GENERAL Casting is probably one of the most ancient processes of manufacturing metallic components.

Also, with few exceptions, it is the first step in the manufacture of metallic components. The process involves the following basic steps: 1. Melting the metal. 2. Pouring it into a previously made mould or cavity which conforms to the shape of the desired component. 3. Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould. 4. Removing the solidified component from the mould, cleaning it and subjecting it to further treatment, if necessary. The solidified piece of metal, which is taken out of the mould, is called as Casting. Foundry: A plant where the castings are made is called a Foundry. It is a collection of necessary materials, tools and equipment to produce a casting. The casting process is also called as Founding. The word Foundry is derived from Latin word fundere meaning melting and pouring. Mould : A mould can be described as a void or cavity created in a compact sand mass with the help of pattern which (Mould), when filled with molten metal will produce a casting. Moulding: The process of making this cavity or mould in the compact sand is called moulding. Pattern: Pattern may be defined the as the replica of the casting to be made with some modifications. Types of Foundries: All the foundries are basically of two types: 1. Jobbing Foundries: These foundries are mostly independently owned. They produce castings on contract, within their capacity. 2. Captive Foundries: Such foundries are usually a department of a big manufacturing company. They produce castings exclusively for the parent company. Some captive foundries which achieve high production, sell a part of their output. Advantages of Casting Process: 1. Parts (both small and large) of intricate shapes can be produced. 2. Almost all the metals and alloys and some plastics can be cast. 3. A part can be made almost to the finished shape before any machining is done. 4. Good mechanical and service properties. 5. Mechanical and automated casting processes help decrease the cost of castings. 6. The number of castings can vary from very few to several thousands. However, casting imposes severe problems from the point of view of material properties and accuracy. Also, a complicated sequence of operations is required for metal casting. Again, the geometric complexity of the final product may be such that this process is of no use. Applications: There is hardly any machine or equipment which does not have one or more castcomponents. The list is very long, for example, automobile engine blocks, cylinder blocks of automobile and airplane engines, pistons and piston rings, Machine tool beds and frames, mill rolls, Wheels and housings of steam and hydraulic turbines, Turbine vanes and aircraft jet engine blades, Water supply and sewer pipes, Sanitary fittings and agricultural parts etc. In machine tools, internal combustion engines, compressors and other machines, the mass of castings may be as great as 70 to 85% of the products total mass. Classification of Casting Process: The list of the various casting processes is very long. However, there is one convenient way of classifying these processes. It is according to whether the moulds, patterns (used to make mould cavities) and cores (used to produce internal details in a component) are permanent or expendable (disposable). 1. Expendable Mould Casting: In this process, the mould cavity is obtained by consolidating a refractory material (moulding material) around a pattern. The mould has to be broken to take out the casting from the mould cavity. So, such moulds are one casting moulds. The moulding material can be sand or some other refractory material. The main drawback of sand mould casting process is that the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings do not satisfy in many cases the requirements of modern machine building and instrument making industry. However, if the moulding material is used in the form of slurry (Slurry moulding), better surface finish and dimensional accuracy

can be obtained. The pattern used in this process can be permanent pattern (which can be used again and again and is made of wood, metal or plastic) or expendable pattern (Full mould process, lost wax method). 2. Permanent Mould Casting: In this process, the mould is used repeatedly and is not destroyed after the solidification of the casting. The moulds are adaptable to the production of tens and thousands of castings. Generally, the process is practical for making parts of small and medium mass from light non-ferrous alloys. The castings produced by this method have smooth surface and increased accuracy of dimensions. Due to the high cost of permanent moulds, the use of this method is limited to mass or quantity production. 3. Semi-permanent Mould Casting: These moulds are prepared from high refractory materials, for example, based on graphite. These moulds are not as durable as permanent moulds. So, these can not be used for mass or quantity production, but for only a few tens of castings. In all the above three methods, the cores used may be permanent (metallic) or expendable (made of core sand or of some other suitable material). An iron foundry may have the following six prominent sections: a. Moulding and core making. b. Metal melting. c. Metal handling and pouring. d. Knockout. e. Fettling. f. Miscellaneous

PATTERN AND PATTERN MAKING

PATTERN: Pattern may be defined the as the replica of the casting to be made with some modifications. The main modifications are 1 The addition of pattern allowances. 2 The provision of core prints 3 Elimination of details which cannot be obtained by casting and hence they are obtained by further processing DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PATTERN AND CASTING 1 The material of the pattern is not necessarily same as that of the casting. Pattern may be made from wood. 2 Pattern carries an additional allowance to compensate for metal shrinkage. 3 It carries additional allowance for machining. 4 It carries the necessary draft to enable its easy removal from the sand mass. 5 It carries distortions allowance. Due to distortion allowance, the shape of casting is opposite to pattern. 6 Pattern may carry additional projections, called core prints to produce seats for cores. 7 Pattern may be in pieces (more than one piece) whereas casting is in one piece. 8 Sharp changes are not provided on the patterns. These are provided on the casting with the help of machining. 9 Surface finish may not be same as that of casting. FUNCTIONS OF A PATTERN 1 A pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting. 2 To produce seats for cores in the moulds so need core prints on the pattern. 3 Runner, gates and riser may form a part of the pattern. 4 Pattern establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould. 5 Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surface reduce casting defects. 6 A pattern may help in establishing locating pins on the mould and there fore on the casting with the purpose of checking casting dimensions. 7 Properly constructed patterns minimize over all cost of casting

TYPES OF PATTERNS
The following types of patterns are commonly used 1 Solid or single piece pattern 2 Split (Two piece) pattern 3 Multipiece pattern 4 Match plate pattern 5 Skeleton pattern

6 7 8 9 10

Sweep pattern Pattern with loose pieces Cope and drag pattern Follow board pattern Segmental pattern

Solid or Single Piece Pattern Patterns made without joints, partings or any loose pieces in its construction are called a Single piece or solid pattern. This pattern is not attached to a frame or plate. These are cheaper. Moulder has to cut his own runners, gates and risers so moulding operation takes more time. These are generally used for the large casting of the simple shape. A few examples of castings which are made by making solid patterns are stuffing box and gland of steam engines.

