Threats: -German, Barbaric Forces, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Sarmatians, etc. *Unity within the empire was a larger threat. The problems were mainly cause by those of political parties. More details below. -Fought for succession of the throne of which the military faction of the empire would usually choose. -Different legions in the empire &/or military would be controlled by different commanders -The soldiers, in fact, did not pledge allegiance to the empire. Rather, their loyalty lay within their commanders. For example: In such the case that a soldiers commander decided to wage war against the king, they would follow him and do the same.

5th Century
-The Germans invade the western part of the Roman Empire. -Constantine moves the location of the capital to Constantinople to check and make sure of the money flow. -Resurgence of Greek culture, thoughts, ideas, and so forth. The Roman Empire is and feels the effects of the resurgence. -Eastern Orthodox Church is branched off from the Catholic/Christian Church. -The Byzantine Empire declares its national religion as being Christianity after Holy Roman Emperor Constantine declares himself to be a Christian for the first time in Roman history.

7.6 Europe in the Middle Ages

*The land had to do a lot w/ European ways of life. -The land itself was a symbol and measure of wealth and ones allegiance toward their lord. -With this, it gave way to a system called the feudal system.

-Monarch: gives land, gets taxes, gives houses -Lords & Nobles: collect taxes -Knights: hired by lords to protect the land & sometimes also given their own plot of land -Peasants: includes traders -Serfs: part of the land, but not slaves, and does not have full freedom. They were given a plot of land to farm and what they grew would be collected as taxes or as rent to the lords. -Vassals serve lords and collect taxes *The Roman Empire had very good roads which were well defended, but they ha no one to keep watch or surveillance over the roads, so rivers were the best and most convenient way to travel. -With river travel, towns and cities were built and grew alongside the rivers. *Christianity -Christianity was popular w/ slaves and women. It eventually spread to nobility, lords, and etc. -It began as a cult of Judaism, but then branched off and separated. (Christians (originally Jewish) believed that Jesus was the son of God and their saviors. Jewish people didnt believe that to be true and only believed in the existence of God with Moses as their prophet. Muslims believed that both Jesus and Muhammad were prophets of God and so on.) -Constantine was the first emperor/king to declare he was a Christian in the Holy Roman Empire. As he converted to Christianity, it spread to the rest of the people and resulted in the empires unification under one faith. *Catholic Church -Pope is the head of the church. -They often came into conflict with nobles. There seemed to be a rivalry between them. This was due to the actions of the nobles of which the pope deemed as bad as well as the taxes issue. -The king also came into conflict and went against the pope over the issue of believing that he had the power to do anything he wanted and trying to impose on the decision over choosing the next pope. He is later kicked out, or excommunicated, and begs for forgiveness in the cold and is later readmitted. -On Christmas Day, Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The church was worried about the threats facing the empire and the church/religion by Moors, Christians, Scandinavians Vikings, Magyars, and more who were non-Christians.

England 1066
-At this time, England was invaded by Normans Vikings who brought culture, ideas, and feudalism. ^A Hundred Years later: ~Henry II, who was a direct descendent of William the Conqueror, creates: -common law and assigns people to enforce those laws. The laws, of course, had punishments attached to them. Punishments varied depending on the crime and included fees/fines and going to jail for major crimes. -His fourth son, Richard, who was a crusader, fighting in many battles, ends up bankrupting the family with his battles. -His brother, John, becomes king. He wants to raise money to go to war w/ France, but because of Richard bankrupting the family, he is unable to pay for it. This leads to a civil was with the barons. -One day, while John is out riding, the barons surround him w/ weapons and threaten him to sign a document which is later known as the Magna Carta. -The Magna Cartas power limits the power of the government and king and protects the people and their individual rights. -Johns grandson, Edward I, wants to go to war and raise money, and so he creates two houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. -limits the power of nobility and brings power to the people. -The two houses are the model for our own US Legislative Branch/Congress: House of Representatives and Senate. *Crusades -Islam winds up taking the Holy Land. -Turks defeat Byzantine army in common day Turkey, and they later go to help for help. -Following this, Pope Urban II calls upon the first crusade. -French soldiers/persons arrive and take part in the crusade, and they manage to take back part of Israel. -There is a lot of bloodshed in the first actual massacre of the crusade. -Jerusalem and many other critics within the Holy Land and surrounding areas are invaded once more.

