Solve Problems in Multiple Path DC Circuits

Electrical, Electronics Engineering Department
Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits

UEUNEEE004A
Revision Date Contact
1 08/2005 IH
2 03/2007 IH
3 01/09 DK
Chisholm Institute Stud Road Dandenong 3175 Tel: +61 3 92124526 Fax: +61 3 92124999
Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A
This page left blank intentionally
Required Skills and Knowledge

Duration 40 hours E2.8.2.1 Direct current circuit principles Evidence shall show an understanding of electrical principles to an extent indicated by the following aspects: a) Factors affecting resistance encompassing: The factors of length, cross-sectional area and material effect the resistance of conductors. effects of temperature change on the resistance of various conducting materials. the resistance of a conductor from factors such as conductor length, cross-sectional area, resistivity and changes in temperature. b) Resistors encompassing: features of fixed and variable resistor types and typical applications. characteristics of temperature, voltage and light dependent resistors and typical applications of each. specifying a resistor for a particular application. resistance of a colour coded resistor from colour code table and confirm the value by measurement. c) Series circuits encompassing: setting up and connecting a single-source series dc circuit. Measurement of resistance, voltage and current values in a single source series circuit. the voltage, current, resistances or power dissipated from measured or given values of any two of these quantities. relationship between the voltage drops around a circuit and the applied voltage. relationship between voltage drops and resistance in a simple voltage divider network. output voltage and current levels of connecting cells in series. d) Parallel circuits encompassing: setting up and connecting a single-source parallel circuit. Measurement of resistance, voltage and current values in a single-source parallel circuit. the voltage, current, resistance or power dissipated from measured or given values of any of these quantities. relationship between currents entering a junction and currents leaving a junction. relationship between branch currents and resistances in a two branch current divider network. voltage and current levels of connecting cells in parallel. e) Series/parallel circuits encompassing: setting up and connecting a single-source series / parallel circuit. Measurement of resistance, voltage and current values in a single-source series/parallel circuit. the voltage, current, resistances or power dissipated from measured or given values of any two of these quantities. relationship between voltages, currents and resistances in a bridge network. voltage and current levels of connecting cells in series parallel.
f) Measurement of electrical quantities encompassing: hazards involved in using electrical instruments and the safety control measures that should be taken. operating characteristics of analogue and digital meters. selecting an appropriate meter in terms of units to be measured, range, loading effect and accuracy for a given application. measuring resistance using direct, volt-ammeter and bridge methods. instruments used in the field to measure voltage, current, resistance and insulation resistance and the typical circumstances in which they are used. g) Capacitance encompassing: definition of capacitance and explain how a capacitor is charged. the units by which capacitance is measured. relationship between capacitance, voltage and charge. Behaviour of a series d.c. circuit containing resistance and capacitance components. h) Capacitors encompassing: hazards involved in working with capacitance effects and the safety control measures that should be taken. factors which determine the capacitance of a capacitor and explain how these factors are present in all circuits to some extent. effects of capacitors connected in parallel by calculating their equivalent capacitance. effects on the total capacitance of capacitors connected in series. common faults in capacitors. testing of capacitors to determine serviceabity. Useful references include: Jenneson, J.R., Electrical Principles for the Electrical Trades. Prentice Hall, Sydney, 5th Ed McGraw Hill, Sydney. Phillips, P., Electrical Principles. Prentice Hall, Sydney. Van den Bergen, B., Mathematics for the Electrical Trades. TAFE Publications, RMIT Melbourne. Pethebridge, K., Neeson, I., Electrical Wiring Practice. McGraw Hill, Sydney. Batty, I. 1996, Electrical Principles. Prentice Hall, Sydney. Occupational Health & Safety Requirements A safe and healthy environment will be provided for students and teachers as well as safety procedure with regard to learning and teaching activity.
Table of Contents
Review Questions ........................................................................................................7 Resistors and Resistance ..........................................................................................11 Variable resistor......................................................................................................11 Temperature-dependent resistors ..........................................................................12 Light-dependent resistors .......................................................................................14 Voltage-dependent resistors...................................................................................15 Resistor colour code...............................................................................................16 Resistivity ...............................................................................................................18 Summary ................................................................................................................24 Unit test ..................................................................................................................25 Review questions ...................................................................................................27 Series Resistive Circuits ............................................................................................29 Resistance in a series circuit ..................................................................................29 Unit test ..................................................................................................................35 Review questions ...................................................................................................36 Parallel Resistive Circuits...........................................................................................43 Current in a parallel circuit......................................................................................48 Power in a parallel circuit........................................................................................49 Voltage in a parallel circuit......................................................................................50 Summary of characteristics of parallel circuits .......................................................51 Unit test ..................................................................................................................52 Review questions ...................................................................................................53 Combined SeriesParallel Resistive Circuits .............................................................60 Unit test ..................................................................................................................70 Review questions ...................................................................................................74 Electrical Measuring Instruments ...............................................................................81 Introduction.............................................................................................................81 Moving coil meter ...................................................................................................81 Moving iron meter...................................................................................................85 Reading a meter error of parallax........................................................................88 Extending the range of voltmeters..........................................................................88 Extending the range of ammeters ..........................................................................90 Non contact testing.................................................................................................91 Dynamometer movement instruments....................................................................92 Care, selection and protection of instruments ........................................................93 The multimeter......................................................................................................100 Self help questions ...............................................................................................105 Digital meters........................................................................................................106 Review questions .................................................................................................107 Capacitors and Capacitance ....................................................................................112 Electrostatics and Capacitance................................................................................112 Definitions.............................................................................................................112 Electrostatics ........................................................................................................113 Electrostatic charge and discharge ......................................................................114 Calculation of capacitance....................................................................................115 Commercially available capacitors .......................................................................117 Calculation of Measurement of Capacitance Networks ...........................................124 Capacitance in series circuits ...............................................................................124 Capacitance in parallel circuits .............................................................................127 Capacitance measurement...................................................................................128 Unit test ................................................................................................................133 Review questions .................................................................................................136 Chapter review questions .....................................................................................139
This page left blank intentionally
Review Questions
The intention of these review questions is to refresh your memory of work covered in EUENEEE003A Electrical Fundamentals. Complete these now before starting the section on resistors and resistance. For each question circle the response you consider best fits the sentence. 1. The unit of electrical power is the: a. Volt. b. Ampere. c. Ohm. d. Watt. 2. Power is directly related to: a. How quickly a body is accelerated. b. How heavy a body is. c. The distance a force moves a body. d. The rate at which work is done on the body. 3. The ability to do work is called: a. Energy b. Power c. Velocity d. Acceleration 4. The current in a circuit which is consuming power can be calculated by using the formula: a. I = P R 2 b. I = P R c. I = V 2 P d. I = P R 5. Power in a DC circuit can be determined by combining the readings from two separate instruments. These are the: a. Voltmeter and wattmeter b. Ammeter and wattmeter c. Voltmeter and ammeter d. Ohmmeter and wattmeter 6. The voltage coil of a wattmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit resistance and it has a resistance that is: a. Low b. High c. Negligible d. Variable
7. The current coil of a wattmeter is connected in series with the circuit resistance and it has a resistance that: a. Is low b. Is high c. Equals zero d. Is variable 8. Assuming the voltage remains constant, if the resistance of a circuit is doubled, the power will: a. Double b. Decrease by four times c. Halve d. Increase by four times 9. If the current flowing through a resistor falls to half its original value, the power will: a. Double b. Decrease by four times c. Halve d. Increase by four times 10. If the voltage applied to a resistor is halved the power will: a. Double b. Increase by four times c. Halve d. Decrease by four times 11. Calculate the power being consumed by an electrical appliance that is drawing 5 A from a 240 V supply.
12. An electric toaster element has a voltage rating of 240 V and a power rating of 550 W. Calculate the: a. Resistance, of the element. b. The circuit current when the rated voltage is applied to the element.
13. Calculate the power consumed by a 50 ohm resistor that has 5 amperes flowing through it.
14. A lamp with a resistance when hot of 960 ohms is connected to the 240 V mains. Determine the power being consumed by the lamp.
15. Calculate the power dissipated by a coil with a resistance of 8 ohms that is passing 15 amperes. Express your answer in kW.
16. Calculate the maximum working current of an appliance rated at 2.4 kW with an operating voltage of 240 V.
17. Calculate the resistance of a radiator element that consumes 1000 W when connected to the 240 V mains.
18. The power circuit of a domestic installation consists of three power outlets, each rated at 1000 W for a supply voltage of 250 V. Calculate the maximum circuit current.
19. A length of single core copper cable has a resistance of 0.02 ohm per metre. Calculate the power loss in the cable if it is supplying 10 amperes to a load located 50 metres from the source of supply.
20. For the circuit of Fig.1: a. Complete the circuit so that the ammeter indicates the circuit current, the voltmeter indicates the supply voltage and the wattmeter indicates the circuit power. b. Determine the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter readings. c. Indicate with an arrow the direction of the current (use conventional current flow). Label the arrow as I (for current) and also identify the polarity of the battery terminals with a + and sign.
W
V1 V2 Load
+ V A
Figure 1
10
Resistors and Resistance

In Applied Electricity 1, you learned that temperature can affect the resistance of a conductor. Sometimes this effect is useful. Special types of resistors that change resistance due to an external influence, such as temperature or light, have many uses. Sometimes the change in resistance is linear, which means the resistance change exactly follows the change of the external influence. For example, the resistance of a metal conductor increases in a linear manner with temperature (for temperatures above 0C). If the change was non-linear, the resistance change between; say 0C to 100C would be different to the change between 100C and 200C, even though the temperature change in both cases is 100C. The most common used types of resistors that change their value due to an external influence are the variable resistor, the temperature-dependent resistor, the lightdependent resistor and the voltage-dependent resistor.
Variable resistor
This type has a wiper that is moved along a resistive track. The resistance of a variable resistor is therefore changed mechanically by positioning the wiper. If the change in resistance is directly proportional to how much the wiper is moved, the resistance element is linear. Some types of variable resistors have a non-linear resistance element. The effect of a linear and a non-linear resistance element is shown in Figure 2. As you can see, the minimum and maximum resistance is the same in both cases. However, when the wiper is moved half-way, the linear resistance element measures 5 ohms, which is half its maximum resistance, while the non-linear element is about one-tenth at 1 ohm. The wiper would need to move almost three-quarters of its full travel to give a resistance reading of 5 ohms.
Linear
0 ohm
5 ohm
10 ohm
Minimum
Half-way
Maximum
Non-linear
0 ohm 1 ohm 10 ohm
Figure 2 Linear and non-linear variable resistors
11
The most common use for a non-linear variable resistor is the volume control in a radio or an amplifier. Because human hearing is logarithmic, the resistance element in a volume control is also logarithmic to make the change in sound level appear to follow the change in the position of the control. Because our hearing is logarithmic, we can hear the gentlest whisper yet still bear the sound of a jet plane at take-off. However, the difference in the power of these two sounds is immense, far more than it seems to our ears.
Temperature-dependent resistors
Resistors that change their resistance value with a change in temperature have a number of applications. For example, they are often used as the sensor in a temperature measuring system, an over-temperature protection system or a temperature control system. A temperature-dependent resistor can be made by winding copper, nickel or platinum wire around a ceramic former. The resistive element is placed inside a protective sheath. The whole assembly can then be used as a probe in a temperature measuring, protection or control system. The change in resistance for each degree of temperature change is relatively small, although it will be linear. For example, if the resistance is 100 ohm at 0C, it will be about 140 ohms at 100C. Another very commonly used temperature dependent resistor is the thermistor (thermal resistor). These devices are made with a semiconductor material and have either a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a negative temperature coefficient (NTC). They give a large change in resistance over their operating range, although they are limited to uses where the temperature doesnt exceed a few hundred degrees Celsius. Thermistors are made in many styles. Those shown in Figure 4 are the evacuated glass bulb (no air inside) and the disc type. Both come in various sizes. In the glass bulb type, the resistance element is in a vacuum. As a vacuum cannot conduct heat, this type of thermistor doesnt change resistance with external temperature variations. Instead, it changes resistance by the heating effect of the current passing through the element. Currents less than a few milliamps will cause a resistance change, and this type of thermistor is mainly used in electronic circuits. Thermistors are often used to protect an electric motor against overheating. In small electric motors, a PTC thermistor is embedded inside the windings and connected so the motor current passes through the thermistor. If the temperature of the windings rises above a certain value, the resistance of the thermistor will quickly increase (from a low resistance to several thousand ohms), reducing the motor current to almost zero. In other words, the thermistor behaves almost like a switch that turns off when the temperature is too high. When the motor cools down, the resistance of the thermistor drops, letting the motor run. In larger motors, the thermistor is connected to operate a switch that cuts off power to the motor.
12
Figure 3 Temperature probe with a resistance winding of thin platinum wire
Figure 4 The glass bulb and disc type thermistor
Because they are relatively sensitive to temperature changes, thermistors are also used in temperature-measuring systems. Given suitable protection, a thermistor can be used as the sensor for an oil temperature or water temperature gauge in a motor car. The symbol and resistance change characteristic for the NTC and the PTC thermistor are shown in Figure 5. The curve for the PTC type shows how the resistance actually drops for a small rise in temperature then rises rapidly once a certain temperature is reached. As the curves show, thermistors are generally non-linear and have a linear response only for small temperature changes.
+ to Resistance Resistance
to
PTC
NTC
Temperature oC
Temperature oC
Figure 5 symbols and resistance versus temperature curves for the PTC and NTC thermistor
13
Light-dependent resistors
Light-sensitive devices have a number of uses in electrical and electronic circuits. The light-dependent resistor (LDR) consists of a thin ceramic disc sintered with cadmiumsulphide. Sintering is the process of using heat to combine two materials. Cadmiumsulphide is a photo-conductive material, which means its resistance is affected by light. A vacuum-deposited metallic grid is applied to the surface of the disc and the whole assembly is then covered in clear plastic. The resistance of LDRs in complete darkness is over 10 million ohms (10 M), which falls to less than 100 ohms in normal daylight. They are used in light meters and automatic exposure controls in cameras. LDRs are also used as a light sensor in automatically controlled lighting installations, where the increase in resistance of the LDR is used to switch on the lights at sunset. The LDR is connected to operate a relay, which in turn switches the lights. When its daylight, the resistance of the LDR falls, switching off the relay that controls the lights. The LDR has a time lag between changes in light to a change in resistance. It takes about 10 milliseconds for an LDR to respond to a change from total darkness to daylight. In this case, the resistance of the LDR drops. However, it takes over one second for the resistance to increase when the light is removed. Therefore, the LDR is not used to detect fast changes of light. This is useful, as flashes of lightning in the night are too fast to cause the LDR to turn off the lights. The construction, symbol and response curve of an LDR is shown in Figure 6. A typical LDR is about the size of a five cent piece. As the response curve shows, the LDR is a non-linear resistor.
Resistance - ohms 10 M
Symbol Response curve
100 Dark Daylight
Light intensity
Figure 6 The LDR symbol, construction and response curve
14
Voltage-dependent resistors
A voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), as the name suggests, is a component in which the voltage across the device affects its resistance. VDRs are usually made from silicon carbide, which is mixed with a ceramic material formed into either a disc or a rod. The assembly is fired at a high temperature and covered with a protective insulation. The main use of VDRs (or varistor) is to protect a circuit from a voltage surge. In principle, when the voltage across a VDR goes over a certain value, the resistance of the VDR will quickly drop to a very low value. If the voltage surge lasts long enough, the large current flowing in the VDR will blow the circuit fuse (or trip a circuit breaker) and isolate the circuit from the supply. If the surge is very brief, the energy contained in the surge will be dissipated by the VDR without blowing the fuse. A VDR is therefore given two ratings: the break-over voltage and the energy (in joules) it can dissipate. Voltage ratings vary from 5V to several hundred volts. A typical voltage rating for a VDR connected across the 230V AC mains supply is 275V. A VDR is connected across (or in parallel with) the circuit it is protecting as illustrated in Figure 7. Notice that the VDR is connected after the fuse.
fuse
230 V mains
VDR
Figure 7 A VDR is connected so that it will cause the fuse to blow if the voltage to the circuit is too high
VDRs are also used as surge diverters in overhead power supply lines by connecting them from each line to a metal stake driven into the ground. If the lines are struck by lighting, the VDRs divert the voltage surge to the ground, minimising or preventing damage to equipment connected to the lines. The shape and size of a VDR determines the amount of energy it can dissipate. Large VDRs are made by combining a number of smaller ones. VDRs used as voltage protection devices with low power electrical or electronic equipment are about 2.5 cm in diameter, and look like those shown in Figure 8. Surge diverters used to protect large electric motors or mains supply lines are much larger as they need to be able to dissipate lots of energy.
V Construction Symbol
Figure 8 Typical construction and symbol of VDR
15
Although not shown, the resistance of a VDR is non-linear. The usual way of showing the electrical behaviour of a VDR is with a graph that plots current against voltage, rather than showing resistance versus voltage. The response time of a VDR is very fast an important characteristic if it is to give enough protection against a voltage surge caused by a lighting strike. You can buy 230V plugs fitted with VDRs. These plug into a power point and protect an appliance connected to the power point from a voltage surge these are especially useful if a computer is connected to the power point.
Resistor colour code