Split (Two Piece) Pattern Sometimes patterns cannot be made in single piece because of the difficulties encountered in moulding or difficulty in withdrawal from the mould. Because of these, patterns are usually made in two pieces called split patterns. One part will produce the lower half of the mould and the other part will produce the upper half of the mould. These two pieces are held in their proper relative position by means of dowel- pins fastened in one piece and fitting holes bored in the other. The surface which is formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the centre-line of the pattern is called as parting surface or parting line. Spindles, cylinders, steam valve bodies, water stop cocks and taps are few examples of split patterns. Multipiece Pattern Sometimes the patterns are made in more than two parts if the shape is complex. Then these patterns are called multipiece pattern which may consist of 3, 4 or more number of parts depending upon their design. Match Plate Pattern When split patterns are mounted with one half on one side of a plate (Match plate) and the other half directly opposite to the other side of the plate, the pattern is called a match plate pattern. A single pattern or a number of patterns may be mounted on a match plate. The match plate may be of wood, steel, magnesium or aluminum. Gates and runners are also attached to the plate along with the pattern. So when the match plate is lifted off the mould, patterns are also withdrawn. The gates and runners are also completed in one operation because patterns for runner and gates are also attached with the match plate along with the patterns of the desired castings. So lot of manual work is reduced. The patterns find a great favor in o Machine moulding o Mass production. o Greater dimensional accuracy. o Minimum machining requirement. Skeleton Pattern Patterns for very large castings would require a large amount of pattern material. In such cases skeleton patterns are used. Skeleton patterns a hollow patterns and made up of a wooden frame and strips. The frame work is filled and rammed with loam sand and strickle board is used to remove the excess sand. Strickle board is having the same contour as desired so it can remove the extra sand by passing over the skeleton pattern. Cores, if necessary can be produced separately. Skeleton pattern is very economical as compared to a solid pattern, because it involves less material cost. Castings for turbine castings, water pipes, L-bends etc. are made with skeleton pattern.

Skeleton pattern is made in two halvesone for cope and other for drag.

Sweep Pattern Sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board which sweeps the shape of the casting into the sand alt round the circumference. The sweep pattern rotates about the post. The moulds of large size and symmetrical in shape particularly of circular section can be easily prepared by using a sweep instead of a full pattern. Once the mould is ready, sweep pattern and the post (spindle) can be removed. Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full, large circular and costly threedimensional pattern. Sweep patterns are used for large patterns of cast iron, ridges etc. Pattern with Loose Pieces Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the moulding sand. Such patterns are usually made with one or more loose pieces for facilitating their removal from the moulding box and are known as loose piece patterns. Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of the pattern, with the help of dowel pins. The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the moulding box and there after the loose parts is removed. The result is the mould cavity. Loose piece pattern involves more labor and more cost. Cope and Drag Pattern It is another form of split pattern but the patterns are very large in size. Each half of the pattern is molded separately in a separate moulding box by an independent moulder or moulders. Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate metal / wood plate. Each metal plate, besides the pattern, has the provision for moulding runner and gates. The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally assembled and the mould is ready for pouring. Cope and drag patterns are used for producing big castings which as a whole cannot be conveniently handled by one moulder alone. Follow Board Pattern A follow board is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile and which may give away and collapse under the pressure when the sand above the pattern is being rammed. In addition to supporting a thin sectioned pattern, a follow board forms the natural parting line of the mould or the casting. Follow boards are also used for casting master patterns for many applications. Segmental Pattern Segmental patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as to form a complete mould. A segmental pattern completes one portion (stage) of the mould and then moves to the next position to make the next part of the mould and so on till the mould is completed. A segmental pattern differs from a sweep pattern in the sense that it does not revolve, continuously about the post to make the mould rather it prepares the mould by parts. PATFERN ALLOWANCES Pattern is having different size as compared to casting because it carries certain allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons. The various allowances are 1 2 3 4 5 Shrinkage or contraction allowance. Machining or finish allowance. Draft or taper allowance. Distortion or camber allowance. Shake or rapping allowance.

Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance As metal solidifies and cools, it shrinks and contracts in size. To compensate for this, a pattern is made larger than a finished casting by means of a shrinkage or contraction allowance. Contraction is different for different metals.