-There are seven crusades in total, with each battle getting progressively weaker, to the point of not even having to actually fight. -The crusades set up the idea and animosity between and against Islam and Christianity. -There is another battle in Spain with the Reconquistadors. -With the crusades, it brings back advances in technology, science and medicine, acrchitecture, mathematics/arithmetic: algebra, geometry, etc., resurgence in Roman and Greek thoughts/ideas and improvement in European conditions.

*Bubonic Plague
-The Bubonic Plague began in China with the Asian Black Rat. During that time, the Mongols had invaded and were in charge of China. -In a battle, they threw a corpse which was infected into the city of Lacafa and the plague spreads throughout Europe and Northeast and West Africa; however the conditions and seriousness of the plague is better in Northeast and West Africa because of the cleaner conditions. -Europe, on the other hand, was extremely filthy with flies, rats, trash in the streets, and tight living conditions. The disease thrived in these conditions, and the resulting conclusion was the death of three fifths of the population. With the plague killing so many, the people had to adapt to survive. -From 1346 to the 1600s, there would a reoccurrence of the plague every fifty years. -Not to mention the fact that many Jews were blamed for many of this and people would angrily attack them and force them out of their homes and so on. *Catholic

Church

-It is the center of all life in Europe. Everything revolved around the church. -Almost all of the people were illiterate, meaning they could not read. The only ones who could read were priests and scribes. This fact furthered the peoples devotion to the church. -The church created seven sacraments for the people to follow which supposedly allowed people to go to heaven by following them obediently. Gaining salvation -With the church, it created and/or had a huge influence on the feudal system. -The church was also in charge of learning/education. -The church was also a source of inspiration for many arts and is often depicted, that is religious images of live, faith, and etc.

*700 years in Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal, etc.)

-The Moors invade the area. -They transform Spain into a cultural and learning center. -However, they are kicked out after the Battle of Caesarians. -The people in the area are then converted into Christians. -After and/or during this time period, there was also the event of the Spanish Inquisition.

*7.2 Islamic Civilizations of the Middle Ages

-Primarily, the Arabian Peninsula was a desert. There were some oases in which trade would sprout up around it. -There were few actual water sources around the coastal plain and in the mountains. -In the deep deserts lived the Bedouin who were nomads. They practically had many animals in which they would use the animals for everything they needed such as food, milk, clothing, and so on. For the things they didnt have, they would trade them for their animals. -The desert, of course, was also considered a holy place.

*Life and Teachings of Muhammad and beginnings of Islam

-Muhammad was orphaned at a young age and lived with his uncle. Growing up, he was taught in the ways of a merchant by his uncle. During his time as a merchant, he learned about trade routes and many different cultures. -He ends up working for his future wife and makes her very wealthy. -While living in the desert as a Bedouin, a nomad, he decides to visit a place in which he visited by the archangel Gabriel who gives/hands him the Quran. -He winds up bringing monotheism to area of the Arabian Peninsula, however he is met with skepticism and rejection and is forced out of his home and lives in Mecca. He, however, is also kicked out of there and ends up moving to Medina where he gains a following called Muslims. -There is also the event of the Night Journey in which Muhammad goes to Jerusalem and is taken to Heaven. He dies in the city of Medina, and his followers spread his teachings throughout the Arabian Peninsula through trade and military conquest. -Muhammads descendants are through his daughter who continues to spread his teachings, and the group eventually becomes so large that the group is broken into different sections.

*Quran is the holy book of Islam

-Both the Quran and the Sunnah were very important. The Sunnah was an example and described how a person should live based on Muhammads own life. It told of proper behavior and of the gospels. -The Quran was Gods laws and moral teachings, guiding Muslims in the ways of life, and also contained verses from Gabriel. -Muslims were also tolerant of Christianity and Judaism as all worshipped the same God, followed Abraham, and the figures Jesus, Moses, Mary, and so on all appear in the Quran and other holy books. -Cordana was their culture. -Trade was very important to them for Arabian survival. They spread the religion through trade reaching all the way to places such as West Africa. -They became very wealthy through Chinese and European trade.