Fixed value resistors are made in size to suit the power rating of the resistor. Those shown in Figure 9 are typical low power resistors with a power rating on one watt or less. Because these resistors are so small, it is not possible to print their resistance value on the body of the resistor. Rating 0.25 Watt 0.5 Watt 1 Watt
Figure 9 Lowpower resistors; their value indicated with a colour code
Resistor size
Instead, a series of coloured bands are painted around the body of the resistor, as shown on the resistors. Each colour represents a number and the resistance value is therefore determined by reading the colour code. Larger resistors have their resistance value marked with numbers. There are two types of resistors that use colour codes: general purpose resistors and precision resistors. The difference between these two resistors is their tolerance value. Tolerance refers to how close the actual value of the resistor is to its marked value. For example, a resistor might be coded as having a resistance of 1000 ohms with a tolerance of 10%. This means the maker guarantees the actual value wont be more than 10% higher or lower than 1000 ohms. As 10% of 1000 is 100, the actual value of the resistor could be anywhere between 900 ohms (1000 100) to 1100 ohms (1000 + 100). General purpose resistors are those with a tolerance of 5% or more. Precision resistors have a tolerance of less than 5%, usually 2% or 1%. General purpose resistors have their value indicated with four bands, and precision resistors have five bands. The last band is always the tolerance band. The two types of resistors and what each band represents are shown in Figure 10.
16
2ND significant figure 1ST significant figure
Multiplier Tolerance
General purpose fourband colour code

3RD significant figure Multiplier Tolerance
2ND significant figure 1ST significant figure
Precision fiveband colour code Figure 9 Colour bands for four and five band resistors
The colours used in the resistor colour code are shown in Table 1. (You dont need to remember this table, but you should know how to use it). Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver None Significant figures 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Multiplier 1 (100) 10 (101) 100 (102) 1 000 (103) 10 000 (104) 100 000 (105) 1 000 000 (106) 1 0.1 (10 ) 0.01 (102) Tolerance 1% 2%
5% 10% 20%
Table 1 Resistor colour code
17
The following examples show how to use the colour code. The first two bands (or three for precision resistors) are given a number, the next band is the multiplier and the last (on the right) is the tolerance band.
brown 1
red
yellow
gold
brown black black 1 0 x1
silver 10%
2 x 10,000 5%
= 120,000 ohm or 120 k 5%
= 10 ohm 10%
yellow violet gold 4 7 x 0.1
gold 5%
brown 1
red 2
black 0
brown x 10
red 2%
= 4.7 ohm 5%
= 1,200 ohm or 1.2 k 2%

Figure 11 Using the resistor colour code
Resistivity
Because each different type of conductor has a different atomic construction, each conductor has a different electrical resistance. Previously (NUE052 Applied Electricity 1), it was stated that R l and R 1 A . Combining both of these gives:
R l A
Length and cross-sectional area are the standard physical sizes for comparison purposes and each is applied to the various types of materials in order to compare their resistances. The unit for length is the metre (m) and for area the square metre (m2). This means that theoretically each type of material is made up into a block 1 m long with a cross-sectional area of 1 m2. the resistance is then measured along its length at a specified temperature and the value becomes the reference or standard. The formula R 1 A is thus expressed in the form:
R=
l
A
where (pronounced rho) = resistivity. The resistivity for a material is defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a 1 metre cube at a specified temperature.
18
In practice a block of material 1 m x 1 m x 1 m is cumbersome and expensive so a smaller sample of material is used and the resistance value obtained adjusted mathematically to the base size. Knowing the resistivity of any material, the resistance of any conductor can be calculated, due allowances being made for temperature differences where necessary. In Table 2, some electrical materials are listed, together with their resistivity value. The resistivity values given in the table are the resistance values between opposite faces of a 1 m x 1 m x 1 m cube at 20oC. the units are given in ohmmetres rather than as ohms/m3 because by transposition, the formula R = l A can be written as = (RA) l . Using units (R = , A = m2, l = m) this becomes:
=
xmxm = m m
Conductor aluminium copper gold lead platinum silver steel German silver advance manganin Nichrome constantan carbon germanium silicon paper mica Teflon porcelain glass
Resistivity () at 20oC in ohm metres 2.83 x 108 1.725 x 108 2.32 x 108 2.04 x 108 10.09 x 108 1.62 x 108 16.6 x 108 33 x 108 49 x 108 48 x 108 112 x 108 47 x 108 5 x 105 5.5 x 101 5.5 x 102 1 x 1010 2 x 1014 1 x 1015 1 x 1016 8 x 1016
Pure metals used for conductors
Alloys used as resistance wire
Semiconductors
Insulators
Table 2 Resistivity of selected materials
19
Self help questions

1. Which of the materials in Table 2 has the least resistance? 2. Which of the materials in Table 2 has the most resistance? As you can see from Table 2, copper will have less resistance than steel. This explains why the most common material used for wire in electronics is copper. On the other hand, carbon is commonly used in the manufacture of resistors, Insulators, which have a very high resistance prevent the flow of electricity. 3. List five items from Table 2 that will make good insulators. Insulators are materials such as plastic, ceramic and mica. Each has its own use, determined by its characteristics. Engineers will select the best material for a particular job. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conductors Aluminium Brass Copper Gold Silver Solder Steel Insulators Ceramics Glass Mica Neon Plastic Wood Paper Distilled Water Teflon Fibreglass Semi-conductors Germanium Silicon Carbon
Table 3 Conductors, insulators and semi-conductors
Note: Semi-conductors have resistance somewhere between a conductor and an insulator. The makers of transistors and integrated circuits use germanium and silicon. You will learn more about these materials and their use in other modules in the course.
20
Resistivity is abbreviated by the Greek letter rho (p). The greater the value of a materials resistivity, the greater the amount of resistance offered by that material to current flow. The formula for the amount of resistance offered by a piece of material is:
R=
l
A
Where:
R is the resistance in ohms l is the length of the material in metres A is the cross-sectional area in metres squared (m2) is the resistivity of the material
Example What is the resistance of a 2 m length of copper wire that has a cross-sectional area of 0.5 x 106 m2?
R= l A 2 0.5 x 10 -6
= 1.72 x 10 8 = 0.0688
Notice the resistance is very small; this is what is required for a conductor that connects component together. The connecting wires in a circuit should have as little resistance as possible. 4. What is the resistance of a 2rn length of copper wire that has a cross sectional area of 1.0 x 10 m2?
5. What is the resistance of a block of germanium that is 0.4 cm long and is 1.2 cm wide and 1.25 cm high? Note: The cross-sectional area A = width x height
You can see from the formula and from Figure 12 that as cross-sectional area (A) increases the resistance of the material decreases. If both wires are equal in length, the
21
resistance of the wire in Figure 12 (b) is half that of the wire in Figure 12 (a) because its cross-sectional area has doubled. (a)
Copper wire A = 0.5 mm2
R=x
(b)
Copper wire
A = 1.0 mm2
R=
x 2
Figure 12 Relationship of resistance to area
Why then arent we surrounded by very thick copper wires, for telephone and power distribution to our homes? The answer is simple; there are other factors to think about when selecting materials and sizes for a particular project. Things such as cost, weight, availability, strength and many more all have to be considered. 6. What is the resistance of a 100 m length of copper wire that has a crosssectional resistance area of 0.25 x 106 m2?
7. What is the resistance of a 100 m length of gold wire that has a cross-sectional area of 0.25 x 106 m2?
8. What is the resistance of a 100 m length of tungsten wire that has a crosssectional area of 0.25 x 106 m2?
The copper wire is the one with the least resistance of the three in these Self Help Questions. There are specialist applications however, where the tungsten or the gold wires would be preferred. You will learn about these applications later. What happens to the resistance of the wire if we decrease the length of the wire? Well use similar wire to Self Help Questions 6, 7 and 8.
22
9. What is the resistance of a 50 m length of copper wire that has a crosssectional area of 0.25 x 106 m2?
10. What is the resistance of a 200 m length of copper wire that has a crosssectional area of 0.25 x 106 m2?
It can be seen from Figure 13, if the length of wire is halved, the resistance of each piece becomes half that of the original length, provided everything else remains constant.
x 2
(a)
Copper wire
l = 50 m
R=
(b)
Copper wire
l = 100 m
R=x
Figure 12 Relationship of resistance to area
If the wire is replaced with a wire having twice the length, then the resistance will be doubled. This again assumes that all other characteristics remain the same. Resistance is directly proportional to length. That is, any increase (or decrease) in length will give an increase (or decrease) in resistance by the same amount. You should also have learnt that resistance is inversely proportional to area. That is, any increase (or decrease) in area will give a decrease (or increase) in resistance by the same amount.
23
Summary
Resistance is the opposition that an electrical circuit offers to current flow. As circuit resistance increases, circuit current decreases. As circuit resistance decreases, circuit current increases. There is no current flow if a circuit is open circuit. Materials with a valence number of 1 are good conductors of electricity. Materials with a valence number of 8 are poor conductors of electricity. Materials with a valence number of 4 are semi-conductors. Resistivity is the specific resistance rating of a material. It shows a materials ability to oppose current. Resistance is directly proportional to the length of material, and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of material.
R=
l
A
SI units used to express common electronic units. Engineering notation is a short hand method of writing large and small numbers. Prefixes are used to express multiples and sub-multiples of numbers.
24
Unit test
1. List three quantities that are common to all electrical/electronic circuits. a. b. c. 2. What is the name given to the quantity that opposes current flow? 3. A circuit having a greater resistance will offer less opposition to the flow of current. True / False 4. State the three factors that determine the resistance of a material. 5. a. b. c. Question 5 to 10 related to the following table: Table 1 Resistivity of Common Electrical Materials Material Aluminium Carbon Copper Gold Nichrome Silver Steel Resistivity (in -m) at 20C 2.83 x 108 5000 x 108 1.725 x 108 2.32 x 108 112 x 108 1.62 x 108 16.6 x 108
6. Which of the following would be preferred as resistance wire? a. Gold b. Nichrome c. Silver d. Copper
25
7. Which of the following is the most commonly used for electrical wire? a. Gold b. Nichrome c. Silver d. Copper 8. Which of the following materials is commonly used to make resistors? a. Carbon b. Aluminium c. Copper d. Gold 9. The resistivity of steel is 16.6 x 108 m. What will be the resistance of a round steel bar that is 25 cm long and has a cross-sectional area of 2 x 106 m2?
10. A nichrome wire resistor of 25 ohms is needed. What length of wire, having a cross- sectional area of 2.5 x 107 m2 would be needed?
L = ______________ 11. A 2.6m length of copper wire has a resistance of 0.0598 ohms. What is the cross-sectional area of the wire?
A = _____________ 12. A length of gold wire is cut in half. What happens to its resistive value?
13. A copper conductor is replaced by another copper conductor that has greater cross-sectional area than the original. What change will have occurred in resistance of the conductor?
26
Review questions
1. If the length of a conductor is increased, the resistance of the conductor 2. A conductor with a cross-sectional area of 2 mm2 has a ________________ resistance than a conductor with a cross-sectional area of 4 mm2. 3. As the temperature of a copper conductor rises, the resistance of the conductor 4. An aluminium conductor has _________________resistance than a copper conductor of the same dimensions. 5. A positive temperature coefficient of resistance means the resistance of the material ______________________if the temperature increases. 6. Most semiconductor materials have a _____________________ temperature coefficient of resistance. 7. A thermistor with a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) will _____________ in resistance if the temperature rises. 8. A varistor (or VDR) is a component whose resistance changes with ____________ 9. The resistance of an LDR _________________________ as the light intensity increases. 10. A VDR is used to protect electrical and electronic equipment against damage caused by 11. A 100 ohm variable resistor that has a resistance of 15 ohms when the wiper is moved half-way has a _______________ resistance element. 12. A 470 ohm resistor with a tolerance of 10% has a colour code (left to right) of:
14. The resistor shown below has a resistance of __________ohms and a tolerance of ___________ %.
orange white red
gold
15. A 680 ohm, 10% resistor could have a resistance as high as ________ ohms. 16. A four band resistor with all bands coloured red, except the tolerance band which is gold, has a resistance of _______ohms.
27
17. The five band resistor shown below has a resistance of _______ohms and a tolerance of ______%.
blue
red
black orange
red
18. A wire-wound resistor has a higher rating than a carbon-film resistor. 19. Resistor values are usually limited to the ___________________ range of values. 20. Before a resistance value is measured with an analogue ohmmeter, the meter probes should be connected together and the meter pointer adjusted with the OHMS ADJ to read __________ohms. 21. When measuring resistance with an ohmmeter, its important not to ______________ both probes at the same time.
28
Series Resistive Circuits

In a series-connected circuit there is only one path for the current flow when from the higher potential terminal to the lower potential terminal. Any one piece of apparatus will never have more than one conductor connected to each connecting terminal.
Resistance in a series circuit

When an electrical circuit is connected so that there is only one path through which current can flow the circuit is said to be connected in series.
R1 R2
Applied Voltage
R3
R5
R4
Figure 1
The value of the resistance can be shown in a number of ways:

R2
Component identification code and value shown together on the diagram. Component identification code on the diagram and a table of components and their values listed elsewhere either on the diagram or in a separate document.
100 k R2
Current drawing standards state that the component identification and value should be located alongside the related drawing symbol; however, older drawings may show either the component identification or the component value inside the related symbol.
29
Calculations
The total resistance to the flow of current in a series circuit can be obtained by adding together the value of each individual resistance.
R1 3 R2 2
Applied Voltage
R3 1
R5 6
R4 4
Figure 2
Therefore the formula for calculating total resistance in a series circuit can be written thus: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 In the above example:
RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5 RT = 3 + 2 + 1 + 4 + 6 = 16 ohms
Current in a series circuit.