Wood patterns (master pattern) used to make metallic patterns are given double allowance, one for the shrinkage of the metal of the pattern and the other for that of metal to be cast. The total contraction is volumetric but the shrinkage allowance is added to the linear dimensions. Shrinkage allowances for various metals MATERIAL Grey cast iron White cast iron Aluminum Brass Copper Lead Magnesium SHRINKAGE METALS mm/mm 0.01 05 0.01 60 to 0.0230 0.0130 0.01 55 0.01 60 0.0260 0.01 30

Machining or Finish Allowance The finish and dimensional accuracy obtained in the sand casting are generally poor and when dimensionally accurate parts are to be produced, it is achieved by subsequent machining operation. Also ferrous materials would have scale on the surface which is to be removed by machining. For machining, extra metal is needed to be provided on casting, this extra metal is called machining or finish allowance. The amount of extra material depends on the design, casting material and surface finish required. The amount of this allowance varies from 1.6 to 12.5 mm which depends upon the type of casting metal, size and shape of casting, method of casting used, method of machining to be employed and the degree of finish required. This allowance is given in addition to shrinkage allowance. Draft or Taper Allowance At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are in continual contact with the sand, which may damage the mould cavity. This danger is greatly decreased if the vertical surfaces of a pattern are tapered inward slightly. The slight taper inward on the vertical surface of a pattern is known as the draft. It may be expressed in millimeters per meter on a side or in degrees. It depends upon the length of the vertical side, intricacy of the pattern, method of moulding, type of pattern and pattern material. The taper on the inner surfaces must be greater than on the outside surfaces. The amount of taper is normally 1degree for external surfaces and 3 degrees for internal surfaces. It may be reduced to less than 1/2 degree for larger castings. Distortion or Camber Allowance If the shape of the casting changes that is called distortion of the casting. A casting will distort or warp, if It is of irregular shape. All its parts do not shrink uniformly. It has long flat casting. The arms possess unequal thickness. Distortion can be practically eliminated by providing an allowance and constructing the pattern initially distorted.

Shake or Rapping Allowance When a pattern is rapped (shaked) in the mould before it is withdrawn, the cavity in the mould is slightly increased. So in order to compensate this, pattern is made slightly smaller than the actual. This allowance is called shaking or rapping. All allowances except shake or rapping allowance are positive but rapping allowance is negative. The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by increasing the taper. PATTERN MATERIALS Requirements of pattern material To be suitable for use, pattern material should be 1 Easily worked, shaped and joined. 2 Light in weight. 3 Strong, hard and durable. 4 Resistant to wear and abrasion, to corrosion and to chemical reaction. 5 Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperatures and humidity. 6 Available at low cost. 7 Such that it can be repaired easily and economically or even re-used. 8 Having ability to take a good surface finish. Pattern materials Following materials are generally used for making patterns a) Wood b) Metals 1 Cast iron 2 Brass 3 Aluminum alloys 4 White metal c) Plaster d) Plastic compound e) Wax Wood is the most common material used for pattern because it satisfies many of the desired requirements. Wood used for pattern making should be properly dried, straight grained, knots and free from excessive sap wood. The most common wood used for patterns mahogany, sal, shisham, pine, deodar etc. Advantages: 1 Cheap 2 Easily worked. 3 Light in weight. 4 Easily available. 5 Easy to join. 6 Easy to obtain good surface finish. 7 Can be easily repaired. 8 Wooden laminated patterns are strong and light in weight. Disadvantages: 1 Susceptible to moisture. 2 Tends to warp. 3 Wears out quickly due to sand abrasion. 4 Weaker than metallic patterns. Metals Metallic patterns are used where repetitive production of casting is required in large quantities. Different metals like cast iron, brass, aluminum alloys and white metal etc. are used for making patterns Advantages: Good dimensional accuracy Good surface finish. Good resistance against sand abrasion. Excellent resistance to swelling.

Posses longer life than wooden patterns.

Disadvantages Expensive when compared to wooden patterns. Are not easily repaired Heavier than wooden patterns Can not be machined easily. Plaster Gypsum plaster (plaster of Paris) when mixed with a correct quantity of water sets in a given time and 2 forms a hard mass having high compressive strength (up to 300 kg/cm ) Advantages Cheap and easily available. Easily workable. Good surface finish. Light in weight. Disadvantages Expands on solidification. Strength is not so much as that of metals. Plastic Compounds Both thermosetting and thermoplastic materials are used for pattern work. Generally thermo setting epoxy and polyester resins are used. In the thermoplastic type, polystyrene has become popular. Epoxy Resins Advantages Easily castable. High strength to weight ratio. Low cost of working. Good resistance to wear and abrasion. Low cost of material. Disadvantages Cannot be reused. Not too much strong. Waxes The waxes commonly chosen are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees wax and cerasin wax. Additives which act polymerizing agents and stabilizers are also added. Their use helps in imparting a high degree of surface finish and dimensional accuracy to castings. Wax patterns are prepared by pouring heated wax into split moulds or a pair of dies. The dies after having been cooled down are parted off. Now the wax pattern is taken out and used for moulding. Wax pattern need not to be drawn out solid from the mould. After the mould is ready, the wax is poured out by heating the mould and keeping it upside down. Selection of Pattern Material The selection of pattern material depends on factors such as 1 Design of casting. 2 No. of castings. 3 Quality of casting. 4 Shape (Intricacy) of casting. . 5 Type of moulding process. 6 Type of production of castings. 7 Moulding material to be used. 8 Possibility of design changes. 9 Chances of repeat orders etc.

MOULDING AND CORE MAKING

Mould : A mould can be described as a void or cavity created in a compact sand mass with the help of pattern which (Mould), when filled with molten metal will produce a casting. Moulding: The process of making this cavity or mould in the compact sand is called moulding.