*Lasting Influence of Muslims/Advances

-Astronomy: knowing about the universe and making instruments to help -Calligraphy: decorative art -Literature: poetry, A Thousand and One Nights, Quran -Geography & Navigation: examined Earths circumference and made accurate maps -Geometric and Floral Designs -Kept Greek thought alive -Irrigation and Underground Wells: chains and aqueducts -Mathematics: Algebra, Geometry, concept of zero -Medicine: improved earlier knowledge, herbs, surgeries, observations of animals -Scholarship and Learning: Arabic language promoted learning, built schools, colleges, libraries, and learned about Plato, Aristotle, reason and logic -Textiles: considered important to Arab people and showed rank and status -Zoology: described animal bodies, medicine, and evolution

*Sub-Saharan Civilizations in the Middle Ages

-West Africa was able to produce salt and essential item to society. The salt was the source of their wealth, which they used and sent south to mine for gold. -Salt was primarily used to preserve food. Basically, if you had gotten your hands on a salt mine, you were wealthy and also the fact that it was able to preserve food made it extremely valuable and worth its weight in gold. -The cities of Mali and Ghana grew and became wealthy through trade. Merchants and traders became known as middlemen, trading with Timbuktu and other parts of Asia and Europe as well. -Cities primarily developed around trade routes and other cities. -N. African traders believed in Islam. While trading, they brought their religion along with them.

-They wrote, spoke, and learned the Arabic language. Their religion of Islam was in Arabic which caused them to take up the language. Along with this, they had also spread literacy with trade as well. -Until the religion of Islam came along, people memorized and passed on stories, traditions, and history orally. With Islam, they learned to read write it down. -West Africa became a location with many centers of learning.

*Contributions to Modern Society

-Stories, tradition, and folktales -Their music influenced our genres of rock and rap

*7.3 China in the Middle Ages

-After the fall of the Han in the third century, China was in deep turmoil. That is until the reunification of China under Tang rulers. -Aristocrats or wealthy landowners primarily ran the government. -Through monks from India, China was introduced to the religion of Buddhism which grew very popular. Chinese traders liked Buddhism and so spread it to Korea and later Japan. -Under the Song rule, new forms of rice from Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and etc. came up. It soon replaced millet and sorghum as Chinas staple food. -With rice growing in popularity, and being able to feed its people, rice soon drew in wealth money, tax revenue which allowed China to grow wealthy. -With technology bringing in improvement for agriculture (growing & harvesting), there is a boom in culture and trade for new items. -Confucianism by Kong Fu Zi or Confucius taught and placed importance on relationships of higher and lower classes. The lower gives their respect to the higher class. The higher, in return, takes care of the lower class. One such example of the relationship is the bond of father and son. -Chinese later created and based their government on the teachings of Confucius and also created civil servant examinations based on ones knowledge of Confucianism. -Mongols invade China. They, of course, are foreigners from the north. -Under Mongol rule, China is open to foreigners and trade. New info. also comes in. Mongols also replace Chinese officials with foreigners who couldnt speak or understand the language at all. -Under the Ming, trade is set up and expands across many countries including to parts of Africa.

-However, in the end, Ming closes Chinese borders as they got sick of foreign items.

*Chinese Discoveries and Inventions

-Chinese were first to create a modern version of paper, using bamboo. -Chinese also created porcelain which was very sought after as a high item. -Chinese tea was introduced to Europe and became popular as it was a nonalcoholic drink, safe, and healthy which made tea very important. -Chinese cloth and silk was another high class item and the secret to making it was kept a secret. -They were also first to create a type of printing press: wood block printing. -They also used paper money as currency. -Their greatest invention, in my opinion, would be the invention or discovery of gunpowder by alchemists. Although it was initially used in fireworks, they eventually realized its potential in weapons. Examples include cannons and explosives. -Another invention would be the invention of rockets which also applied the used of gunpowder. -Another would be the compass for navigation. -The emperor was in charge, while the bureaucracy in gov. were managed by aristocrats. In the Song dynasty, the scholars would be next and foreigners in the Ming dynasty.