The current is a series circuit has only one path through which to flow. Therefore the value of the current must be the same through each component in the circuit. Ammeter measurements taken at any point around a series circuit will show the same value of current flowing at all points.
R1 2A 3 2A R2 2 2A
Applied Voltage
R3 1
2A R5 2A 6 R4
2A
Figure 3
30
Voltage across a series circuit

The value of the applied voltage shown in Figure 3 is the value of supply voltage applied across the whole circuit to make a current of 2A flow in that circuit. The value of the applied voltage will decrease as the current is forced through the various resistances. This loss of voltage is known as the voltage drop.
R1 3 VR1 R2 2 VR2 R3 1 VR5 R5 6 VR4 R4 4
VT
Applied Voltage
VR3
Figure 4
By connecting a voltmeter across each resistance as shown in Figure 5 it will be seen that the voltage is different in each case because of the drop in voltage over the different values of resistors. When the five voltage readings are added together the sum will be found to equal the applied voltage. Hence the total voltage applied is equal to the sum of voltage drops. (May be expressed as Vd), i.e. VTotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 This is often expressed as Kirchhoffs Voltage Law. It is possible to calculate the voltage drop across each resistance, if the value of current and resistance are known, by using Ohms Law. N.B. A neat methodical approach is a must when calculating unknown values using Ohms Law. Example: A circuit consisting of 5 resistances each; 3 ohm, 2 ohm, 1 ohm, 4 ohm and 6 ohm respectively are connected in series to a 32V supply voltage. Calculate: a. The total resistance b. The total current flowing through the circuit c. The value of the voltage drops across each resistance. N.B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. When attempting a problem involving Ohms Law the following methodical approach should be adopted. Read the question. Make sure you understand the question. Draw the circuit and mark in known details. Calculate the required values. If necessary redraw the circuit with calculated values.
31

R1 3 R2 2
32 V
R3 1
R5 6
R4 4
Figure 5
a. Total resistance:
RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5 = 3 + 2 +1+ 4 + 6 = 16 ohm
b. The total current flowing through the circuit:

IT = = VT RT
32 16 =2 A
c. The value of the voltage drops across each resistance: Using Ohms law: I =
V R
Transpose to make V the subject (that is on the top line on its own) Multiply both sides by R
I xR= V xR R
Cancel R on the right-hand side: I x R = V For convenience, the formula may be written as:
V = IR
VR1:
V = IR = (2)(3) = 6V
32
VR2:
V = IR = (2)(2) = 4V
V = (2 )(1) = 2V V = (2)(4) = 8V V = (2 )(6 ) = 12V
VR3: VR4: VR5: VT:
VT = V R1 + V R 2 + V R 3 + V R 4 + V R 5 = 6 + 4 + 2 + 8 + 12 = 32V
Power in a series circuit

R1 2A 3 2A R2 2 2A
32 V
R3 1
2A R5 6 2A R4 4
2A
Figure 6
From your previous Ohms Law work, you discovered that the power consumed in a circuit could be easily calculated using the formula:
P = VI P = I 2R P= V2 R
In a series circuit such as that in Figure 6, all the values of V, I and R are known; and so you can easily determine the power consumed by each resistor. In a series circuit the sum of all the power values is equal to the total power consumed by the circuit.
PT = PR1 + PR 2 + PR 3 + PR 4 + PR 5
33
Now calculate the power for each resistor and the total circuit power: Example
PR1 = I 2 R = (2) (3) = (4)(3)
2
= 12W
Now calculate the power in each of the remaining resistors, R2, R3, R4, and R5 and then obtain the total power used by the circuit. PR2 = ________ PR3 = _________ PR4 = ________ PR5 = _________
PT = __________________________ If any of the resistors was to be shorted out, then the current flowing in the circuit would increase due to the reduced resistance. This extra current flowing in a series circuit will cause the power being consumed by the remaining resistors to increase also. This could pose a danger to the circuit because the power rating of the resistors left in the circuit may be exceeded, causing them to burn out.
34
Unit test
1. Calculate the total resistance of three (3) resistances, of 2.5 ohms; 4.3 ohm and 3.2 ohm respectively, connected in series.
2. If a supply voltage of 40 volts were applied to the above circuit, what would be the total current flow through the circuit?
3. An electrical appliance draws a current of 8 amps from a 240 volt supply. What is the resistance of the appliance?
4. The current in a series resistive circuit: a. Changes at each resistance b. Remains the same throughout the circuit c. Drops in value around the circuit d. Is inversely proportional to the voltage. 5. Voltage drops and applied voltage in a series circuit have the same value. True / False
35
Review questions
For each question, circle the response you consider best answers the question. 1. A series circuit has: a. One current path. b. One component. c. Many current paths. d. Nothing to do with current paths. 2. Current in a series circuit is: a. Always zero. b. Always the same for every component. c. Different for components of differing resistances. d. Different for components of equivalent resistance. 3. If the voltage supply to a series circuit decreased by half and the circuit resistance remains the same, the total circuit current will: a. Decrease to zero. b. Decrease by half. c. Double. d. Remain the same. 4. The total resistance of a series circuit s equal to the: a. Sum of the circuit resistances. b. Reciprocal of sum of the circuit resistances. c. Largest resistance value. d. Average of the resistance values. 5. In a series circuit containing ten lamps, the equivalent resistance of the circuit, if one lamp is burnt out will be: a. Zero. b. Infinity. c. Nine times the resistance of one lamp. d. The same as it was before the lamp burnt out. 6. The voltage that will be indicated by a voltmeter across an open-circuit component is a series circuit will be: a. Zero volts. b. A voltage of reversed polarity. c. The applied voltage. d. Impossible to measure. 7. In a series circuit containing two lamps, lamp 1 is on and lamp 2 is off. The fault is: a. Lamp 1 is a short-circuit. b. Lamp 2 is a short-circuit. c. Lamp 1 is an open-circuit. d. Lamp 2 is an open-circuit.
36
8. In a series circuit operating from a 6V supply, two lamps are connected in series, and both lamps are off. If a voltage of 6V is measured across lamp 1 and CV is measured across lamp 2, the fault is: a. Lamp 1 is a short-circuit. b. Lamp 2 is a short-circuit. c. Lamp 1 is an open-circuit. d. Lamp 2 is an open-circuit. 9. In a series circuit, the applied voltage is equal to the: a. Equivalent resistance multiplied by the circuit current. b. Difference of all the individual voltage drops. c. Square of the current multiplied by the equivalent resistance. d. Equivalent resistance divided by the circuit current. 10. The voltage drop across each resistor in a series circuit is: a. Always the same. b. Inversely proportional to the total circuit current. c. Inversely proportional to the supply voltage. d. Proportional to the resistance of each resistor. For the following questions, include a circuit diagram in your answer. All answers should be expressed using the correct units. 11. A circuit contains two resistors, R1 and R2 connected in series. If R1 equals 30 ohms, R2 equals 500 ohms and the applied voltage is 200V, calculate the voltage drop across R1.
12. Three lamps are connected in series across a 100V supply. If the circuit current is 2A and the resistance of two of the lamps totals 32 ohms, calculate the resistance of the third lamp.
37
13. Fourteen lamps used for Christmas decorations, each rated at 4W, 20V are connected in series across a 280V supply. Calculate: a. The resistance of each lamp. b. The total resistance of the circuit. c. The total circuit current drawn from the supply. d. The current flowing in each lamp. 14. Three resisters, R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series with a battery. If the resistor values are R1 = 1.2k ohm, R2 = 850 ohm, R3 = 350 ohm and the voltage drop across R2 is 16V, calculate: a. The voltage drops across R1 and R3. b. The battery voltage.
15. For the circuit of figure 1 determine the voltage between points: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. A and B B and C A and C D and E B and E E and F D and F C and F A and E A and F
240 V
E coil
Figure 1
16. For the circuit of figure2 calculate: a. The total circuit resistance. b. The voltage drop across each resistor. c. The supply voltage VT. d. The power dissipated by each resistor. e. The total power dissipated by the circuit. f. The value of the circuit current if resistor R2 is short circuited.
IT = 1 mA
R1 2k
VT
R2 6k
R3 7k
Figure 2
38
17. For the circuit of figure 3, calculate: a. The circuit current. A b. The voltage drop across R1. c. The value of R1. d. The voltage drop across R3. e. The power dissipated by each resistor. f. The total power dissipated by the circuit.
R1
R2 1k
R3 D 2k
40 V 60 V
Figure 3
18. For figure 4: a. Complete the circuit so that: The three resistors are connected in series. The ammeter indicates the circuit current. The voltmeter indicates the voltage across R2. The wattmeter indicates in circuit power. The switch controls the circuit current. b. Determine the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter readings. c. Indicate with an arrow the direction of the current (use conventional current flow).
R1 470
W
V1 V2
+
100 V
+ A
R1 2.2 k R2 1k
+ V
Figure 4
19. The current in a circuit containing three series connected resistors is: a. The sum of the currents in each resistor. b. Proportional to the total resistance of the circuit. c. Inversely proportional to the voltage applied to the circuit. d. The same in all parts of the circuit.
39
20. If the resistance in a series circuit is doubled and the supply voltage is doubled the circuit current will: a. Double. b. Remain the same. c. Increase by four times. d. Decrease by four times. 21. If five lamps are connected in series, and the third lamp becomes open-circuit: a. Lamps one and two go out and lamps four and five remain on. b. All lamps except the third lamp remain on. c. All lamps go out. d. The fuse protecting the circuit will blow. 22. If a current of 12A flows in a circuit containing three series connected resistors each of the same value and two of the resistors become a short-circuit, the current will equal: a. 36A. b. 4A. c. 12A. d. zero. 23. Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit of Figure 5.
R1 47 Req R3 100 R2 68
Figure 5
24. For the circuit of figure 6 calculate the applied voltage.

25V Iconventional R1
VT
VT = ?
R2
15V
Figure 6
40
25. The circuit of figure 7 has a total current, IT, of 250 mA. Determine the currents indicated by the three ammeters.
Lamp 1 IT A1 A2
Lamp 2 Lamp 3 A3
Figure 7
26. Redraw the circuit of figure 8 to include the following: a. An ammeter to measure circuit current. b. A voltmeter to measure the applied voltage. c. A voltmeter to measure the voltage drop across resistor R3. d. An ammeter to measure the current through resistor R2.
R1
+
VT = 20 V
470 R2 820 R3 1200
Figure 8
27. For the circuit of figure 9, given that V1 = 8.4 V, V2 = 12.3 V and V3 = 5.85 V, calculate the: a. Applied voltage. b. Equivalent resistance of the circuit. c. Circuit current.
V1 R1 56
VT = ?
R2 82
V2
R3 39 V3
Figure 9
41
28. Determine the value of the unknown resistance R2 in the circuit of figure 10.
R1 25 Req = 445 R3 150 R2
Figure 10
29. Calculate the voltage drop across resistor R1 in the circuit of figure 11.
V1 IT R1
VT
VT = 30 V
R2
17V
Figure 11
30. For the circuit of figure 12, determine the voltmeter reading for the following switch conditions: a. Both switches A and B open. b. Both switches A and B closed. c. Switch A open and switch B closed. d. Switch A closed and switch B open.
V A B
VT = 32 V
32 V lamp
Figure 12
42
Parallel Resistive Circuits

When an electrical circuit is connected so that there are two or more paths through which current can flow the circuit is said to be connected in parallel.
IT I1 I2,3 I2 I3 I3
R1
R2
R3
IT
I2,3
I3
Figure 1
This form of parallel connection is the method generally used in electrical wiring installations in homes, shops etc. The reason for this will become more evident as the module progresses.
Calculations
If a 6 ohm resistance is connected across a 12 V supply a current of 2 amps will flow.
2A
I=
V R 12 = 6 = 2A
12 V
R 6
2A
However, if a second 6 ohm resistance is connected into the circuit in parallel the current through this resistance must also be 2 amps as the applied voltage is the same, as shown in Figure 2.
IT 2A 12 V R 6 2A R 6
Figure 2
43
The total current leaving the source divides at point A and a portion of the current flows through each resistance. The currents rejoin at Point B and return to the source of supply. If R2 takes a similar current to R1, then the total current in figure 2 is higher than the total current in figure 1. If the total current increases whilst the supply voltage remains constant then the only other factor which could cause an increase in current would be for the total resistance to decrease. The total value of resistance can be found by calculation using Ohms Law.
I1 = V1 R1 V1 V2 + R1 R2 V V + R1 R2 & I2 = V2 R2
I T = I1 + I 2 =
However V1 = V2 = V for a parallel circuit IT = =
12 12 + 6 6 =2+2 IT = 4A RT = = V IT
12 4 = 3
An alternative and more direct method of finding the total resistance of a parallel circuit is to use the conductance of the branches (Remember! Conductance is the opposite of resistance and is expressed as the reciprocal of the resistance). Conductance G = Referring to Figure 2:
GT = G1 + G 2 = GT = So 1 1 + R1 R2 1 RT
1 R
1 1 1 = + RT R1 R2
44
For the circuit in figure 2:

1 1 1 = + RT R1 R2 1 1 + 6 6 1 1+1 = 6 RT = RT = 6 = 3 2
Selecting the lowest common denominato r (LCD) Invert both sides
This is the most common formula, but, when using a modern calculator, it may not be necessary to use the method of determining the Lowest Common Denominator. Obtaining the inverse of each parallel resistance using the inverse function button on the calculator (x1) and adding the inverse of each parallel leg of resistance in the circuit and finish the calculation by taking the inverse of the answer will provide the total resistance of the circuit. For the circuit in figure 2, typical steps using a scientific calculator would be: Step Display 6 6 x1 61 + 61 + 6 61 + 6 x1 61 + 61 = 0.33333333
Depending on the brand of calculator, the inverse function may be a direct keypress or a shiftkeypress. When the inverse of each parallel resistance has been summed, obtain the inverse of the answer and the result is the total resistance for the parallel circuit. Step Display 6 6 x1 61 + 61 + 6 61 + 6 x1 61 + 61 = 0.33333333 x1 0.33333333 = 3
Where a circuit contains only two resistances in parallel, the following formula can be applied:
1 1 1 = + RT R1 R2 The lowest common denominato r for the left - hand side is : R1 R2 1 1 + R R2 R2 + R1 1 = 1 = RT R1 R2 R1 R2 Inverting both sides of the equation gives : 1 1 = R2 + R1 1 RT R1 R2 RT = R1 R2 R2 + R1 usually written as : RT = R1 R2 R1 + R2
45
Example Determine the total resistance between terminals A and B

A
R1 150
R2 100
Solution:
1 1 1 = + RT R1 R2 = 1 1 + 150 100
1 = 0.66666667 RT RT = 1 0.66666667 = 60
Did you follow the work above? It can be simplified using the calculator and the following button sequence will apply to most calculators.
1 5 0 x1 + 1 0 0 x1 = x1 =
150
1 150
1 1 + 150 100
1 1 1 + 150 100
100
1 100
= 60
Calculator button sequence to calculate parallel resistance
46
Example Determine the resistance of a 10 and a 10 k connected in parallel.

1 0 EXP 3 x1 + 1 0 x1 = x
1
10 10,000
1 10000
1
+
10
1 10
1 1 + 10000 10
= 9.9900099
Example Determine the resistance of a 10 k and a 10 k in parallel.
47
It should be noted that the value of the equivalent or total resistance in a parallel circuit is always LESS than the value of the smallest resistance in the circuit.
R 6
R 6
R 3
Figure 3
Current in a parallel circuit

As previously mentioned when referring to Figure 2, the current divides and portions of the current flow through the various resistances and then rejoin to return to the source of supply. It can therefore be said that the total current is the sum of individual currents around the circuit. This can be written as
I T = I 1 + I 2 + .... + I n
IT I1 12 V R1 6 I2 R2 6
Figure 4
I1 =
=
V R1
I2 =
=
V R2
IT =
=
V RT
12 6 =2 A
12 6 =2 A
12 3 =4 A
I T = I1 + I 2
OR
=2+2 =4 A
48
Power in a parallel circuit

IT I1 I2,3 I2 I3 I3
R1
R2
R3
IT
I2,3
I3
Power calculations in a parallel circuit are also performed using the same formulae as described in Ohms law:
P = VI P = I 2R P= V2 R
Total power can be calculated when either supply voltage, total resistance and/or total current are known. It can also be found from the sum of the individual power values for each resistor.
PT = P1 + P2 + ... + Pn
If a resistor in a parallel circuit were to fail open-circuit, it would have no effect on the power consumed by the other resistors, but naturally, the total power consumed by the circuit would decrease. If however a resistor failed short-circuit, then that branch would cause extra current to be drawn from the supply, thus increasing the total power consumed by the circuit to a point where circuit protection would operate.
49
Voltage in a parallel circuit

As all the Branch Circuits (Resistances) are connected to the same point the voltage, or volt drop, across each branch is the same.
A
R1
R2
R3
Figure 5
This might also be drawn as:
Figure 6
Or:
Figure 7
These three circuits are the same and it can be seen from them that the supply voltage is applied across each of the three resistances from one point. So it can be said that the value of the supply voltage is also the value of each individual volt drop. Or
VT = V R1 = V R 2 = V R 3 etc
50
Summary of characteristics of parallel circuits

1. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the lowest value resistance in the circuit. 2. The total current in the circuit is the sum of all the Branch Currents. 3. The voltage is the same in all parts of the circuit. In symbolic representation:
1 1 1 1 = + + ... + RT R1 R2 Rn
I T = I 1 + I 2 + ... + I n
V = V R1 = V R 2 = V R 3 = ... = V Rn
PT = P1 + P2 + ... + Pn
Also, PT = V x I T
51
Unit test
1. Calculate the total resistance of three (3) resistances of 4 ohm; 6 ohm and 5 ohm respectively connected in parallel.
2. Calculate the total current flow in the above circuit when a voltage of 12 volts is applied.
3. Current in a parallel resistive circuit remains the same in all parts of a circuit. True / False 4. The voltage in a parallel resistive circuit: a. Changes at each resistance; b. Remains the same in all parts of the circuit; c. Drops in value at each branch; d. Is directly proportional to the resistance. 5. A 25V heater has two elements, one of which is missing. If the resistance of the remaining element is measured to be 50 ohm, what must the resistance of a second element be when connected in parallel to maintain a current of 1 amp.
52
Review questions
For each question, circle the response you consider best answers the question. 1. A parallel circuit is different to a series circuit in that it has: a. Fewer current paths. b. A single current path. c. More than one current path. d. No current paths. 2. Components that are connected in parallel form: a. Several branches for current flow. b. A single path for the current. c. An open circuit. d. A voltage divider. 3. The total resistance in a parallel circuit is: a. Less than the smallest resistance. b. Equal to the average resistance. c. Equal to the sum of the individual resistances. d. Greater than the largest resistance. 4. The largest resistance in a parallel circuit will always have the: a. Highest voltage drop across it. b. Highest current flowing through it. c. Smallest voltage drop across it. d. Smallest current flowing through it. 5. If an open-circuit occurs in a parallel circuit, the total resistance will: a. Increase. b. Remain the same. c. Decrease. d. Be unpredictable. 6. In a parallel circuit containing two lamps, if lamp 1 is open-circuit: a. Both lamps will be off. b. Lamp 1 will be on and lamp 2 off. c. Both lamps will be on. d. Lamp 1 will be off and lamp 2 on. 7. In a circuit containing two resistors connected in parallel, if resistor R2 is conducting excessive current: a. Resistor R1 is open-circuit. b. Resistor R2 has a much reduced resistance. c. Resistor R2 is open-circuit. d. Resistor R1 has a much reduced resistance.
53
8. The lowest value of individual resistance in a parallel combination of resistors is always: a. Equal to the equivalent resistance of the combination. b. Less than the equivalent resistance of the combination. c. Dependent on the voltage and current for its resistance. d. Greater than the equivalent resistance of the combination. 9. In a parallel circuit containing two resistors, if one resistor is dissipating 6 W of power and the other is dissipating 10 W of power, the total power dissipation is: a. 3.75W. b. 4W. c. 16W. d. 60W. 10. Two resistors are connected in parallel, in which resistor R1 has twice the resistance of R2. The current taken by resistor R2 is: a. Two thirds of the total supply current. b. Twice that taken by resistor R1. c. One third of the total supply current. d. One half of the total supply current. For the following questions, include a circuit diagram in your answer. All answers should be expressed using the correct units. 11. Three resistors of 20, 40 and 110 ohms are connected parallel across a 200 DC supply. Calculate the: a. Equivalent resistance of the circuit. b. Current flowing in each resistor. c. Total current taken from the supply. d. Total power dissipated by the circuit.
12. A 4 ohm and a 6 ohm resistor are connected in parallel across a 60 V DC supply. Calculate the: a. Equivalent resistance of the circuit. b. Total current taken from the supply. c. Current flowing in the 6 ohm resistor. d. Power dissipated by the 4 ohm resistor. 13. If a 100 ohm resistor has 20 mA of current flowing through it, calculate the current that will flow in a 60 ohm resistor connected in parallel with the 100 ohm resistor
54
14. A parallel circuit containing three resistors of 1, 2 and 4 ohms respectively has a total circuit current of IT = 5.6 A. Calculate the current flowing in each resistor.
15. Calculate the value of the resistor that will give a total resistance of 4 ohms if it is connected in parallel with a 12 ohm resistor.
16. Complete Table 1 below for the five conditions listed for the circuit of Fig. 1.
IT
+
VT
I1 R1
I2 R2
Figure 1
Circuit condition 1 2 3 4 5 5W RT (ohms) R1 (ohms) 4 200 mA 12 M 20 M 3.8 41 1.58 A 1.9 A 1.5 W R2 (ohms) 6 5 mA
VT 10 V 20 V 100 V
IT
PT
I1
I2
P1
P2
Table 1
55
17. For the circuit of Figure 2, determine the voltage between points: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. A and C A and B C and B A and D D and B A and E E and B + and +
A
12 V
Figure 2
18. For figure 3: a. Complete the circuit so that: The three resistors are connected in parallel. The ammeter indicates the circuit current. The voltmeter indicates the voltage across the resistors. The wattmeter indicates the circuit power. The switch controls the circuit current. b. Determine the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter readings. c. Indicate with an arrow the direction of the current (use conventional current flow). d. Calculate the meter readings if a fourth resistor, R4, with a value of 100 ohms was connected in parallel with the other three resistors
W
V1 V2
12 V R1 120 R1 220 R2 470
+ V
Figure 3
56
19. In a parallel circuit, all components are directly connected to the 20. The total current in a parallel circuit equals the _____________of the branch currents. 21. The voltage across each component in a parallel circuit equals the ____________ 22. If theres an open-circuit in a component in a parallel circuit the total current taken by the circuit will ________________ 23. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the __________________ individual resistance value in the circuit. 24. The current in resistor R2 in the diagram on the right is ________mA. 25. The total resistance of the circuit on the right is _______ . 26. The total current taken by the circuit on the right is ____A. 27. Calculate quantities indicated: a. R1 ________ b. lR1 ________ c. R2 ________ d. IR2 ________ e. lT ________
V = 50 V
+
V = 30 V R1 100 R2 900
IR1 R1 10 IT
IR2 R2 10
28. Calculate quantities indicated: a. lR1 ________ b. R2 ________ c. lR2 ________ d. lT ________
V = 100 V
IR1 R1 20 IT
IR2 R2 20
57
29. Calculate quantities indicated a. lR1 ________ b. lR2 ________ c. lR3 ________ d. lT ________
V = 20 V IR1 R1 5 IT IR2 R2 5 IR3 R3 10
e. R1 ________ f. R2 ________ g. R3 ________
For each question, circle the response you consider best answers the question. 30. For a parallel circuit containing two resistors: a. VT = V1 V2 b. IT = I1 + I2 c. RT = R1 R2. d. VT = 1/V1 1/V2 31. A current of 10 A enters a junction that divides into two branches, with one branch taking 2 A. The other branch takes: a. 0.5 A b. 5 A c. 8 A d. 12 A 32. The unknown current in this diagram equals: a. 50 mA b. 230 mA c. 320 mA d. 520 mA
20 mA
200 mA
500 mA
? mA
33. In a parallel circuit the supply current equals the: a. Total power multiplied by the supply voltage. b. Sum of the branch currents. c. Supply voltage divided by the resistance of any one branch. d. Ratio of the branch currents 34. For the circuit shown, calculate the: a. Voltage across each resistor. b. Equivalent circuit resistance. c. Current taken from the supply. d. Current in the R3.
IT IR1 = 12 A IR1 = 5 A R1 25 R2 60 IR3 R3 100
+
V = 300 V
58
35. A 6 ohm and a 12 ohm resistor are connected in parallel across a 100 V supply. Calculate the: a. Equivalent resistance of the circuit. b. Current taken from the supply. c. Current in the 12 ohm resistor.
36. Determine the value of a parallel connected resistor required to reduce the resistance of a circuit from 10 ohms to 6 ohms.
37. Two resistors with the values of 4.7 k and 12 are connected in parallel. Calculate the: a. Equivalent resistance of the combination. b. The current taken from a 9 V supply.
38. Draw a circuit diagram that shows three resistors connected in parallel across a 60 V DC supply. Include an ammeter connected to measure the total circuit current. Given that the resistor values are R1 = 6 ohms, R2 = 8 ohms and R3 = 24 ohms, calculate the reading the ammeter should indicate.
59
Combined SeriesParallel Resistive Circuits

When three or more resistances are connected partly in series and partly in parallel the circuit is said to be a series/parallel connection. The combined series/parallel circuit is commonly found in practice. It may consist of parallel loads, with the series resistance being that of the supply lines, or it may consist of far more complicated circuits. In analysing combined circuits it is important to consider the components as separate parts of the whole and apply only those values to them that apply according to Ohms law. The circuit rules are those of the normal series or parallel circuits.
R1
R2
R3
Figure 1
Figure 1 shows the first of two basic series/parallel arrangements: a series resistance connected to a parallel combination:
R1 R2
R3
Figure 2
Figure 2 depicts the second basic arrangement: a series resistance connected in parallel with a series combination. With series/parallel networks no additional formulae are required. However, great care should be taken when making calculations. The combined circuit must be divided into simple series and parallel arrangements. Each part is calculated separately and then combined to obtain the required answer.
60
Example 1
R1 8 Req R2 4 R3 4
Figure 3
Calculate the total or equivalent resistance (Req) of the above series parallel circuit. Step 1 Determine the equivalent resistance of the parallel arrangement.
RT = = R 2 R3 R 2 + R3
(4)(4)
4+4 RT = 2
Step 2 Re-draw the circuit using the equivalent resistance.

R1 8 Req R2 // R3 2
The circuit is now a simple series circuit. Calculate the total resistance.
Req = 8 + 2 = 10
This means that a circuit with a single 10 ohm resistance is equivalent to the series/parallel combination in Figure 3.
Req 10
Figure 3
61
A straight mathematical solution can be calculated for the problem but care must be taken to avoid error, e.g.
Req = series + parallel = R1 + R2 // R3 = R1 + =8+ R 2 R3 R 2 + R3
(4)(4)
4+4 16 =8+ 8 =8+ 2 Req = 10
Example 2
R1 10 R3 4 R2 6
Figure 4
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 4. Again: Determine the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series.
R series = R1 + R2 R series = 10 + 6 = 16
Redraw the circuit using Rseries:

Rseries 16 R3 4
The circuit is now a simple parallel circuit and Req can be calculated using Ohms law for resistances connected in parallel.
62
The calculation required is:

Req = = R series R3 R series + R3
(16)(4)
16 + 4 64 = 20 Req = 3.2
A 3.2 ohm resistance is equivalent in value to the series/parallel network.

Req 3.2
The total resistance of more complex series/parallel circuits is calculated using exactly the same methods except that more steps will be needed. It is important that each step is calculated carefully and that at each stage the circuit is redrawn with the newly calculated values. (This may be dispensed with later as you become more competent at solving series/parallel problems). Example 3 Some circuits appear quite daunting at first sight, but by following the procedures already outlined, even the most complex circuits can be reduced step-by-step.
R3 6 R4 R1 6 R6 3 R2 3 4
R5 12
In above circuit, we start by reducing the series/parallel combination of R2, R4 and R5 to a single equivalent resistance:
63
Req1 = R2 + R4 // R5 4 + 12 Req1 = 3 + 3 = 6 =3+
(4)(12) = 3 + 48
16
Redrawing the circuit and replacing R2, R4 and R5 with their equivalent resistance gives:
R3 6
R1 6 R6 3
Req1 6
Examining the revised circuit, the next combination to reduce to a single equivalent resistance is R1 in series with R3 // Req1. The equivalent resistance for this network will be:
Req 2 = R1 + R3 // Req1 6+6 36 =6+ 12 =6+3 Req = 9 =6+
(6)(6)
Redrawing the circuit once again using the equivalent resistance for R1 in series with R3 // Req1 shows: Req2
9 R6 3
The final calculation can now be performed for R6 // Req2:
64
Req = =
R6 Req 2
(9)(3)
R6 + Req 2
9+3 Req = 2.25
So the original complex series/parallel network can be replaced by a single 2.25 resistance. The method of determining current and volt drop in a complex series/parallel resistive circuit remains the same as that for individual series or parallel circuits, i.e. i. In series circuits, the current remains the same in all parts. ii. Current in the parallel part of the circuit is equal to the sum of the branch currents. iii. Voltages across branches of a parallel circuit are equal. iv. The sum of all voltage drops around the network equal the applied voltage. Example 3 From the diagram in Figure 6. Calculate: 1. The total resistance. 2. The total current flowing in the circuit. 3. The current flowing through each resistance. 4. The voltage drop across each resistance.
R6 R1 5 R3 6 R2 5 R4 4 V = 100 V R5 12 9 R7 9 R8 9
Figure 6
1. The Total Resistance Working from left to right, the first equivalent resistance to obtain is the series combination of R1 and R2 which are in parallel with the series combination of R3 and R4:
65
Req1 = =
(R1 + R2 )(R3 + R4 ) (5 + 5)(6 + 4)

R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
Req1
5+5+6+4 (10)(10) = 20 100 = 20 =5
Replacing R1, R2, R3 and R4 with Req1 gives:
R6 9
Req1 5
R5 12
R7 9 R8
V = 100 V
The series circuit made up of Req1 and R5 can be replaced with a single resistance of:
Req 2 = Req1 + R5 = 5 + 12 Req 2 = 17
Redrawing the circuit shows:

R6 9 Req2 17 R7 9 R8 9 V = 100 V
Next, reduce the parallel combination of R6, R7 and R8 to a single equivalent resistance:
66
1 1 1 1 = + + Req 3 R6 R7 R8 1 1 1 + + 9 9 9 1+1+1 = 9 3 = 9 9 = =3 3 =
Redrawing the circuit shows:

Req2 17 Req3 3
Req 3
V = 100 V
Now calculate the equivalent resistance for the series connection of Req2 and Req3:
Req = Req 2 + Req 3 = 17 + 3 Req = 20
2. The total current flowing in the circuit:

IT = V 100 = =5 A Req 20
3. The current flowing through each resistance.

IR1,2 R1 5 R3 6 IR3,4 V = 100 V R2 5 R4 4 IR5 R5 12 R6 9 R7 9 R8 9
IR6
IR7
IR8
For the parallel combination of R1 in series with R2 and R3 in series with R4, both series legs equates 10 , so the current will divided equally between each leg of the parallel combination:
I R1, R 2 = IT = 2 .5 A 2
IR1,2 and IR3,4 then recombine to become IT which flows through R5.
67
I R5 = I T = 5 A
The final parallel network consists of three equal-value resistances each of 9 . As the resistances are equal, the current through each branch will be one third of IT.
I R 6 = I R 7 = I R8 = IT 5 = = 1.6666667 A 3 3
4. The voltage drop across each resistance: Once again, examining the circuit from left to right, the first part of the circuit consists of a two series-connected groups of resistances connected in parallel. R1 and R2 are of equal value and are connected in parallel, so they will each have the same voltage drop.
V R1 = V R 2 = I R1, 2 R1 = (2.5)(5) = 12.5 V
R3 and R4 are different values, so the voltage drop across each resistance will be different.
V R 4 = I R 2,3 R4 = (2.5)(4 ) = 10 V V R 3 = I R 3, 4 R3 = (2.5)(6 ) = 15 V
Checking that the voltage drops are correct:

V R1 + V R 2 = 12.5 + 12.5 = 25 V V R 3 + V R 4 = 15 + 10 = 25 V
The voltage drop across R5 will be:

V R 5 = I R 5 R5 = (5)(12) = 60 V
Sum of the individual voltage drops across each series circuit are equal, so the individual voltage drops must be correct for this part of the circuit
The final part of the circuit consists of three equal-value resistances connected in parallel, so calculating the voltage drop across any one of the resistances is all that is necessary.
V R 6 = I R 6 R6 = (1.66666667)(9) = 15 V
Now verify that the sum of the individual voltage drops is equal to the supply voltage:
VT = V R1, 2 + V R 5 + V R 6 = 25 + 60 + 15 = 100 V
This total is the same as the supply voltage so our voltage drop calculations must be correct! If you calculate the total voltage drop using nay of the other legs of the individual parallel circuit, the same result will be obtained.
68
Having completed the studies set out in this section, re-read any parts you are not completely familiar with. When you are satisfied you have a good knowledge of the subject matter attempt the following exercises. Remember the points made in the program regarding the use of a methodical approach. It is essential that you break the problem down into logical steps and wherever necessary re-draw the circuit. Take care with calculations and when possible check your results by using another method as shown in the program.
69
Unit test
1. The voltage across the terminals of a shunt motor is 240 volts; if the field current is recorded as 1.8 amperes calculate the field resistance.
2. What value of resistance must be added in series with a shunt motor field having a resistance of 60 ohm in order to limit the current to two amperes if the supply voltage is 240 volts?
3. What is the maximum current a cable with a resistance of 0.6 ohms may carry if the voltage drop across it is not to exceed 6 volts?
4. Four lamps of equal resistance are connected in parallel across a 240 volt supply. If the current drawn by the lamps is 2.5 amperes calculate the resistance of each lamp.
70
5. Two parallel connected cables, having resistances of 0.03 and 0.04 ohms respectively, carry a total current of 70A. Calculate the current each cable carries.
6. A circuit consisting of 3 resistances, 12, 16 and 4 ohms respectively is connected in parallel. The current flowing through the 12 ohm resistance is measured at 4 amperes. Calculate the current flowing through the 16 ohm and 4 ohm resistances.
7. Calculate the current drawn from the battery. R1 R2 R3 R4 = = = = 10 10 20 20
R1
R3
R2
R4
V = 15 V
71
8. For the following circuit: a. Determine the resistance of the circuit between points A and B. b. How much current will be taken by the circuit if 12 volts is applied at points A and B.
20 10 A B 6
12
9. For the following circuit: a. What is the total resistance? b. Calculate V1, V2. c. Calculate current flow through the 6 ohm resistance.
9
V1 6
18
V2 20
200 V
72
10. For the following circuit: a. Calculate the total resistance. b. Determine IT, I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6. c. What is the voltage drop across resistances R4 and R6?
R4 R1 I1 100 R2 I3 1200 R3 600 200 V I5 300 R5 300 R6 500 R7 200
I6
I2
I4
11. Calculate the supply voltage given variable resistance R1 = 100 ohm, R2 = 30 ohm and the slider of the variable resistance is set as shown.
40 R1 VR2 = 33 V
73
Review questions
For each question, identify the response you consider best answers the question by circling its identifying letter. 1. If the applied voltage to a series-parallel circuit is increased while the circuit resistance remains the same the circuit current will: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Drop to zero. 2. Increasing the value of the series resistor R1 in the series-parallel network shown will cause the total current to: R1 a. Increase. + b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. VT R2 R3 d. Drop to zero.
3. Increasing the value of the series resistor R1 in the circuit above will cause the total power to: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Drop to zero. 4. Adding another resistor to the parallel network of the circuit above will cause the total resistance of the circuit to: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Drop to zero. 5. If an open-circuit occurred in resistor R2 of the circuit the total circuit current would: R1 R2 a. Increase. + b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. VT R3 R4 d. Drop to zero
74
6. If resistor R1 of the circuit was short circuited, the current would: a. Increase. R1 R2 b. Decrease. + c. Remain the same. d. Drop to zero.
VT R3
R4
7. If an open-circuit occurred in resistor R3 of the above circuit, the applied voltage VT would: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same d. Drop to zero. 8. If a short-circuit occurs across the parallel network of resistors in a seriesparallel circuit, the voltage drop across the series network will: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Drop to zero. 9. A 2 ohm resistor is connected in parallel with a 4 ohm resistor. If the total circuit current is 3 amperes the current through the 2 ohm resistor is: a. 4A. b. 3A. c. 2A. d. IA. 10. For the circuit in Question 9 the voltage drop across the two resistors is: a. 3v. b. 6V. c. 4V. d. 18V. Where appropriate, for the following questions, include a circuit diagram in your answer. All answers should be expressed using the correct units. 11. Two resistors, R1 and R2 of 10 and 40 ohms respectively are connected in parallel. A third resistor, R3 with a resistance of 12 ohms is connected in series with the parallel combination of R1 and R2. If 120V is applied to the circuit, calculate the: a. Total resistance. b. Total circuit current. c. Current through the 12 ohm resistor R3. d. Total circuit power.
75
12. Three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel across a 200V DC supply. Resistors R1 and R2 have values of 10 and 15 ohms respectively and the total circuit current is 40A. Calculate the: a. Resistance of R3. b. Currents in R1, R2 and R3. c. Power dissipated by R1, R2 and R3. d. Total power dissipated by the circuit.
13. Two resistors, both with a resistance of 300 ohms are connected in parallel, and in series with them is a 400 ohm resistor. Calculate the voltage that must be applied to the circuit to cause a current of 200mA in the 400 ohm resistor.
14. For the circuit below calculate the: a. Total resistance of the circuit. b. Total circuit current. c. Voltage drop across the 75 ohm resistor R5. d. Power dissipated by the 60 ohm resistor R3.
R2 R1 20 VT = 200 V 40 R3 60 R4 15 R5 75
76
15. For the circuit given calculate the: a. Supply voltage if the current in the 60 ohm resistor (R3) is 2A. b. Total power dissipated by the circuit. c. Power dissipated in the circuit if the 80 ohm resistor R2 is short-circuited.
R2 R1 50 VT 2A 80 R3 60
16. For the circuit given calculate the: a. Total circuit current. b. The power dissipated by the 70 ohm resistor R2. c. The total circuit current if an open-circuit occurs between R2 and R3.
R2 R1 20 VT = 240 V 70 R4 80 R3 100 R5 30
77
17. Calculate the value of a resistor that has to be connected in series with two 48 ohm resistors connected in parallel to limit the current to 3A. The supply voltage is 240V.
18. Two resistors with resistance values of 20 ohms (R1) and 30 ohms (R2) are connected in parallel. A 13 ohm resistor (R3) is connected in series with the parallel pair of R1 and R2. The voltage applied to the circuit causes a current of 4A to flow in the 13 ohm resistor (R3). For the circuit: a. Draw a circuit diagram showing: An ammeter to measure the current in the 30 ohm resistor R2. A voltmeter to measure the voltage drop across the 20 ohm resistor R1. A voltmeter to measure the applied voltage. b. Calculate the: Ammeter reading of the current flowing through R2. Voltage drop across the 20 ohm resistor R1. Applied voltage.
78
19. For the circuit below, calculate the reading that would be indicated on a voltmeter if it was placed across the points: a. A and B if R1 was open-circuit. b. B and D if R1 was open-circuit. c. B and D if R2 was short-circuited. d. A and B if R2 was short-circuited.
R3 A R1 B R2 VT = 32 V C R4 D
20. For the circuit given, calculate the: a. Total circuit resistance. b. Total circuit current. c. Current in R5. d. Voltage drop across R6. e. Current in the branch containing R2 and R3.
R2 R1 20 VT = 100 V 16 R4 12 R3 14 R5 13 R6 10
79
80
Electrical Measuring Instruments

Introduction
The measurement of voltage, current, resistance and power in electrical circuits can be achieved with the use of either analogue or digital instruments. For this section of work you will first study the operation of the analogue range of instruments. These analogue instruments are classified into two basic principles of operation: 1. Moving Coil. 2. Moving Iron.
Moving coil meter

Principle of Operation: All moving-coil meters rely on the principle that a magnetic field will exert a force on any conductor carrying current.
Figure 1 The dArsonval movement
This type of meter contains a pivoted coil of wire placed in the magnetic field of permanent magnets. When current passes through the coil the magnetic field exerts a force on the coil. This causes the coil to turn on the pivots. These meters are current operated. Study the diagrams on the following page which describes the Motor Effect applied to these meters. Lenzs Law describes that the forces exerted on a conductor carrying current in a magnetic field will cause movement on the conductor the basis of the principle on which an electric motor works.
81
The movement of the coil is controlled by two spiral springs which are also used to lead current to and from the meter. This type of meter movement can only function on DC current, but can be made to operate on AC if it is first rectified. A pointer which moves across a graduated linear scale is attached to the moving coil.
Figure 2 Motor effect
The Ammeter
A typical dArsonval movement might have a current sensitivity of 1 mA and a resistance of 50 . In order to measure more than 1 mA additional circuitry must be used with the basic meter movement. Figure 3 (a) shows a simple ammeter with a shunt (parallel) resistor (RSH) across the movement. The purpose of the shunt resistor is to bypass current in excess of 1 mA around the meter movement. For example, let us assume that this meter must measure currents of up to 10 mA. Thus, for full-scale deflection, the movement must carry 1 mA, and the shunt resistor must carry 9 mA, as indicated in Figure 3.
10 mA
IT
ICOIL
1 mA ISH RSH
9 mA RSH
(a) Total current is ICOIL + ISH
(b) Meter indicates 10 mA (1 mA + 9 mA)
Figure 3 Shunt resistance (RSH) in an ammeter
82
Multiple-Range Ammeters
The simple ammeter in Figure 3 has only one range. As you saw, it can measure currents from 0 to 10 mA and no higher. Most practical ammeters have several ranges. Each range in a multiple-range ammeter has its own resistance which is selected with a multiple-position switch. For example, Figure 4 shows a four-range ammeter with a 0.1 mA (100-uA) meter movement. When the switch is in the 0.1 mA position, all of the current being measured will pass through the meter movement.
0.1 mA 0.1 mA 1 mA 10 mA 100 mA 0.9 mA 9.9 mA 99.9 mA
Figure 4 Example of a multi-range ammeter
The Voltmeter
The voltmeter utilizes the same type of movement as the ammeter. Different external circuitry is added so that the movement will function to measure voltage in a circuit. As you have seen, the voltage drop across the meter coil is dependent on the current and the coil resistance, For example, a 50-A, 1000- movement has a full-scale voltage drop of: (50 A)(1000 ) = 50 mV. To use the meter to indicate voltages greater than 50 mV, we must add a series resistance to drop any additional voltage beyond that which the movement requires for full-scale deflection. This resistance is called the multiplier resistance and is designated RM.
1V
RM
1 k coil
VM
VCOIL
0.95 V
50 mV
VT
1V
83
(a) VT = VM + VCOIL
(b) Meter indicates 1 V full scale (0.95 V + 50 mV)
Figure 5 Multiplier resistance (RM) in a voltmeter
50 mV RM1 1V Range switch RM2 10 V RM3 0.95 V 9.95 V
99.95 V
100 V
Figure 6 Example of a multiple-range voltmeter.
The Ohmmeter
The meter movement used for the ammeter and the voltmeter can also be adapted for use in an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter is used to measure resistance values. A basic one-range ohmmeter is shown in Figure 7a. It contains a battery and a variable resistor in series with the movement. To measure resistance, the leads are connected across the external resistor to be measured, as shown in Figure 7b. This connection completes the circuit, allowing the internal battery to produce current through the movement coil, causing a deflection of the pointer proportional to the value of the external resistance being measured.
Infinite resistance (open)
Zero resistance (short)
+ +
Leads Zero adjust
Resistance being measured
84
(a) Figure 7 Basic single-range ohmmeter
(b)
100 500 1k
60 40
30 20 15 10 6
2 0
Rx1 R x 10 R x 100
20 200 2 k 20 k 200 k
IMPORTANT NOTE: Remember, an ohmmeter must NOT be connected to a circuit when the circuits power is ON. Always turn the power OFF before connecting the meter
VINT
R x 1k R x 10 k
Figure 8 Example of a multiple-range ohmmeter circuit
Moving iron meter

The moving Iron meter movement comes in two styles of operation: 1. Attraction Type. 2. Repulsion Type. As with the moving coil instrument, this type is also current operated, but has the advantage of being able to operate on either A.C. or D.C. The scale of both types of moving iron instruments is non-linear which makes it difficult to get accurate readings at either end of the scale.
85
Attraction type moving iron meter

Principle of Operation The operation of this type of instrument depends on a piece of soft iron being attracted towards a coil (electro-magnet). The instrument consists basically of a scale, a fixed coil and a spindle to which a flat segment of soft iron and pointer are attached and control springs. The current to be measured passes through the coil and a magnetic flux is set up. The flat segment of soft iron now becomes magnetised and is drawn into the coil. The effect is to turn the spindle and pointer. To control the movement of the flat segment, two springs of non magnetic material are attached to the spindle. Zero settings of the pointer can be obtained by slackening or tightening one of the springs. Sometimes a dashpot arrangement is used to control the pointer movement.
Figure 9 Attraction type moving iron meter
86
Repulsion type moving iron meter

Principle of Operation Repulsion type moving iron meters rely on the principle that magnetic like poles repel each other. The instrument consists of a coil surrounding a fixed piece of iron. Another piece of iron (called the moving iron) is attached to a pointer. When current passes through the coil both pieces of iron become magnetized and these pieces of iron tend to repel each other. Only the moving iron is able to move and this causes the pointer to move across the scale. A spring is used to control the pointer and return it to zero when current ceases to flow.
Figure 10 Repulsion type moving iron meter
87
Reading a meter error of parallax

For accurate reading of a meter scale, care must be taken to ensure that the reading is taken with the eye directly in line with the pointer. Figure 11 below illustrates how errors can be made when reading meters by reading the scale from one side or the other.
Apparent reading 5.1
Correct reading 5.0 Figure 11 Parallax error
Apparent reading 4.9
Some instruments have a mirror mounted directly below the scale that follows the same curvature. When reading such a meter, parallax error can be avoided by ensuring that reflected image of the pointer is directly in line with the actual pointer; this ensures that the user is correctly positioned to take a reading.
Extending the range of voltmeters

The basic movements of both moving-coil and moving-iron types of meters have only a small voltage drop across the operating coils. Typically, for a modern moving-coil meter, this voltage is in the order of a few millivolts. The moving-iron meter has a slightly higher voltage drop, it is still very low and this factor limits the uses of these meters unless steps are taken to extend their operating range. For any given voltage, adding series resistance decreases the current flow through the meter. If a moving-coil movement with 100 coil resistance has an extra 10 k added in series, the total meter resistance would be 10.1 k. From Ohms Law the current is now reduced approximately ten times. To restore the operating current to its original value, ten times the voltage must be applied; that is, the voltage range of the meter is extended ten times.
88
Example A moving-coil meter has an internal resistance of 100 . Find: a. The voltage drop across the meter if 1 mA gives full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) of the pointer. b. If a resistance of 10 k is connected in series with the meter, find the voltage that would have to be applied to give f.s.d. of the movement.
V 100 VM RSE 10 k
1 mA (max)
a. Voltage across meter:

V M = IR = (1mA)(100 ) = 0.1 V
b. RSE = 10 k Maximum current of meter is 1 mA Total resistance = 10 k + 0.1 k = 10.1 k

V = IR = (1mA)(10.1k ) = 10.1 V
The full answer has been given for part (b), but in practice it would be rounded off to 10 V. Problem A moving-iron meter has the following inscribed on its face: fsd 5 mA, Resis 25 . Find the full-scale voltage range for series resistors 10 k and 1 M.
(V10k = 50 V, V1M = 5 000 V)

89
Extending the range of ammeters

The operating current of an ammeter is generally very low to ensure adequate sensitivity for measuring small values of current. The internal resistance of the meter is also kept as low as possible to reduce the voltage drop across the meter itself. To measure values of current higher than that required to give f.s.d., a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. The shunt allows some of the current to bypass the meter. Any fixed value of current flowing into a parallel circuit will divide according to the resistance of the paths. The less the resistance, the greater will be the current flow in that path. Example A moving-coil meter movement has a full-scale current rating of 1 mA and an internal resistance of 100 . Calculate the resistance of a shunt to be placed in parallel with the meter so that currents of up to 1 A can be measured.
1 mA
A
1A 1A
999 mA
RSH
Because the meter and the shunt resistor are in parallel, the voltage across the parallel section will be the same for both:
V = IR = (1mA)(100 ) = 0.1 V
Knowing the voltage across the shunt (0.1 V) and the maximum current that is to path through the it, we can use Ohms Law to calculate its resistance:
R SH = V I 0.1V = 999mA = 0.1001001
In practical terms, to extend the range of an ammeter 1000 times, a shunt resistor must be placed in parallel with the meter. Its resistance will be one-thousandth that of the meter movement. It should be appreciated that the values indicated on any meter scale where the range has been extended will have to be corrected for the new range of the meter. For some meters, and particularly d.c. meters, shunts of very low values of resistance are required to extend the current range. Small errors in resistance can lead to much
90
bigger errors in current readings. Moving-iron meters on a.c. often use a special type of transformer called a current transformer to eliminate the possibility of shunt calibration error. For a.c. voltage readings, voltage transformers can be used rather than series resistance. Problem A meter movement has a f.s.d. current of 500 A and an internal resistance of 40 . Calculate the value of a shunt resistance to extend the meter range to 300 mA.
(RSH = 0.0066 )
Non contact testing