Core Making: Sometimes a casting is to be made hollow or with cavities in it. Such type of casting requires the use of cores. A core is defined as a sand shape which is exactly similar to the cavities or holes to be produced in the casting. The cores are generally made separately in a core box. The process of making cores is called core making. MOULD MATERIALS A mould material is one out of which the mould is made. Casting can be made in (a) Permanent moulds: These are made up of ferrous metals and alloys (steel, grey cast iron). These are normally employed for casting low melting point materials. The moulds produce small casting with better quality and dimensional accuracy but permanent moulds are costly. (b) Temporary refractory moulds: These are made up of refractory sands and resin. These are used for casting high melting point materials and bigger objects. MAIN CONSTITUENTS OF MOULDING SAND The principle constituents of moulding sand are 1 2 3 4 Silica Sand Binder Additives Water

Silica Sand Silica sand is the major proton of the moulding sand (80 to 82%). Silica sand contains from 80 to 90 percent silicon dioxide and characterized by a high softening temperature and thermal stability. It is a product of the breaking up of quartz rocks or the decomposition of granite, which is composed of quartz and telspar. The silica sand is found in nature on the bottoms and bank of rivers, lakes and large bodies of water. Silica sand grains impart refractoriness, chemical resistivity and permeability to the sand. Binder The purpose of adding a binder to the moulding sand is to impart the sufficient strength and cohesiveness. However, it produces an adverse effect on the permeability of sand mould. The common binders used in foundry can be grouped as Organic Binders: Organic binders find their specific use in core making. Examples are: 1 Dextrin 2 Linseed oil 3 Molasses 4 Pitch 5 Cereal binders 6 Resins like phenol and urea formaldehyde. Inorganic Binders: The common binders are clay, sodium silicate and Portland cement. Out of all these, clay binders are commonly used. Clay: Clay is defined as those particles of sand (under 20 microns in diameter) which fail to settle at a rate of 25 mm per minute when suspended in water. The felspar (obtained from decomposition of granite) when decomposed becomes clay (Hydrous aluminium silicate). Clay consists of two ingredientsfine slit and true clay. Fine slit is a sort of foreign matter or mineral deposit and has no bonding power. True clay imparts the necessary bonding strength to the mould sand. The following types of clays are commonly used (a) Bentonite (b) Kaolinite or fire clay (c) Limonite etc. Out of the above, Bentonite is widely used. Its deposits are found in Bihar, Rajasthan and Kashmir. Additives: Additives are those materials which are added to the moulding sand to improve the existing properties of sand. The commonly used additives are 1. Sea Coal (a) It is added to moulding sand for casting of cast iron to improve the stripping and surface appearance of cast iron.

(b) It restricts the mould wall movement but reduces permeability and hot strength of the mould. (c) The amount of sea coal addition varies from 1% (for small casting) to 10% (for large castings). (d) Sea coal is finally powdered bituminous coal. 2. Pitch and Asphalt (a) Pitch is distilled from soft coal at about 600F and asphalt is a by product of petroleum distillation. (b) It improves hot strength and surface finish on ferrous castings. It may be added from 0.2 to 2%. 3. Silica Flour (a) It is pulverized silica which can pass through 200 mesh sieve. (b) It improves hot strength, surface finish, resists metal penetration, and minimizes sand expansion defects. (c) It may be added up to 35%. 4. Graphite (a) It may be natural or synthetic graphite. (b) It improves surface finish and moldability of foundry sand mixtures. (c) It may be added from 0.2 to 2%. 5. Wood Flour (a) They minimize sand expansion defects, improve flowability, collapsibility. (b) It may be added from 0.5 to 2%. 6. Corn Flour (a) It improves collapsibility, increases green and dry strength of the moulding sand minimizes the sand expansion defects. (b) It lowers the flowability and permeability. (c) It may be added from 0.25 to 2.0 percent. 7. Dextrin and Molasses (a) It increases the dry strength of sand and resists the mould tendency to dry out Water: The clay content added to foundry sand will not give the required strength and bond until a suitable quantity of water is added to it. Quantity of water varies from 2 to 8%. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water absorbed by clay helps in bonding while the remainder up to a limit helps in improving the plasticity but more than that would decrease the strength and flowability. SAND GRAINS Sand used for moulding purposes can be classified according to its grain size and grain 1 Grain Size (a) The size of sand grains may be fine, medium or coarse. (b) Fine sand is used for small and intricate casting. (c) Medium grain size sand is used for bench work and light floor work. (d) Coarse grain size sand is used for heavy casting. 2. Grain Shape Foundry sand grains can be classified into the following four shapes (a) Rounded sand grains. (b) Sub-angular sand grains. (c) Angular sand grains. (d) Compound sand grains. (a) Rounded sand grains + It imparts high permeability, greater flowability + Sand grains too smooth and round may result in sand cracks, sand wash and scabs and also decreases the strength. (b) Sub-angular sand grains As compared to round grain sand, these possess + Better strength.

+ Lower permeability. (c) Angular sand grains it give: + A stronger bond. + Higher mould strength. + Low permeability (d) Compound sand grains +Compounds grains tend to dissociate at high temperature. + These are neither preferred nor much used. PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND Proper moulding sand must possess the following properties 1. Porosity or Permeability Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved gases which are evolved when the metal freezes. Molten metal also coming in contact with the moist sand, generates steam or water vapours. Thus to provide a path for free escape of the gases, the moulding sand should be permeable or porous. If these gases and water vapours evolved by the moulding sand dont find opportunity to escape completely through the mould, they will form gas holes and pores in the casting called porosity defect. Sands which are coarse or have rounded grains exhibit more permeability. Soft ramming and clay addition in lower amount also improves permeability. 2. Flowability (Plasticity) Flowability is the ability of the moulding sand to get compacted to a uniform density. Flowability assists moulding sand to flow and pack all around the pattern and take up the required shape. Flowability increases as clay and water content increases. The sand must retain its shape when the pressure is removed. 3. Refractoriness It is the ability of the moulding sand to withstand high temperature of the molten metal with fusion, cracking or buckling. Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand rather than its melting point. The degree of refractoriness depends upon the quartz content and the shape and grain size of the particles. The higher the quartz content, rougher the grain shape, higher is the refractoriness of the sand. 4. Adhesiveness It is that property of the sand due to which it adhere or cling to the another body (i.e., sides of the moulding box). It is due to this property that the sand mass can be successfully held in a moulding box and it does not fall out of the box when it is tilted (roll over). 5. Cohesiveness This is the ability of sand particles to stick together. It may be defined as the strength of the moulding sand. It is of three types Green Strength: The property (strength) of sand in its green or moist state is known as green strength. The green sand should have enough strength so that the constructed mould retains its shape. Dry Strength: The strength of sand that has been dried or baked is called dry strength. When the molten metal is poured into the mould, the sand around the mould cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand immediately evaporates due to heat in the molten metal. In this stage, it should retain the mould cavity and at the same time it should with stand metallostatic forces Hot Strength: After the moisture has evaporated, the sand may be required to possess strength at some elevated temperature. So the strength of the sand at elevated temperature is called hot strength.