*7.5 Japan in the Middle Ages

*Influence of Japan from neighboring China and Korea and Geography -Japan was isolated from the Asian countries. Basically, it was out on its own in a collection of islands. -Japan itself was a tribal society. Clans often fought w/ one another for possession of rank or power. -Japan used Chinese characters which they called kanji for their writing system. They had a bit of trouble matching their own pronunciation and meanings w/ the kanji. In time they also create hiragana and katakana for their writing system as well. -Japan used urban planning from China as well. -Ideas from Chin, Korea, and India spread through Japan. Buddhism spread through Japan like this. -Poetry styles and etc. were influenced by China and Korea. *Reign of Prince Shutoku -Prince Shutoku, who later became the Japanese emperor, wanted society to be united in culture. -He used Chinese and foreign ideas to so. -He is well known for having created the 12 Articles Constitution. -He set up Japanese government based on this constitution. *Feudalism in Japan -Much like Europe, Japan also had its own feudalism classes.

~Emporer was in charge or religion, much like the Pope w/ no power. ~Shogun: he wasnt king, however was in charge of the government. ~Daimyo: Lords who got plots of land. Swore allegiance to the Shogun ~Samurai: the warriors ~Peasants: Farmers and Laborers ~Traders ~Merchants ~Slaves -Although Samurai are hired to fight, they arent the only ones who do fight. The shogun and daimyo fight as well. -There were two types of Buddhism that emerged when Buddhism was introduced. 1) Amida Buddhism: Sought peace by reciting Amida Buddha over and over repeatedly while and during meditation. 2) Zen Buddhism: Believed that concentration on a single thing was meditation. It sought peace and harmony through nature. -Before Buddhism was introduced, Japans official religion was Shinto. After Buddhism was introduced, they combined the two. Buddhism for mourning and funerals and etc. Shinto for celebrating new life, marriages, and etc. *Early Japanese literature, art, and drama, and their lasting influence -Early literature included Murasaki Shikibu Tale of Genji and more. -Other forms of writing included Tanka poems and haiku which mainly focused on nature. In fact, the Japanese had an idealization of nature which was reflected in their style of arts. -One main form of drama or entertainment would be Noh theater. *Rise of a military society in the 1100s -In the 1100s, a shogun manages to take over and unify all of Japan. -During this time, samurai start upholding bushido. -Bushido was a strict warrior code/behavior focused on honor which progressively grew stricter over time. -If one should dishonor or break the code, one must commit seppuku, or suicide.

*7.7 Mesoamerican and Andean Civilizations

*Geography of Central and South America and its effect on the growth of Mayan, Aztec, and Inca societies

-The Mayans resided in Central America, between N. and S. America in wetland rainforests. -They were in isolated areas from one another which led to the growth of city states. -They settled and traded along rivers. In the city, there were many competitions as well. -Mayan religion was mostly polytheistic and primarily forces and objects that affected daily life. The Mayans also believed gods created the world and could influence or destroy it. -Mayan social class:

~Ruler: ruled w/ advisors, decide when to go to war, semi-divine ~Nobles & Priests: only ones who could read and write, ran gov., and commanded army ~Merchants and Artisans: imported products and traded, made objects as tributes to gods ~Common people: farmers, built buildings, served as soldiers as well ~Slaves: manual labor & taking care of the wealthy -The Aztec resided in Central Mexico on an island in the middle of a lake. They called their city Tenochtitlan. -Trade was very important to the Aztecs. It was through trade that they got luxury goods. -From conquered people, Aztecs may receive goods such as food, cacao, gems & stones, cotton, cloth, animals, animal skin, building materials, shells, and/or even soldiers. -Aztecs demanded tribute, honor their gods, and obedience to the Aztec Empire of the cities they defeated. -An advantage of the Aztec Empire is the fact that its easy to rule. -A disadvantage of the Aztec Empire is the fact that theres a lack of unity and is easy to invade. -The Aztec city was advanced in technology and grew. -The Aztecs had a reputation as being mean because of their actions in skinning people/ -They ruled through terror. -For religious ceremonies, they would sacrifice 3000 people a day by ripping out a persons heart while still alive and later kicking/rolling/throwing the victims body down the stairs. -Eventually, they were taken down by the Spanish who became allies with the people and clans they conquered. The clans that were invaded hated the Aztecs and their resentment grew even more. They plotted with the Spanish which later led to the Aztecs defeat. Inca social class was: ~Emperor: Authority came from the belief that he was descended from the sun god ~Royal family & nobles: Controlled land, resources, ruled as governors, collected taxes, and worked as inspectors ~Community leaders ~Peasants: Farmers and herders, Men built roads and etc. while Women might weave cloth ~Slaves -Eventually, Incas were attacked and conquered by the Spanish who grouped with the local tribe and fought with the Incas. The Spanish were looking for gold through economic means.