Clamp on meters (Tong Tester)
To overcome the problem of breaking into the circuit to insert an ammeter in series when measuring current, clip on meters can be used, therefore being more convenient and safer because the circuit wiring can be left intact during current measurement. The clip on meter responds to the magnetic field that is produced when current flows through a conductor; that is, a magnetic field will surround a current carrying conductor as shown below.
Current building up, magnetic field expanding from the centre of the conductor
Magnetic field builds up further, cutting the conductor as it expands
Figure 12 Magnetic fields surrounding a current-carrying conductor
91
Two types of clamp-on meters are available, namely the induction type and the Hall effect type. Induction AC measurement only. In which the varying magnetic field produced by the electric current induces an EMF in a coil. This induced voltage then drives the meter movement. Hall Effect AC and DC measurement. In this instrument a semi-conductor device called a Hall-effect device is used as the sensor. This device produces a voltage proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. Using clip-on ammeters is relatively easy; the meter is clipped on around the conductor whose current you require to measure and the value of current in the conductor is read off the scale or from a digital readout.
Figure 13 Clamp-on meter (tong-tester
Dynamometer movement instruments

The construction and operation of this type of instrument is similar to that of the moving coil instrument except that the main magnetic field is provided by a winding instead of a permanent magnet. By using a winding to provide this resultant main field the instrument will measure the power being consumed by the circuit.
92
Figure 14 Dynamometer movement
As you can see in Figure 14, the instrument basically consists of two coils, one for voltage and one for current flow in the circuit. Notice that these coils are connected in the circuit in the same way as individual meters would be connected. That is, voltmeters across the load; ammeters in series with the load. The interaction between the two magnetic fields produced by these coils will give a meter deflection that is proportional to the product of the voltage and the current. This of course, is the POWER being consumed by the circuit; and is the most common use of these instruments. Dynamometer movements find their greatest number of applications in a.c. work because they integrate both current and voltage values and give a true power reading with a high degree of accuracy. While they can be used on either a.c. or d.c. circuits, it is not the usual practice to use such instruments on d.c. work. Good voltmeters and ammeters can give quite high accuracy for d.c. work by multiplying the two meter values together.
Care, selection and protection of instruments

Use of instruments
The measurement of any quantity consists basically in its comparison with a known value. The comparison also means that the value is being compared either directly or indirectly with a standard whose accuracy is known. The degree of accuracy of an instrument is generally in one of two categories.
93
Precision instruments
Sometimes known as reference instruments, precision instruments are usually kept in laboratories and other instruments are taken to them for calibration purposes. The errors, as a general guide, are of the order of 0.5 per cent or less of the f.s.d. reading. The error can be many times less than this value and can approach 0.00001 per cent, depending on the degree of accuracy required. Every precaution is taken to minimise error and maintain high standards of accuracy.
Industrial instruments
With industrial instruments, the object is to secure results that are reliable and reasonably accurate. The error is usually greater than 0.5 per cent and up to 2.5 per cent. Modern trends and production methods are gradually reducing this value.
Selection of instruments
Accuracy
The accuracy of an analogue meter is a measure of how linear is the response of the internal circuitry. The manufacturer tests the meter against known standard measurements to determine if the meter is within specifications. The meter is then sold with a specified accuracy. For example, a meter with a specified accuracy of 2% will lead to an error of up to 2% of the measured value. This error is within the meter and cannot really be compensated for. It is part of the original manufacturing and calibration accuracy. One of the first decisions to make in selecting an instrument is the accuracy required. Precision instruments are excellent but the extra cost and care required does not always justify their use. Most meters have their accuracy inscribed on their meter face and, when in use, this is a ready reference to the reliability of any readings indicated.
Sensitivity
A meter with high sensitivity is not necessarily an ideal meter for all situations. For example, consider a 10 kW three-phase motor that refuses to start. Using a multimeter with a sensitivity of 20 000 /V on the 300 V scale, a check at the starter for voltage has been known to yield the following results: Phase 1 240 V to earth (or neutral) Phase 2 200 V to earth Phase 3 240 V to earth An obvious conclusion to draw would be that while Phase 2 is low on voltage and therefore suspect, the circuit is complete. A neon tester would simply glow and indicate that all three phases were present and correct. Further checks could reveal the cause of the fault as a blown fuse and that the voltage found on Phase 2 (200 V) was the result of feedback through electrical components of the starter circuit.
94
Less-sensitive test equipment such as a pair of test-lamps could have indicated a loss of voltage at the beginning. In many a.c. circuits where substantial currents may be drawn, less-sensitive test equipment has many advantages. For electronic circuits where the currents drawn are often measured in milliamperes or even microamperes, a sensitive meter must be used in order to avoid loading the circuit and so obtaining misleading results.
Internal impedance
Taking a measurement or observation with a meter is relatively simple and, with a little practice, you become proficient. However there are other factors that influence the accuracy of your measurements. When you place a meter in a circuit to take a measurement you affect the working currents and voltages. These effects are called loading effects. Youll recall that analogue meters require an input current for the coil to cause the needle pointer to deflect. This current is taken out of the circuit. It therefore slightly changes the operation of the circuit. If the current taken out to move the needle is very small compared with the current flowing in the circuit, then the effect of the meter wont upset the circuit. In that case your reading will be good. But, if the current required by the meter coil is a significant part of the circuit current, then your circuit operation has been distorted. The resulting reading will not be accurate. On most power circuits this factor is of minor importance, but in some circumstances it can affect instrument readings considerably. Any meter current drawn must be very small in relation to any current flowing in the circuit being measured. In the circuit shown in Figure 15(a) the current flowing is 1 mA and the voltage across the load RL is 200 V. In Figure 15(b) a voltmeter is connected across the load. Calculations will show that the circuit current increases to 1.84 mA and the voltage across the parallel section drops to 158 V. The result is a misleading value, some 21 per cent lower than the true value. The incorrect reading is not the fault of the meter but is due to an incorrect application.
1 mA
I=
V RTotal
250 = 1 mA 250k
50 k 250 V 200 k RL
200k V = IR = (1mA)(200k ) = 200 V
Figure 15(a) Circuit loading with a voltmeter
Multimeter: 500 /V on 300 V range = 300 x 500 = 150 k
95
RTotal = 50k +
(200k )(150k )
200k + 150k = 135.7 k V 250 = 1.84 mA I= = R 135.7 k V50 k = IR = (1.84mA)(50k ) = 92 V Vm = 250 92 = 158 V
1.84 mA 50 k 250 V 200 k RL
Figure 15(b) Circuit loading with a voltmeter
Voltmeters: Reducing Loading Effect

It would be ideal to have no extra current path in the circuit, or at least make the current through the meter exceedingly small. This requires the voltmeter to have a very large resistance. Some electronic analogue voltmeters and digital voltmeters have negligible loading effects due to an extremely high internal resistance. Other meters rely on the range switch for their loading. The range switch on a multimeter will change internal values of resistance in series to give the different f.s.d. values on the scales. Simply, the loading effect will change when the range switch is changed. There is a term called meter sensitivity which tells you the size of the internal resistance of the meter. Multiply the range switch setting by the meter sensitivity and you have the internal resistance. For example, a meter with a sensitivity of 20 /V is on the 10 V scale. It will have an internal resistance of 200 . A different meter having a sensitivity of 1 k/V on the 2.5V scale will have an internal resistance of 2.5 k. Ideally the internal resistance of a voltmeter should be infinite. Electronic analogue and digital voltmeters have extremely high internal resistances. The internal resistance of a meter with a specified sensitivity is different on each range setting.
Ammeters: Reducing Loading Effects

The total current, IT, in a series circuit is controlled by the circuit resistance, R, when the current meter is not connected and the circuit is complete. A break in the circuit to measure the current will introduce another resistance (the resistance of the meter), therefore, because the series-resistance is increased, the total current, IT, is reduced. What do you think should be the internal resistance of an ammeter for no loading effect? Yes, it should be zero, since only the resistor, R, should control the circuit current. This requires the current meter to have very low internal resistances and, again, it is determined by the meter sensitivity.
96
The current sensitivity is expressed as the reciprocal of the full scale current setting. For example, a current meter on the 1 mA f.s.d. setting has a 1 k/V sensitivity. This gives a ratio of internal resistance to voltage developed across the meter therefore: From Ohms law: R = Current sensitivity =
V 1 R = /V I I V
1 1 = meter sensitivit y / V
Ideally, the internal resistance of an ammeter should be zero. There will normally be a low voltage drop (mV) when the meter is in the circuit. How great depends on the meter sensitivity.
Reading position
If a meter is calibrated to be read in a horizontal position, it should be read in that position for the best results. When read in any other position, the readings must be treated with caution. Similarly, the same conditions apply where meters are calibrated to be mounted on magnetic or non- magnetic panels as designated. Also, parallax errors can effect the accuracy of your reading.
97
Interpolation error
If the pointer comes to rest between two graduations, its up to you to estimate, or interpolate, the actual reading. This is fairly simple with a linear scale but can be tricky on the non-linear ranges. Figure 16 illustrates an interpolation error.
x
3.8
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
Pointer
Figure 16 Interpolation error
The pointer in Figure 16 has come to rest between 4.4 and 4.6. it is up to the viewer to interpolate the actual measurement as closely as possible. An imaginary line half way between 4.4 and 4.6 (shown as X) would be 4.5. The pointer is just to the right of this. The measurement would be about 4.52 or 4.53. You will be the judge.
Meter ranges
Meter accuracy is usually specified as a percentage of full-scale deflection. Where possible, meters should be chosen so that indicated values are read well up the scale. A 2% tolerance in accuracy is proportionately a far greater value at a lower scale reading than at full scale. An additional consideration is the linearity of the scale. Lower scale values can be read reasonably well on the linear scale of a moving-coil meter, but on moving iron or dynamometer movements, the lower part of the scale is suspect in its accuracy and because of this is often left blank.
Care and protection of instruments

Physically, care and protection of instruments implies careful handling, cleanliness and protection from knocks; however, in the electrical sense the problem is more involved. In general any instrument correctly and permanently installed can be expected to operate correctly and have a lengthy service life. Portable meters are subject to possible damage during transportation, and each time they are connected into a circuit the instruments face the possibility of electrical damage. The permanently installed meter is usually installed only once, while the portable meter is effectively installed each time it is connected into a circuit. Possible causes of damage are: 1. overload either current or voltage ranges being exceeded 2. wrong connections for example, an ammeter connected across a voltage source 3. d.c. meters connected to an a.c. power source 4. some meters need a separate power source for their operation and often one of the instruments test terminals is permanently earthed. The application of this
98
terminal into a circuit at a point that is not earthed can cause damage to the instruments internal connections. The correct approach is to earth that terminal to the test circuits earth and use only one test lead. Multimeters are light, compact and have a variety of ranges. On their own, these advantages give rise to the popularity of the multimeter as a portable test meter. Because of its portability and its number of different ranges it is susceptible to misuse and damage. Some precautions to take with multimeters are as follows: 1. Always leave a multimeter on the highest a.c. voltage range when not in use. The most common reason for damage to multimeters is the connecting of a meter into a circuit without prior inspection of the multimeter range setting. Leaving a meter on the high a.c. voltage range reduces the possibility of damage. 2. When checking an unknown voltage (or current), always start with the highest range. If the reading is too low, a quick check will soon show if a lower range is more suitable. Many operators disconnect a multimeter from a power source before changing ranges because of the possibility of arcing occurring between contacts during the changeover. 3. Never attempt to take a resistance reading in a circuit while there is power applied to the circuit. Similarly, capacitors in a circuit often hold a charge that can damage a meter. The capacitors should be short-circuited temporarily after the power source is removed, to discharge them, before using the ohmmeter. 4. A similar problem to that in point 3 exists for insulation testers, continuity testers, bridge meggers and the later model battery-operated insulation testers. Each has its own inbuilt power supply and any connection to an external power source can lead to its destruction through excessive current flow.
99
The multimeter
Figure 17 A Sanwa analogue multimeter type 460-ED
As the name implies, this is an instrument that contains all the circuitry needed for measuring voltage, current and resistance and so provides a multiple range of operations. The selector switch identifies which value that you wish to measure (volts, amps or ohms) and the scale provides a range of values for these quantities. When the switch has been moved to the correct position for the desired function and range, the internal circuitry selected is the same as already described for each of the individual measurement functions.
Graduated scale
Linear graduations
The scales use both major and minor graduations for taking more accurate readings. Voltage and current scales have linear graduations as can be seen on the following diagram.
100

Figure 18 Meter scale (linear)
Look at the bottom scale (10 V) in the preceding diagram. The first major graduation shown is 6, the next is 8. The scale value has increased by 2 over this distance. The distance from 8 to the next major graduation marked as 10, is also 2. The scale is said to be linear. The minor graduations on each of these scales are also linear. On the bottom 10 V scale, there are 10 segments marked off between each major graduation. The distance between each graduation is 2 as we know. Because there are ten equal sub-divisions, marked by the minor graduations, each of these must be one tenth of the value of one major graduation. 2 divided by ten is 0.2., therefore each minor graduation on the bottom scale has a value of 0.2. Youll notice that each fifth minor graduation has been made a little longer that the others, just to make reading a bit easier. The numbers are not drawn on the minor graduations on the meter itself. If they were, the scale would be too cluttered and difficult to read.
Non linear graduations

The resistance scale, which is the top scale of the analogue meter, doesnt follow the linear rules. The distance between graduations varies from one graduation to the next. The increase in value from one graduation to the next is not always the same. This is shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19 Non-linear Ohms scale (expanded view)
The value between the first two major graduations is 5 (0 to 5). The value increase between the next major graduations is also 5 (5 to 10). But note that the distance between graduations changes. The distance becomes smaller as we move along the scale to the higher resistance values.
101
Multimeter Controls
To use a meter to take a measurement we must be sure to set the selector switch to accommodate the value we expect to measure.
Measuring Resistance
If we are measuring resistance, the selector switch is set on ohms and the range selects a multiplier. The meter reading is multiplied by the number selected by the range. The multiplied value gives the measured resistance. Now for some practice reading meter scales. Note the range that each has been set to, and then write your answer next to it.
Ohms scale x 1 ________________
Ohms scale x 1k _________________
Ohms scale x 10 ________________

102
50 mA scale ______________________
250 mA scale ______________________
10 mA scale ______________________
103
12 VDC scale ______________________
3 VDC scale _____________________
104
30 V scale _______________________
Self help questions