6. Collapsibility It is that property of the sand due to which the sand mould breaks (collapse) automatically (or with very less forces) after the solidification of the casting occurs. If the mould or core does not collapse easily, it may restrict free contraction of the solidifying metal and cause the same (casting) to tear or crack. 7. Bench Life It is the ability of the moulding sand to retain its properties during storage or while standing (i.e., in case of any delay). 8. Co-efficient of expansion Moulding sand should possess low coefficient of expansion. 9. Moulding sand should be chemically neutral. 10. Moulding sand should be reusable, cheap and easily available. CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDING SAND The moulding sand may be classified generally into the following three different types 1. Natural sand 2. Synthetic sand 3. Special sand. 1. Natural Sand (Green sand) These sands are taken from river beds and are dug from pits and purely natural. They possess an appreciable amount of clay (acts as a binder) and moisture. 2. Natural moulding sands are also obtained by crushing and milling soft yellow sand stones. During milling operation, clay aggregates breaks down and are uniformly distributed over the sand grains. Due to their low cost and easy availability, these are used for most of the ferrous and nonferrous castings. Synthetic Sand It is artificial sand obtained by mixing relatively clay tree sand, binder and other materials as required. It is better moulding sand as its properties can be easily controlled by varying the mixture content. Special Sand It contains the mixtures of inorganic compounds. Cost of these sands is more but they offer high temperature stability better cast surfaces etc. Special sands used are zircon, olivine, chamotte, chromite etc.

3.

The moulding sands according to their use, are further classified as below 1. Green Sand The sand in its natural or moist state is called green sand. It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having total amount of water 6 to 8 percent. The molten metal is poured in the green sand moulds without any prior backing (Heating). It is used for simple, small and medium size castings. 2. Dry Sand The green sand moulds when baked or dried before pouring the molten metal are called dry sand mould. The sand in this condition is called dry sand. Dry sand has more strength, rigidity and thermal stability as compared to green sand. These moulds are used for large and heavy castings.

3. Loam Sand Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to ordinary moulding sand. The clay content is of the order of 50%. Sweep or skeleton patterns may be used for loam moulding. It is used for loam moulding of large grey iron castings.

4. Facing Sand This sand is used directly next to the surface of the pattern and comes in contact with the molten metal when the mould is poured. It is fresh sand i.e., without the addition of used sand. It must possess high strength and refractoriness. The layer of facing sand in a mould usually ranges from 20 to 30 mm. 5. Backing Sand It is the sand which backs up the facing sand. It is the floor sand which is repeatedly used. Backing sand has black colour due to the addition of coal dust and burning on coming in contact with molten metal. Before use, the backing sand should, however, be cleaned off the foreign matter like fins, nails etc. 6. System Sand System sand is one which is used in a mechanical sand preparation and handling system (mechanized foundries). In mechanized foundries, no facing sand is used, rather the complete otherwise used sand is cleaned and reactivated by the addition of waters, binders and special additives. Since the whole mould is made of this system sand, the strength, permeability and refractoriness of this sand must be higher than those of backing sand. 7. Parting Sand a. This sand is clay free sand and consists of dried silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand. b. It is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface of the cope and drag to separate without clinging. 8. Core Sand The sand which is used for the preparation of the cores is called core sand. It is also called oil sand. It is the silica sand mixed with linseed oil or any other oil as binder. Type of mould Green Mould Sand Advantages 1. Least expensive 2. Less distortion than in dry sand moulds because no baking is required. 3. flasks are ready for reuse in minimum time 4. Dimensional accuracy is good across the parting line. 5. Less danger of hot tearing of Castings than in other types of castings. disadvantages 1. Sand control is more critical than in dry sand moulds. 2. Erosion of mould is more common in the production of large castings. 3. Surface finish and dimensional accuracy deteriorate as the weight of the casting increases.

Dry Mould

Sand 1. Stronger than green sand moulds, thus 1. Castings are more prone to tearing. are less prone to damage in handling. 2. Distortion is greater than for green sand 2. Overall dimensional accuracy is better moulds because of baking. than for green sand moulds. 3. More flask equipment is needed to produce 3. 3. Surface finish of castings is better, the same number of finished pieces mainly because dry sand moulds are because processing cycles are longer than coated with a wash. for green sand moulds. 4. Production is slower than for green sand moulds. Dry Sand Core 1. Exceptionally good dimensional accuracy 1. Extreme care must be taken in Moulds can be maintained. setting the cores. 2. Dry sand core moulding is adaptable to green sand foundries that do not have large drying facilities. 1. More than 85% of all metal castings are poured in sand moulds, the balance are made in ceramic shell or metal moulds. 2. Majority of castings are poured in green sand moulds.