*Art, architecture, and oral traditions -Art: sculpture, textiles, dance -Oral Traditions: music, poetry Architecture: Aztecs and Mayans: pyramid Mayans: corbel vault *Mesoamerican achievements ~ Mayan: -Science & Technology: tracking movements of stars and planets, creation of solar calendar, Calendar round -Arts & Architecture: murals, steles, weaving (huipiles), temples, pyramids, corbel vault -Language & Writing: Complex writing system, Hieroglyphics, glyphs, dialects ~ Aztecs: -S&T: building of Tenochtitlan, Chinampas (artificial islands), three causeways, sun stone, solar calendars -A&A: Poetry, music and dance, brilliants colors in painting, stone statues, stone temples -L&W: Dramatic and flowery speeches, Nahuatt, glyphs and photographs ~ Incas -S&T: Engineering (System of roads), staircases and tunnels, suspension bridges, enlarging terraces, canals, trephination (surgery) -A&A: Textiles, Fashioning objects from gold, Music, huge, durable buildings -L&W: Quechua, quipus/huipas

*7.8 The Renaissance Period in Europe

-After the Plague and Feudalism in Europe, there was an excess of money and no social order/class. -Trade brought new ideas and goods into Europe which led to a bustling economy and prosperous towns w/ new classes of people who had the wealth to support art and learning. It led to an economy which allowed towns to grow into educational centers. -The growth of trade led to a need for exchanging currency. This allowed for people to grow wealthy who then paid for schools which also led to prosperous Renaissance cities. -With schools, it led to a revival of Greek and Roman ideas which led to Humanist thinking or Humanism which was the idea that all humans have value. -The Byzantine Empire also studied Greek and Roman ideas. -Italian trading cities of Venice and Florence grew, conducting their own trade, taxes, and laws. -These cities had wealthy families who would pay for a creation of buildings, paintings and etc. which contributed to a boom in art and learning. -It was due to these cities that led to the spreading of Renaissance ideas. -The Renaissance, as mentioned before, began in Venice and Florence which were trading ports. Florence became known as the cradle of the Renaissance. -Merchants contributed to the growing wealth of cities and would spend it on art, universities, literature, improvement of homes/buildings, and as a result the cities themselves would eventually grow even wealthier as it boomed in culture.

-Humanists believed not only did humans have value, but also that humans had the ability to control their own lives and achieve greatness. -Humanists affected Renaissance life greatly as it affected peoples thinking about social standing, prizing individual achievement more than status. They also separated state and right to rule from the church which brought them to conflict with the church. *Importance of the Silk Road -It led to a weakening of the Catholic Churchs influence on society. -It was reopened under Mongol rule over China. -It allowed for the transport of Chinese goods such as tea, paper, and porcelain into Europe. -It also increased the development of the printing press w/ Johannes Gutenburg improving the Chinese woodblock into that of a movable type which was more efficient. -The movable type allowed written documents to be produced even more and quicker. The new books were cheap and people now learned how to read. This also allowed for the spreading of new information easily among people. *Accomplishments: -Humanism: Scientists & thinkers begin observing the world rather than only trusting that of which the Bible and Church states -Advancement in: Anatomy, map making, surveying, art, realism, perspective, geometry. -Engineering: new styles, architecture, pumps, improvement of Greek and Roman buildings, thinking

*7.9 The Reformation in Europe

*Turmoil in the Catholic Church -Turmoil of the Catholic Church was mostly due to the growing corruption. -Before the events of the Bubonic Plague, Europe had a large population in which the Catholic Church depended on for funding. However, after the events, 1/3 of European population was gone which led to reduced funding or less money. Like this, priests and other members of the church only give 10% in doing their jobs. Basically, that is becoming what you may call somewhat lazy. Less money and less members in the church results in the church selling indulgences (to go to heaven) and positions in the church, which of course leads to corruption. -However, not all people supported these actions. Instead, they wanted the church to change its ways as they believed their actions went against their beliefs. *Ideas of Reformation leaders such as Martin Luther -Martin Luther was both a lawyer and a priest. He had noticed the selling of indulgences in the church and stated that there was no proof of indulgences allowing you to go to Heaven in the Bible. -He winds up writing the 95 theses and posts it on the door of the church. This action leads to him beings brought before the Diet of Worms who tells him to take back what he said. However he doesnt and ends up being excommunicated. -He later forms the Martin Luther Church, which gives us the idea of elected officials.