Answer True or False to the following: a. An unknown value of current is to measured. The meter should initially be set to the lowest scale. TRUE / FALSE b. A multimeter should be placed across a resistor when it is to be used for a measurement of the current in the resistor. TRUE / FALSE c. The power to a resistor must be removed when its value is to be measured using an ohmmeter. TRUE / FALSE d. One terminal of a resistor should be disconnected from the circuit when its value is to be measured. TRUE / FALSE e. The potential difference in a resistor is to be measured. The probes of the voltmeter should be placed across the resistor. TRUE / FALSE f. The zero ohms adjustment should be set before taking a resistance reading. TRUE / FALSE
105
Digital meters
The digital multimeter is easier to use than the analogue meter. It has a similar range switch and function switch but these switch functions are often combined into a single switch (see Figure 20). The meter terminals are also similar to the analogue meter. The red lead is connected to the V/ socket and the black lead is connected to the common terminal for measuring voltage and ohms. A digital meter acts on the principle of sampling an analogue level and changing it to a series of binary levels. These levels are decoded and displayed as numbered values. Digital meters have no parallax or interpolation errors unlike analogue meters. However the last digit of the display may change between two numbers. For example from 0.624 to 0.623 and then back to 0.624. Which value do we use?
ON OFF
200 OHM 2k 20k 200k 2M 20M 200m 2 DCV 20 200 1000 700 200 20 200m 20m 2m 200 2 200m ACV
1000V DC 750V AC MAX
hFE
200 2m 20m 200m 2 20 20 DCA
20 20 2
ACA
2A MAX
!
500W MAX
20A
COM
V/
Figure 20 Digital multimeter
Usually we want a high degree of accuracy. Changing the scale might improve that accuracy, but remember that the digital meter also suffers from internal accuracy limitations similar to the analogue meter. So what value do we actually take? Well, take your pick!! 0.623 or 0.624 or thereabouts. The accuracy is usually 1 in the last digit and calibration accuracy in the region of 1%.
Comparison
Digital meters are not necessarily more accurate just because the measurement is displayed as a number. Many analogue meters are extremely accurate. The digital meter is usually more mobile and is good for measuring constant values of current, voltage or resistance. Changing values are more difficult to read with digital meters due to the changing display. An analogue meter will average out changing values and produce a more easily read value. To use a digital meter: 1. Turn it on. 2. Select the appropriate function. 3. Switch to the appropriate range position. 4. Connect the meter leads to the circuit being measured. 5. Read the value on the digital display.
106
Review questions
1. What are the readings on the meters shown for the scale setting indicated? a.
12 V scale b.
Answer: _________________
3 mA scale c.
Answer: _________________
3 V scale
Answer: _________________
107
d.
3 mA scale e.
Answer: _________________
3 V scale f.
Answer: _________________
x 1 k scale Answer: _________________
108
2. The circuit illustrates the connections for the correct measurement of: a. b. c. d. Current. Voltage. Resistance. Power.
Supply disconnected
109
5. An unknown value of current in a DC circuit is to be measured. The initial range selected should be: a. The lowest DC current setting. b. The highest AC current setting. c. The highest DC current setting. d. The highest DC voltage setting. e. 6. A voltmeter, A, has a sensitivity of 20 k/V and another voltmeter, B, has a sensitivity of 1 k/V. Which voltmeter will have the greatest loading effect?
7. The following meter is measuring: a. b. c. d. 78.5 A (AC). 78.5 mA (AC). 78.5 A (DC). 78.5 mA (DC).
ON OFF
200 OHM 2k 20k 200k 2M 20M 200m 2 DCV 20 200 1000 700 200 20 200m 20m 2m 200 2 200m ACV
1000V DC 750V AC MAX
hFE
200 2m 20m 200m 2 20 20 DCA
20 20 2
ACA
2A MAX
!
500W MAX
20A
COM
V/
8. Answer T (True) or F (False) to the following statements: a. Resistance scales are usually non-linear on an analogue meter. b. Digital meters are generally easier to read.
T or F. T or F.
c. Digital meters are easier to read when the values being measured are changing. T or F. c. The zero adjustment on an analogue meter should be set with the input terminals short circuited. T or F. d. A current is measured across a component. T or F.
110
e. The power to a circuit must be disconnected for a measurement of voltage. T or F. f. There is a special switch position for testing diodes when using a digital meter. T or F. g. The power to the circuit must be removed and the resistor disconnected when its value is to be measured. T or F. h. The positive terminal of an analogue meter is usually connected to the positive of the internal battery for a measurement of resistance. T or F. 8. continued:i. Parallax error can be avoided by taking readings from directly above the pointer. T or F. j. The mechanical zero on an analogue meter should be set before taking a reading. T or F. k. The batteries of a meter should be removed before it is stored for a long period. T or F. 9. List the appropriate steps that must be taken for the measurement of: a. Current:
b. Voltage:
c. Resistance:
111
Capacitors and Capacitance

In this chapter you are going to be introduced to capacitors. Capacitors would rate a close second to resistors as the most used component in the electrical and electronic industry. Starting with the definition of a capacitor, you will look at calculations of capacitance value, the physical construction of capacitors in their various types, capacitor identification, applications, associated quantity calculations, testing and finally hazards and precautions in relation to capacitors.
Electrostatics and Capacitance

To begin with you must define exactly what capacitance is, and what produces the property we call capacitance.
Definitions
A capacitor is a device that stores energy in the form of an electric charge. It consists of two conducting surfaces called plates, separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on the plates of a capacitor to the potential difference between plates. The symbol for capacitance is C and the unit of measurement is the farad (F). The circuit symbol is:
Figure 1 Circuit symbol for a capacitor
In electrical and electronics circuits, capacitors of 1 F are rarely used; we use much lower values of capacitance than that, in the order of microfarads, F (1 F = 106 F), nanofarads (1 nF = 109 F) and picofarads (1 pF = 1012 F). In our definition of a capacitor, the word charge is used. What is a charge? Charge is the gain or loss of electrons from an atom. The fundamental particle of electricity is the electron, so as an atom gains electrons, it becomes more negatively charged. If it loses electrons it becomes positively charged. We can go one more step here and further define charge. Charge has the symbol Q and is measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb is 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
112
Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of static electricity, caused when two insulators are rubbed together. Electrons are transferred from one insulator to the other during this contact, the material losing negatively charged electrons becomes positively charged and the other, which gains electrons becomes negatively charged. There is a potential difference between the two insulators as a result of this transfer of electrons, the actual potential difference depending on the number of electrons lost and gained. Insulator materials which gain a static charge in this way are surrounded by an electrostatic field according to the polarity and degree of charge. These fields behave in much the same way as the fields of magnets; like fields repelling and unlike fields attracting as shown below.
a.
Force of attraction between unlike charges
b.
Force of repulsion between like charges
Figure 2: Law of Electrostatics
When an insulator with an electrostatic charge comes in contact with a material of neutral or opposite charge, the two materials will tend to neutralise, or have the same charge. When this occurs, there may be a visible spark and if the discharge occurs through your body, it can be felt as a sharp prickling sensation. The spark produced in this electrostatic discharge can have disastrous effects in the presence of flammable liquids and vapours and can cause irreparable damage to delicate and expensive electronic equipment. You have probably experienced the shock you receive when you get out of a modern (plastic) car, or when you remove a synthetic pullover or cardigan, or when you touch some object after you have walked on a synthetic carpet when wearing synthetic soled shoes. If your shoes and the carpet are made of synthetic materials, then by walking across the carpet, you are rubbing two synthetic materials together. This rubbing produces an electrostatic charge. If you touch a metal door knob the accumulated electrostatic field in your body discharges to the door knob.
Permittivity
In the definition of a capacitor we referred to an insulator between the plates of a capacitor. This may be air or some other material, which will alter the lines of electrostatic force passing through it. How easily an electrostatic field can be produced in a material is determined by its permittivity. Permittivity has the Greek symbol epsilon . Permittivity is relative to the permittivity of a vacuum, which is 0 and equal to 8.85 x 1012 C2/Nm2. Relative permittivity is r, and Table 1 provides a list of commonly used insulators for capacitors, with of the material shown.
113
Dielectric material Air (vacuum) Teflon Paraffin paper Mylar Oil Mica Glass Ceramic
Typical r 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 1200
Table 1 Permittivity of common dielectric materials
Electrostatic charge and discharge

A capacitor in an electronic circuit builds up an electrostatic charge on its plates when a supply voltage is applied, as in Figure 3a. As electrons move from the positive supply to negative supply, it leaves the upper plate of the capacitor with less than normal electrons, giving it a positive charge. The lower plate takes on an excess of electrons, resulting in a negative charge. When the supply voltage is moved, the capacitor can supply the load with energy stored on its plates as electrons move from the positively charged plate via the load to the negative plate until the plates have the same potential or charge. This is shown in Figure 3b. Due to resistance in the circuit, discharge current of the capacitor is limited and the discharge cycle may be in the order of hours or days, a fraction of the time taken to charge the capacitor. Discharge
Switch closed Charge current Supply voltage ++ ++ -- -++ ++ -- -Switch open current
Circuit
Circuit
a.
Electrostatic charge on capacitor during charge time
b.
Electrostatic charge on capacitor during discharge time
Figure 3 Electrostatic charge and electrostatic discharge
A filter capacitor in a power supply unit is an example of the use of the electrostatic charge stored in a capacitor. During periods when the output voltage of the supply is at its maximum, the filter capacitor is being charged as the circuit is being supplied with energy from the supply voltage. When the charge on the capacitor is greater than the supply voltage, the stored energy in the capacitor supplies the circuit, maintaining a much steadier voltage to the circuit.
114
Calculation of capacitance
The value of a capacitor in farads can be calculated if you know the area of the plates, the distance separating the plates, and the dielectric material between the plates.
Physical factors of a capacitor

There are three physical factors which affect the capacitance of a capacitor: Plate area. Plate separation. Dielectric material. These will be examined in turn and a formula will be derived to calculate the capacitance from them.
Plate area
The first consideration is the plate area of a capacitor. When we look at the plate area in a capacitor, we are only interested in the area of one plate which is directly opposite the other. This really is the effective plate area. Any area of either plate which is not directly exposed to the other plate is not effective plate area. This is shown in Figure 4.
a.
Plates directly opposite, complete exposure
b.
Mis-alignment, partial exposure
c.
Mis-alignment, partial exposure
d.
Different plate sizes
Figure 4 Illustration of effective plate area of a capacitor
115
Dielectric material
This insulation between the plates of a capacitor is the dielectric material. Dielectric materials concentrate the electrostatic lines of force between the plates. The resulting flux is then greater than it would be with a vacuum between the plates. How easily an electrostatic flux can be formed in a dielectric is measured by its permittivity (). The permittivity of a material is often called its dielectric constant (K). If the K of the material is higher, electrostatic flux will be greater. If K is lower, electrostatic flux will be reduced. Figure 5 illustrates this.
a.
Reference K
b.
Dielectric K higher
c.
Dielectric K lower
Figure 5 Effect of dielectric material on electrostatic flux
The permittivity of a dielectric is usually compared with the permittivity of a vacuum. (This is the same process as when we compare the permeability of ferromagnetic material with the permeability of free space).
Capacitance
For a capacitor consisting of two parallel plates, the capacitance can be found from the following equation:
C=
0 r A
d
Eqn 1
Where:
C = capacity in farads 0 = absolute permittivity ( = 8.85 x 1012 C2/Nm2 ) r = relative permittivity (see Table 1) A = area of plates in m2 d = distance between two opposite plates in metres
Example A capacitor consists of two parallel plates having a surface area of 6 cm2 separated by a distance of 0.1 mm. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor if the dielectric material separating the plates is mica.
r for mica is 5.0 (Table 1)

C=
0 r A
d 8.85 x 10 12 (5.0 ) 6 x 10 4 = 0.1 x 10 3 = 265.5 pF
) (
116
Commercially available capacitors

So far you have discovered that a capacitor consists of two plates separated by some form of dielectric material. But capacitors are available in several different configurations. In fact there are so many types of capacitors it is practical to only discuss some of the more common varieties here. In Figure 1 the circuit symbol for a capacitor was a convenient representation at the time. Some capacitors are variable in their capacitance value. The fact that a capacitor is variable in value is shown in its circuit symbol.
0.047 F
15 25 pF
a. Fixed value capacitor
b. Variable value capacitor
Figure 6 Circuit symbols for fixed and variable capacitors
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors may have metal plates which adjust by meshing a set of moveable plates into fixed plates. This adjustment varies the plate area exposed. This is the type of capacitor used to tune radios in to a station. A second type of variable capacitor is the trimmer capacitor. The capacitance of a trimmer capacitor is varied by adjusting the distance between the plates. A thin wafer of mica is used to prevent the plates of a trimmer capacitor from shorting together. Figure 7 shows the construction.
Figure 7 Construction of variable capacitors
117
Figure 8 shows the method of varying the capacitance by adjusting the mesh of the plates or the space between the plates.
a. Un-meshed (minimum capacitance)
b. Fully-meshed (maximum capacitance)
Figure 8 Changing plate area
Figure 9 shows the method of varying the capacitance of a trimmer capacitor about 20 pF by adjusting the gap between its plates.
Figure 9 Changing plate separation
118
Fixed capacitors
We cant even hope to examine the characteristics of all the available fixed capacitors here. The capacitor package may be dipped, moulded or in a metal can (usually aluminium). They may be in the shape of a disc, have axial connections or radial connections made specifically for printed circuit board mounting. Figures 10, 11 & 12 illustrate the physical appearance of some common capacitors. The diagrams are not drawn to scale.
Figure
10
Capacitor shapes
Figure disc
11 Fixed
capacitors
Figure 12 Common fixed capacitors
With the exception of C7 in Figure 12 they are all non-polarised capacitors. (C7 is an electrolytic capacitor. Well look at these soon).
119
Common dielectric materials

Common dielectric materials for these capacitors include ceramic, plastic film, polyester, polycarbonate, polystyrene and polypropylene. Ceramic capacitors range in value form 1 pF to 0.01 F and are suitable for high frequency applications; plastic film capacitors are in the range of 47 pF to 10 F and are suitable for low voltage applications to 1 MHz. These are all modern materials which have high stability and a relatively low cost. Plastic film has replaced paper as a dielectric in recent years. Polyester capacitors are widely known as greencaps. Electrolytic capacitors, similar to that shown as C7 in Figures 12 & 13 are aluminium electrolytic capacitors and may range from 1 F to 10,000 F. These are polarised capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors have the negative (-) lead indicated on their case by an arrow and often a (-) minus sign. They must be connected into the circuit with the positive capacitor terminal connected to the positive polarity of the circuit. Failure to connect an electrolytic capacitor in the correct polarity will in most cases destroy the component and may cause personal injury as they may explode. A special type of electrolytic capacitor is the tantalum shown in Figure 14. They are physically much smaller that aluminium electrolytics and have much lower voltage ratings.
Symbol
Figure 13 PCB mounting electrolytic capacitor Figure 14 Tantalum electrolytic capacitor
Capacitance and voltage ratings

When you select a capacitor for a particular application, you have two main concerns, the capacitance value and the voltage rating. Some capacitors are marked such that you are unable to read this information directly from the component. This is so with most electrolytic capacitors where, for instance, a capacitor may be marked 16 F 25V. You know exactly what this capacitor is at a glance. Ceramic capacitors are marked using an alpha-numeric code as you can see in Figure 15. Lets look at how we read this code.
120
Figure 15 Fixed disc capacitors
There are no international agreements in place to standardise capacitor identification. Most plastic film types have printed values and are normally in microfarads or if the symbol is n, nano-farads. Working voltage is easily identified. Ceramic disk capacitors have many marking schemes. Capacitance, tolerance, working voltage and temperature coefficient may be found. Capacitance values are given as number without any identification as to units (F, nF, pF). A more difficult scheme is shown in Figure 15(b) with example. The unit is picofarads and the third number is a multiplier. A capacitor coded 224F50 means 22 104 pF which is equivalent to 220,000 pF or 0.22 microfarads. F indicates 1 pF tolerance. 50, 63 and 100 are working volts. Whole numbers usually indicate pF and decimal numbers such as 0.1 or 0.47 are microfarads. Odd looking numbers such as 473 is the previously explained system and means 47 x 103 pF or 47 nF. The letter codes for tolerance are: M J K H F 20% 10% 5% 2 % 1 pF
Manufacturers data
Manufacturers data sheets provide all the information you would ever want to know about a capacitor. A complete physical specification including diameter, length and thickness, lead diameter, length and spacing is specified. From the electrical specification you are able to determine its capacitance value and voltage rating, and the tolerance of both these parameters over a working temperature range. The type of dielectric material will be clearly indicated in the manufacturers data which will sometimes list applications for which the capacitor is considered suitable.
121
Capacitor applications
Capacitors in electrical and electronic circuits perform a variety of functions, depending on their type and capacitance. In electronics capacitors are used for coupling or bypassing AC signals and blocking DC. Variable capacitors are used as tuning gangs in conjunction with an inductor to make a resonant circuit, used for instance to tune a radio. Trimmer capacitors have a much smaller value of capacitance and are used to give fine tuning to the tuning gang already mentioned. Electrolytic capacitors are high in capacitance value and are used in low frequency circuits to filter or smooth a supply voltage. Ceramic capacitors are cheap and because of their low value of capacitance are used in high frequency applications. Plastic film capacitors, with a capacitance of between 47 pF and 10 F are suitable for low to medium frequency circuits.
Hazards with Capacitors

Youll remember that I said earlier that capacitors charge up. This charge can be stored for a long time. If you cause the capacitor to discharge through your body you may suffer injury, often serious. Death may result if the capacitor is storing a sufficiently high charge. Therefore we must take precautions. Safety tips All tools must be well insulated and free from any contamination that may make them conductive. Do not take resistance readings on live circuits. Remove the supply from the circuit first to avoid expensive equipment damage. If it is essential to take readings on a live circuit, make the low voltage connection first. This is more often than not a connection to earth or the chassis of the equipment. Remember, capacitors are designed to store charge. Ohms law tells us that if the discharge path is a low resistance one, large current flows. Be sure of what you are doing. If you are unsure, dont do it. When connected into a circuit, the capacitive charge will dissipate more quickly that it will without a discharge path. The size and nature of the capacitor determines the length of time the charge is stored. Capacitors can take on a charge whilst in storage without being connected to anything. Large capacitors are sometimes stored with their terminals shorted to prevent this happening. The best way to be sure is to treat all capacitors as though they are charged. Before commencing any work or testing they must be discharged using a resistor of between 100 and 470 is ideal to limit current flow during discharge Figure 16 Discharging an as in Figure 16. This electrolytic capacitor discharging circuit should be left on for at least a minute to ensure total discharge.
122
CAUTION!! DO NOT TRY TO DISCHARGE ANY CAPACITOR IN CIRCUIT UNLESS THE SUPPLY VOLTAGE HAS BEEN REMOVED.
123
Calculation of Measurement of Capacitance Networks