3. In a foundry, up to 90% of the moulding sand can be reprocessed to make new moulds.

PREPARATION OF MOULDING SAND Preparation of sand includes 1. Mixing of sand 2. Tempering of sand. 3. Sand conditioning Mixing of sand Sometimes, artificial means are adopted to make the sand suitable for use. Sand mixing is the process through which we add those materials to the sand which are rich in such characteristics in which the sand lacks. Generally it is mixed with clay, lime, magnesia, potash, soda etc.

Tempering of Sand The process by which adequate amount of moisture is added to moulding sand to make it workable is called tempering of sand. Adequate amount of water (moisture) is needed to activate the clay binder. Less moisture is not capable of making the film with the clay or not capable to activate the clay binder. More moisture also creates problems. So it must be in adequate quantity. Sand Conditioning The proper sand conditioning means the uniform distribution of binder around the sand grains, so that it flows readily around and takes up the detail of the pattern. Sand conditioning is done either by manually or by machines. Muller is used to mix the sand properly. TESTING OF MOULDING SAND Moulding sand must possess certain properties for producing good moulds and castings. Following are the various tests to be carried out in a sand testing shop 1 2 3 4 5 6 Moisture content test. Grain size or fineness test. Clay content test. Permeability test. Strength test. Mould and core hardness test.

Moisture Content Test The moisture content may be determined by the loss of weight after evaporation or by means of a chemical reaction. (a) By the loss of weight after evaporation: In this method 50 grams of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated. After this moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighed. The difference in the weights of the samples is divided by the weight of the sample taken initially. Result is the percentage moisture content. (b) By the chemical reaction: In this method, 10 gm sample of sand is placed in a special container along with powdered calcium carbides. Calcium carbide reacts with the moisture content and generates acetylene gas. The pressure of C provides a direct reading of the water content on the pressure gauge (calibrated). CaC 2 + 2H 2 O Ca(OH) 2 + C2H2

(Calcium carbide + Moisture in a sand gives Calcium di-hydroxide +Acetylene gas) Grain Size or Fineness Test (a) The apparatus required for determining grain fir number consists of a number of standard sieves mounted one above the other on a power driven shaker. The shaker vibrates the

sieves and the sand placed on the top sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves depending upon the various sizes of grains present in the moulding sand. (b) The top sieve is the coarsest (having largest holes) and the bottom most sieve is the finest of all the sieves. (c) The in between sieves are placed in order of fineness from top to bottom. (d) A sample of dry sand out of which clay has been removed is placed in the upper most sieves and is vibrated for a definite period of time, and the amount of same retained on each sieve is weighed and the percentage distribution of grains is computed. (e) To obtain the A.F.S. (American Foundry Society) grain fineness number, each percentage is multiplied by a multiplier (i.e. standard factor), the resulting products are added and divided by total percentage of sand grains retained. A.F.S. grain fineness number = Sum of products/ Total sum of the percentages of sand retained on pan and each sieve Clay Content Test The procedure is described as follows 1 Dry thoroughly a small quantity of prepared moulding sand. 2 Separate 50 grams of dry moulding sand and transfer the same to a wash bottle. Add in it 475 cc of distilled water and 25 cc of a 3% NaOH solution. 3 Using a rapid sand stirrer, agitate the whole mixture for about 10 minutes. 4 Fill the wash bottle with water up to the mark indicated on the same. 5 After the sand etc. has settled for about 10 minutes, siphon out the water, from the wash bottle. 6 Clay is dissolved in water and gets removed along with the same. 7 To the sand thus left in the wash bottle, add more water, stir the solution again and let the sand settle down. 8 Repeat above step till the water over the settled sand is clean. This assures that the whole of the clay has been removed from the sand. 9 Dry the settled down sand. 10 The clay content can be determined from the difference in weights of the initial and final sand samples. Permeability Test The test is carried out as follows A specimen of diameter 5.08 cm and height 5.08cm (generally) is placed in an instrument known as permeability meter. 2 A selected amount of air (2000cc) is forced through the specimen under controlled conditions. 3 The rate of flow of air is timed to calculate the permeability number. 4 The permeability number is calculated by the following formula P= VH/pAT Where, P = Permeability no. to be determined V = volume of air passing through the test specimen =2000cc H = Height of specimen in cm. 2 p = pressure of air in gm/cm A = cross-sectional area of specimen in cm T = time taken by air to pass in minutes. The strength of a foundry moulding sand is determined by (a) Compression (b) Tensile (c) Shear (d) Transverse 1

Compressive Strength: It is measured when the specimen is caused to break under a compressive load. Tensile Strength: It is measured when the specimen is caused to break under tensile load. Shear Strength: It is measured when the specimen is caused to break under a shearing load. Transverse Strength: It is measured when the specimen is caused to break under a bending load.