-Another leader would be that of John Calvin who creates the Calvinist Church in which they believe the world needs to have a government based on theocracy and so on. -King Henry VIII is another leader who forms the Anglican Church to have his own power rather than sharing power with the church, religious tolerance, and etc. -England = Anglican -Scotland, Switzerland, Netherland: Calvinism -Germany and etc.: Lutheran -Spain, France and etc.: Catholic -Russia, Greece, and etc.: Eastern Orthodox -Calvinists: English settlers who travel to the North American east and bring (pilgrims) free religious persecution. -Spanish: brings Jesuits who were soldier priests. They built missions and pueblos in the west coast, Mexico, and South America. -Reconquista from Spain which becomes a learning center where Muslims, Jews, and Christians come together and gather information.

7.10 The Scientific Revolution

-Renaissance ideas allowed for people to start questioning everything and learn through observation rather than follow what the Church says. -It created and allowed for the idea of the earth orbiting the sun rather than the sun orbiting the earth. The former being called a heliocentric view rather than the latter which was a geometric view. -Everything now had to be proven. -With this allowed for the development of the Scientific Method. -The ones who contributed to the Scientific Method were Bacon and Descartes who stated and allowed for science and religion to coexist with mathematics and gaining even more knowledge and also said to doubt everything until it was proven. -This helped set the stage for enlightenment which set up laws or natural laws which were absolute. -Francis Bacon said to rid the mind of false belief and understand things through observation. He is the creator or co-creator of the Scientific Method. -According to them or allowing religion to coexist with science, it was stated that God created law in nature which means natural law is the same as Gods law.

7.11 Changes in the 16th to 18th Centuries

-The main explorers during this time were Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, and England. Spain and Netherlands did most of the work however or rather began first. -Christopher Columbus discovered Americas for Spain. -Magellan went around the world. -Portugal discovered a naval route to India. -Dergall/Dergali discovered another trade route to India for spices -The English had Hudson, Cortez, and Cabat who discovered Canada, N.A. in Maine, and the N.W. Passage. -Netherlands finds another passage to N. America. -France finds Florida.

-With Europe going around the world and bringing back more goods, more money is spent and more food is introduced such as potatoes, beans, corn, noodles and more. -North America is also introduced to horses and pigs. -The more contact with other nations and places, the more information is brought back. -Both Spain and Africa trade with one another. Spain receives slaves from West Africa in return for guns. The slaves are then brought to North and South American plantations for farming. *Origins of modern capitalism -Capitalism was when a country invested in someones adventure/journey and gained percent of the profit. An example of this is when Spain invested in Christopher Columbuss journey to find another route to India and ends up finding North America and the Caribbean Islands. *Main Ideas and Influences of Enlightenment and Enlightenment thinkers -Enlightenment: The Scientific Revolutions led to the making and development of systems on human society. -Thomas Cobbs: develops the idea of Absolute Rule by Kings (a constitutional monarchy) which was based on the idea that people were greedy, cruel, and selfish, and needed to be ruled by an absolute ruler. He was one of the first thinkers to apply reason to society. -John Locke: developed the idea of natural rights for all people/humans which were based on the idea that a government was an agreement among free people and if it failed to respect peoples rights, it will be overthrown. His idea of natural rights impacted and is stated in the ideas of the Declaration of Independence. -Baron de Montesquieu: developed the idea of a separation in powers and three branches of house which was based on the idea of dividing the power among three branches of government to keep the power of government from getting too powerful. This idea is evident in our American government. We have the Judicial Branch, Executive Branch, and Legislative Branch. -Voltaire: developed the idea of religious tolerance and free speech. "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it" written by Evelyn Beatrice Hall is commonly misattributed to Voltaire, but is a perfect example of his idea. His idea impacted and is evident in our Bill of Rights. -Cesare Beccaria: developed the idea of the rights of the accused in which the accused and convicted have rights. We use this in our legal system. -Magna Carta: Document in which the barons force King John of England to sign which protects the individual rights of the people and also subjects the King to the power of the law as well. The Magna Carta greatly influenced the Declaration of Independence which stated the rules King George III had broken, why America was separating from Great Britain, declaring war and so on.