It is often necessary to calculate the total capacitance of a network or to measure the effective capacitance of such a network in a piece of equipment. Another quantity we sometimes want to know is the voltage drop across a capacitor.
Capacitance in series circuits

When capacitors are connected in series, its like increasing the distance between the plates of a single capacitor. The overall capacitance of a series string of capacitors will be less than the lowest value of capacitance in the string. Thus, the distance between the plates of the effective capacitor CE, that would replace the two in Figure 17, is the distance from A to B of C1 plus the distance from C to D of C2.
C1 C2 A B C D
Figure 17 Capacitors in series
The formula for calculating the total capacitance, CT, of a series string of two or more capacitors in series is:
1 1 1 1 = + + ... + CT C1 C 2 CN
Eqn 2
Note the similarity this formula has to that used for calculating the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel. Example Capacitors of 10 F, 16 F and 47 F are connected in series. Calculate the total capacitance.
1 1 1 1 = + + CT C1 C 2 C 3 1 1 1 + + 10F 16 F 47 F 1 CT = 1 1 1 + + 10 F 16 F 47 F = 5.44 F =
124
Now try these two questions yourself. 1. Two capacitors of 100 F and one of 16 F are connected in series. What is the total capacitance?
2. What will be the total capacitance when a capacitor of 100 F and one of 470 F are connected in series?
You can also write the series capacitor formula as:

CT = 1 1 1 1 + + ... + C1 C 2 CN
You may find this formula difficult to work with but you have the choice. If we have just two capacitors in series, there is a simpler formula we can use to calculate CT:
CT = C1C 2 C1 + C 2
Eqn 3
Example Use this new formula to calculate CT for a 22 microfarad capacitor in series with a 47 microfarad capacitor.
CT =
(22 x 10 )(47 x 10 )
6 6
22 x 10 6 + 47 x 10 6 = 14.98 F
125
Now try these two questions: 1. Calculate CT using the new formula, for a capacitor of 100 F in series with another of 47 F.
2. What will CT be if 2 capacitors of 16 F are connected in series?
If two capacitors having the same capacitance are connected in series, then:
CC C +C CC = after cancelling out the C on the bottom line with one on the top line : 2C C CT = 2 CT =
This is yet another special formula for the special case where we have two capacitors of the same capacitance in series CT = C/2 where C is the value of just one of the two capacitors. This formula only works when the capacitors are of identical value. Using this latest formula, re-calculate CT for two capacitors of 16 F in series.
CT = C 16 = = 8 F 2 2
126
Voltage rating of capacitors in series

The voltage rating of capacitors is a series consideration when connecting capacitors in series. The voltage developed across each capacitor is in inverse proportion to the value of the capacitor: that is, the smaller the value of capacitance the greater the voltage developed across it. If we have three capacitors each of 100 F, 16V, the total supply we can connect to this circuit is 48V. Figure 18 illustrates this:
16 V 16 V 16 V
C1
C2
C3
48 V
Figure 18 Voltage distribution on a series capacitive circuit
Capacitance in parallel circuits

Connecting capacitors in parallel is in effect increasing the area of the plates. Again from our formula Eqn 1 (repeated below for convenience), this must increase the value of capacitance (Figure 19).
C=
0 r A
d
C1
1 2
C2
3 4
CE
1+3 2+4
(a) Capacitors in parallel
(b) Effective capacitance
Figure 19 Capacitors in parallel
The rule for calculating CT, for capacitors in parallel is similar to that for resistors in series.
CT = C1 + C 2 + ... + C N
127
Example Capacitors of 16 F, 47 F and 100 F are connected in parallel. What is the total capacitance, CT, for this circuit? CT = C1 + C2 + C3 CT = (16 F) + (47 F) + (100 F) CT= 163 F Note Values can be added directly as they all have the same multiplier ( = 106) Exercise What will be the total capacitance when capacitors of 100 F, 470 F, 680 F and 47 F are connected in parallel?
Voltage rating of capacitors in parallel

Since the terminals of all capacitors are connected to the same voltage, the applied voltage must not exceed the voltage rating of the lowest in the network. If the lowest voltage rating is say 16 V, then the applied voltage to the network cannot exceed 16 V.
Capacitance measurement
Capacitors, like most other components develop faults which alter their operating characteristics. The next section describes the use of an analogue meter to perform simple tests on capacitors. To do tests which simulate the actual operating conditions under which capacitors operate special devices are available. They are called capacitance meters or capacitance bridges. These pieces of test equipment are specialised and expensive. Because the replacement component is relatively cheap, most service organizations locate faulty capacitors by substitution. Capacitance meters are quite complicated and can do many different tests including leakage, open and short circuit, capacitance value, value change and equivalent resistance. Should you have access to a capacitance meter, it would be necessary for you to read the manufacturers instructions to become familiar with the tester prior to use. Test precautions: Remove power from the circuit. Disconnect at least one end of the component. Discharge the capacitor using a limiting resistor. Even if capacitors to be tested are not in circuit, ensure that they have been discharged before you start to handle them.
128
Common capacitor faults and ohmmeter testing

There are three faults common to capacitors: Leaky capacitor, Short circuit, Open circuit. You are going to look at these faults and the simple tests you can do using an analogue ohmmeter to test for each of the three fault conditions. Remember to observe the safety precautions previously mentioned. To perform these tests your meter should be set to x 10k or higher.
Serviceable capacitor
A capacitor that is serviceable will charge from the meter battery and should remain charged until it is discharged. This charging process is seen on the meter as a rapid meter movement toward zero ohms when the leads of the meter are first connected to the capacitor. Leave the leads connected and observe the needle movement. It should move towards infinity ohms. The bigger the capacitor the slower the meter movement towards infinity will be. Regardless of the size, value and type of capacitor under test, this should be the indication you get for a serviceable capacitor.
Serviceable capacitor
x 10k
OHMS
Figure 20 Serviceable capacitor
129
Leaky capacitor
A capacitor is said to be leaky when the dielectric material is damaged, allowing DC current to flow between the plates. This condition is seen on the meter as only partial charge, the meter needle will not move as far towards zero ohms when the capacitor is connected. As the meter is left connected, the charge on the capacitor will not collapse fully, leaving the meter stationary at a relatively low ohms reading.
Leaky capacitor
0
Low ohms
x 10k
OHMS
Figure 21 Leaky Capacitor
Short circuit capacitor

Total breakdown of the dielectric material or bridging of the capacitor can cause a short circuit. The consequences of this condition are usually very obvious, displaying different symptoms, depending where the capacitor is in the circuit. When connected to an ohmmeter, a shorted capacitor causes the needle to move quickly to zero ohms and remain there as long as the meter is connected.
Short-circuit capacitor
x 10k
OHMS
Figure 22 Short circuit capacitor
130
Open circuit capacitor

An open circuit capacitor is usually the result of mechanical failure such as a broken lead of some type. When an open circuit capacitor is connected to the ohmmeter, the meter will not deflect at all.
Open-circuit capacitor
x 10k
OHMS
Figure 23 Open-circuit capacitor
At the commencement of this section on capacitors and capacitance, capacitance was defines as: A capacitor is a device that stores energy in the form of an electric charge. It consists of two conducting surfaces called plates, separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. The unit of charge referred to in the preceding definition is the farad (F) which is defined as follows: A farad is the capacitance of a capacitor which stores a charge of one coulomb at a potential difference of one volt. that is,
charge in coulombs = capacitance in farads. applied voltage
Expressed in symbols:
Q =C V
Transposing: Q = CV Where: Q = charge in coulombs V = voltage C = capacity in farads
131
In series capacitive circuits it can sometimes be the unknown voltages across the capacitors that have to be calculated. Example 1 For the circuit shown, calculate: a. The total capacitance CT b. The voltage across each capacitor
V = 100 V
C1 10 F C2 15 F C3 25 F
V1 V2 V3
a.
1 CT = 1 1 1 + + C1 C 2 C 3 1 1 1 1 + + 10 F 15F 25F = 4.84 F =
b.
QT = CT V S = (4.84 F )(100V ) = 484C V1 = V2 = V3 = QT 484C = = 48.4 V C1 10 F QT 484 C = = 32.3 V C2 15F QT 484 C = = 19.3 V C3 25F
In parallel circuits, it can sometimes be the unknown charge on each capacitor that needs to be calculated. Example 2 For the circuit shown, calculate: a. The total capacitance CT b. The charge on each capacitor a.
CT = C1 + C 2 + C 3 = 5F + 10F + 15F = 30 F
C1 V = 50 V 5 F
C2 10 F
C3 15 F
b.
Q1 = C1V S = (5F )(50V ) = 250 C
Q2 = C 2V S = (10F )(50V ) = 500 C Q3 = C 3V S = (15F )(50V ) = 750C
132
Unit test
1. Explain the concept of capacitance.
2. Describe the action of a capacitor.
It can be said that a capacitor (sometimes referred to as a condenser), has the property of being able to store electrical energy when a potential is applied across the plates ie, it possesses capacitance. 3. State the unit of capacitance.
4. Define the term Farad.
ie. If
charge in coulombs = capacitance in farads. applied voltage
Q = _________ V = _________ C = _________
State the formula to calculate C: _______________________________
133
Capacitor action
Supply
Capacitor
Charging a capacitor
5. Describe in detail what happens to the capacitor in the above circuit when the switch is closed.
6. List the two factors that determine the rate at which the capacitor charges: i. __________________________________________________________ ii. __________________________________________________________ 7. Explain why: i. Larger capacitors take longer to charge.
ii. Charge time varies with the value of circuit resistance.
iii. Supply voltage does not affect charging time.
134
Symbols and units of capacitance 8. a. Unit of capacitance = Microfarad Picofarad b. Circuit Symbols Factors affecting capacity 9. a. Capacitance is directly proportional to the effective area of the plates. Explain how the effective area may be improved. = =
b. Another factor affecting the capacitance is the distance between the plates. Explain how the distance between the plates affects the capacitance.
c. The third factor is the type of material used as the dielectric. Explain how the type of dielectric used determines the capacitance value.
135
Review questions
1. A capacitor is a device capable of storing: a. An electric current. b. Resistance. c. A magnetic field. d. Electric charge. 2. A capacitor consists of two: a. Parallel plates and a dielectric. b. Dielectrics and a single plate. c. Parallel plates in an electrolyte. d. Parallel plates and a conductor. 3. The three symbols below are of: a. A non-polarised capacitor, battery and a variable capacitor. b. A non-polarised, polarised and variable capacitor. c. An inductor, polarised capacitor and a variable capacitor. d. A non-polarised capacitor, polarised capacitor and a variable resistor. a. b. c.
4. Capacitance is the ability of a circuit or device to store: a. Current flow. b. A magnetic field. c. Electrical charge. d. A resistance field. 5. A dielectric in a capacitor can be: a. A semiconductor. b. A pure metal. c. An acid. d. Air. 6. Capacitance is measured in: a. Amperes. b. Farads. c. Henries. d. Ohms. 7. If the distance between the plates of a capacitor is increased, its capacitance will: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Decrease to zero.
136
8. Two capacitors, C1 and C2, are connected in series across a 10-volt DC source. If C1 = 20 F and C2 30 F, the voltage across C2 will be: a. 4 volts. b. 5 volts. c. 6 volts. d. 10 volts. 9. If the plate area of a capacitor is increased, its capacitance value will: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Decrease to zero. 10. Capacitors are classified by the material used in their: a. Plates. b. Dielectric. c. Electrodes. d. Casing. 11. The type of fixed capacitor that must be connected with correct polarity is the: a. Ceramic capacitor. b. Electrolytic capacitor. c. Mica capacitor. d. Polyester capacitor. 12. If a variable capacitor has its plates unmeshed its capacitance will be: a. A minimum. b. A maximum. c. Between minimum and maximum. d. Either minimum or maximum. 13. If the dielectric constant of a capacitor is decreased its capacitance will: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Reduce to zero. 14. A trimmer capacitor should only be adjusted with: a. A metal screwdriver. b. A non-metal alignment tool. c. A pencil tip. d. Your hand. 15. A circuit consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series is connected to a voltage source. If the potential difference across the capacitor equals the potential difference of the source, then the capacitor is: a. Charging. b. Discharging. c. Fully charged. d. Fully discharged.
137
16. If a charged capacitor is disconnected from a circuit, it will: a. Remain charged. b. Immediately discharge. c. Recharge. d. Magnetise. 17. If a capacitor is discharging through a load, the voltage across its terminals will: a. Increase. b. Decrease. c. Remain the same. d. Increase towards infinity. 18. Match the capacitor types listed to those in the table. a. General Purpose, less than 1 F b. Large value capacitor, polarised c. Small size, values up to 1 F d. Small size for large value, polarised e. Adjustable 1. electrolytic. 2. Air dielectric. 3. Plastic dielectric. 4. Ceramic Dielectric. 5. Tantalum.
19. Two capacitors having a capacitance of 8 F and 12 F respectively are connected in parallel to a 240-volt supply. Calculate the: a. Total capacitance of the group. b. Voltage across each capacitor.
20. Three capacitors of 0.1 F, 0.33 F and 0.47 F are connected in series across a 9 volt supply. Calculate the: a. Total capacitance of the combination. b. Voltage drop across each capacitor.
138
Chapter review questions

1. Find the equivalent capacitance of an 8 F capacitor and a 33 F capacitor connected in series.
2. Find the equivalent capacitance of an 8 F and a 16 F capacitor connected in parallel.
3. Two capacitors, each of 27 pF, are connected in series with a 100 pF capacitor. Find the circuit capacitance.
4. A 27 pF capacitor is connected in series with a 0.1 F capacitor. Find the circuit capacitance.
5. Determine the amount of charge held in a 100 F capacitor at a voltage of 100 V d.c.
6. If the quantity of charge held on a 1000 ,uF capacitor is one coulomb, what would be the voltage across its terminals?
7. Three capacitors of 8 F, 16 F and 100 F are connected in series across a 100 V d.c. supply. Calculate the effective capacitance of the circuit and the voltages across each capacitor.
8. Capacitors of 2.2 F, 0.27 F and 0.01 F are connected in series. Find the equivalent circuit capacitance. If the circuit is then to be connected across a 250 V d.c. supply and the 0.01 F capacitor fails by becoming short-circuited, calculate the potential differences across the other two.
9. Three 8 F capacitors, each rated at 600 V, are connected in series. Find the circuit capacitance and
139

Solve Problems in Multiple Path DC Circuits

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solve Problems in Multiple Path DC Circuits

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical, Electronics Engineering Department

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits

Revision Date Contact

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

This page left blank intentionally

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Required Skills and Knowledge

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

This page left blank intentionally

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Resistors and Resistance

Figure 2 Linear and non-linear variable resistors

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Figure 3 Temperature probe with a resistance winding of thin platinum wire

Figure 4 The glass bulb and disc type thermistor

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Symbol Response curve

100 Dark Daylight

Figure 6 The LDR symbol, construction and response curve

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Figure 8 Typical construction and symbol of VDR

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Resistor colour code

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

2ND significant figure 1ST significant figure

General purpose fourband colour code

2ND significant figure 1ST significant figure

Table 1 Resistor colour code

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

brown black black 1 0 x1

= 120,000 ohm or 120 k 5%

yellow violet gold 4 7 x 0.1

= 1,200 ohm or 1.2 k 2%

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Pure metals used for conductors

Alloys used as resistance wire

Table 2 Resistivity of selected materials

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Self help questions

Table 3 Conductors, insulators and semi-conductors

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Figure 12 Relationship of resistance to area

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Figure 12 Relationship of resistance to area

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

orange white red

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

Series Resistive Circuits

Resistance in a series circuit

The value of the resistance can be shown in a number of ways:

Solve problems in multiple path d.c. circuits_UEUNEEE004A

e. R1 f. R2 g. R3