These tests are carried on a universal testing machine, with sand specimen 5.08 cm x 5.08 cm x 5.08 cm. The compressive strength is obtained by applying a uniformly increasing load on a sand specimen until it fails. The compression value in N/mm is read directly on the scale. The shear strength is obtained in the same way by changing the holding device so that load is applied on the upper half of the specimen at one end and on the lower half at the other end. Mould and Core Hardness Test Hardness of the mould or core can be tested with the help of an indentation hardness tester. The instrument resembles with dial indicator, carries a spring loaded spherical indenter which penetrates into mould surface. The depth of penetration with respect to the flat reference surface of the tester is indicated on the dial of the instrument in terms of hardness unit (calibrated). TYPES OF MOULDS The various types of moulds are as follows 1. Green Sand Moulds The sand mould prepared from natural moulding sand in its green state is called green sand mould. In a green sand mould molten metal is poured while it is in green state i.e. in the un dried condition. A green sand mould possesses lower strength and lower permeability. Green sand mould offers less resistance to the solid shrinkage of castings and thus the castings dont crack or tear while solidifying. Green sand moulds are suitable for producing small and medium sized castings. Green sand moulds contain moisture, therefore certain defects like blow holes may occur in casting. The surface finish is also not good. 2 Dry Sand Moulds Dry sand moulds are prepared from fine grained sand mixed with suitable binder and baking in an oven (at temperature 300 to 650 F) before the molten metal is poured in them. Dry sand moulds possess higher strengths as compared to green sand moulds. They are more expensive and consume more time in making as compared to green sand moulds They evolve less steam and gas during casting, thus requiring less permeability. Castings produced are dimensionally accurate, having better surface finish. 3 Skin Dried Moulds The mould is made with the moulding sand in the green (moisture) condition and then the skin of the mould cavity is dried with the help of gas torches or heat lumps. Thus it is the compromise between green sand and dry sand moulds. Skin dried moulds are dried only up to a depth varying from 8 mm to 25 mm. If a skin dried mould is not poured immediately after drying, moisture from green backing sand penetrate the dried skin and make the skin dried sand ineffective. 4. Air Dried Moulds These moulds are similar to skin dried moulds in the sense that their skin is dried, but they are not artificially heated. Skin hardness is obtained by exposing them (moulds) to air for a certain length of time. Large pit moulds get dried in this manner because they are exposed to air for a considerable time during making.

5. Loam Moulds They are used for extremely large castings. They are first built up with bricks and often reinforced with iron plates. A loam mortar is prepared and plastered on the backing made from bricks and iron then they are finished by sweeps or stickle, given a refractory coating and finally baked. Construction of these moulds reduces the pattern cost.

6. Cement Bonded Sand Moulds Cement bonded sand mould material consists of 85.5% pure silica sand, 10% Portland cement and 4.5% water. Cement bonded sand moulds develop strength and hardness because of the setting action of the Portland cement. Drying and setting of cement takes about 72 hours. Casting made in them are accurate, smooth surfaced, need no further machining, having clean surface.

7. Plaster Moulds Plaster mould is prepared in the following way Use a pattern of metallic or some other moisture resistant material. Make slurry of the mixtures of Gypsum or Plaster of Paris (CaSO H and additives such as talc, silica flour, asbestos fiber etc. with water. The slurry is poured over the pattern and is allowed to preset. Pattern is taken out and the preset mould is heated in an oven at about 600F for several hours. It removes moisture from the plaster mould. Cope and drag are made separately by the method described above and are assembled for pouring. Plaster moulds are used for non-ferrous castings. Plaster moulds imparts good surface finish and dimensional accuracy to the casting but mould possess poor permeability which causes several defects. The rate of cooling of the metal is slow giving rise to the growth of large grains of metal. Low strength and low heat conductivity of the mould limits the size of the castings.
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Carbon Dioxide Moulds These moulds are made from a mixture of clean and dry silica sand and sodium base binder. Carbon dioxide gas is passed through this mould to obtain the desired hardness. Shell Moulds Shell moulds are produced with the help of heated iron or steel patterns. A mixture of fine sand and phenolic resin is used to produce shells. Shells are assembled to form the mould in which liquid metal is poured. Metallic Moulds Metal moulds are also known as permanent moulds They are generally cast iron or steel Metals moulds are employed in the following casting processes. 1 2 3 Permanent mould casting. Pressure die casting. Centrifugal casting.
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MOULDING PROCESSES The various moulding processes can be classified as According to the method used (a) Floor moulding (b) Bench moulding (c) Pit moulding (d) Machine moulding According to the mould materials (a) Sand moulding 1 Green sand moulding 2 Skin dried moulding 3 Dry sand moulding 4 Core sand moulding 5 Loam moulding 6 Cement bonded sand moulding 7 Carbon dioxide moulding (b) Plaster moulding

(c) Metallic moulding METHODS OF MOULDING The various methods used in making the mould are as follows Bench Moulding Moulding is carried out on a bench so it is suitable for small and light moulds. Both green and dry sand moulds can be made by bench moulding. When fewer castings are needed the moulds are prepared in two or three boxes, required, with the use of moulding boards and then removed from the bench for pouring. When mass production of identical castings is needed, a match plate is usually employed in conjunction with the bench. Moulds both for ferrous and especially non ferrous castings are made on bench moulds. Floor Moulding The moulding done on the foundry floor is called floor moulding. The foundry floor itself acts as a drag and it may be covered with a cope or the mould may be cast open. It is used for all medium and large castings. Pit Moulding The moulding done in a pit instead of a flask is called pit moulding. It is used extremely large castings. The mould has its drag part in th6 pit and a separate cope is rammed and used above the pit. Sides of the pit are lined with bricks and on the bottom there is a thick layer of cinder with connecting vent pipes to the floor level. Gates, runner, pouring basin, sprue etc. are made in the cope. Machine Moulding The moulding done by a machine is called machine moulding. The ramming of sand, rolling over the mould, forming the gate and drawing out of pattern can be done by machines much better and more efficiently than by hand. Moulding machines can produce identical and consistent castings. Moulding machines are preferred for mass production because mostly work is done the machines. METHODS OF GREEN SAND MOULDING (MOULDING PROCEDURES) Following are three methods commonly used for green sand moulding Open Sand Method This is the simplest form of green sand moulding particularly suitable for solid patterns. It uses no moulding box. The sand on the foundry floor is leveled and the pattern impression is formed in it. Upper surface of the mould is open to air. Pouring basin is made at one end of the mould, and the overflow channels are cut at the sides of the cavity. The upper surface of the casting made by this method is rough. This method is used for the casting of railing and gates, moulding boxes, grills, floor plates, weights etc. Bedded In Method This method is used if the upper surface of the casting is required to be smooth or the surface of the casting is not flat but has some other shape. That is why there is the need of cope which is not employed in open sand method. The pattern is placed on the sand bed Sand is rammed properly around the pattern The top of drag is smoothened and the parting sand is spreaded. Cope flask is placed on the drag (including the pattern) and is rammed. Runner, gates etc. are cut after removing the cope. Pattern is withdrawn and the cope and drag are assembled for pouring. Turn Over Method

The procedure for making a mould by split pattern is as follows 1 First a suitable moulding box is selected which can accommodate the pattern, riser, gating system and also allow some space around it for ramming of sand 2 A bottom board is placed either on the mould platform or on the floor, making the surface even 3 The drag portion of the moulding box is placed upside down on the bottom board. 4 Place the drag pattern with parting surface down on the bottom board. There should be enough clearance between the pattern and the walls of the flask for gate cutting etc. Refer Fig. 16.8 (a) 5 Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky surface. 6 If facing sand (freshly prepared sand) is used, it is poured into the drag all along the pattern surface to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm. 7 Rest of the drag moulding box (flask) is completely filled with the back up sand. 8 Ram the sand uniformly in the moulding box around the pattern. The ramming of the sand should be done properly so as not to compact it too hard, which makes the escape of gases difficult, nor too loose so that mould would not have enough strength. 9 The excess sand in the moulding box (flask) is completely scraped using a flat bar to the level of the moulding box edges. 10 Now with a vent wire (a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameters having pointed end), vent holes are made in the drag to facilitate the removal of gases during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of the drag. 11 A small amount of parting sand is sprinkled over the mould, and bottom board is placed on the top. Refer Fig. 12 The drag moulding box is now rolled over. Th bottom board is removed to expose the pattern. Refer Fig. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired and cope half of the pattern is placed over the drag pattern and aligning it with the help of dowel pins. 13 The cope flask (moulding box) is placed on the top of the drag flask aligning again with the help of the pins. 14 The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern. 15 A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is placed (erected) at a small distance from the pattern. Also a riser pin if required, is kept at an appropriate place. Placing of these will be done by tucking small amount of moulding sand around them. Refer Fig. 16 The facing sand if used is again poured into the cope tlask all along the pattern surface to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm. 17 Gaggers if used are then placed in proper position. Gaggers should not be too close to the mould cavity otherwise they might chill the casting. 18 Rest of the cope moulding box (flask) is completely filled with the backing sand. 19 Ram the sand uniformly around the pattern. The excess sand is scraped using a flat bar to the level of the moulding box edges. Refer Fig. Remove sprue and riser pins. The pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue. Venting as described earlier is also performed. 20 Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface. 21 Roll over the cope on the bottom board exposing the pattern surface. Refer Fig. 22 The pattern parts are then withdrawn from both the drag and cope by using the draw spikes and rapping pattern. Refer Fig. 23 Repair the mould if necessary. 24 The runner and gates are also cut in the mould carefully without spoiling the mould. 25 Any loose sand can be blown off with the help of bellows. 26 Apply mould coating with a swab. 27 Bake (heat) the moulds in case of dry sand mould. Set the core in the mould, if required. Refer Fig. 28 Close the mould by inverting cope over drag. Clamp the cope portion of the flask with the drag. Now the mould is ready for pouring. Refer Fig.

Moulding Machines
A moulding machine performs two important functionsit packs the sand and draws the pattern. Moulding machines are, therefore, classified according to (1) the method of compacting the moulding sand, and (2) the method of removing the pattern. In any case, one or two patterns are fastened to a

pattern plate which is installed in the moulding machine. The pasterns are made of metal, plastics or any other suitable material. Classification of molding machines according to the methods of compaction the sand. Squeezer Machine: In the squeeze method, moulding sand in the flask is squeezed between the machine table and the overhead squeeze board pneumatically or hydraulically until mould attain the desired density. The principle of operation of a top squeeze is illustrated in Fig 1 The pattern 2 is placed on a mould board which is clamped on the table 1. The flask 3 is then placed on the mould board and the sand frame 4 on the flask. The flask a frame are filled with moulding sand and leveled off. Next the table is raised by the table lift mechanism against the platen 5 on the stationary squeezer head 6. The platen enters the sand frame up to the dotted line and compacts the moulding sand. After the squeeze, the table returns to its initial position. The principle of a bottom; squeezer machine is shown in Fig. 2. As before, the pattern is placed on the mould board which is clamped to the table. The flask 3 is placed on the frame 7 and is filled with sand; Next the squeeze head is brought against the top of the flask and the table with the pattern is raised upon the dotted line. After Squeezing, the table returns to its initial position. The main limitation of the squeezer method is that, the sand is packed more densely on the top of mould from which the pressure is applied, and the density decreases uniformly with the depth. At the parting plane and around the pattern, the density is found to be the lowest. This variation of density affects the hardness of the mould which thus varies according to the depth. The squeeze method is, therefore, restricted to moulds not more than 150 mm in depth. Jolt Machine. In the jolting method, the flask is first filled with the moulding sand and then the table supporting the flask is mechanically raised and dropped in succession. Due to the sudden change in inertia at the end of each fall, the sands get packed and rammed. The action of raising and sudden dropping the table is called jolting. Fig. 3 illustrates the principle of a jolt moulding machine in which the table 1, with the platen and flask 3, filled with moulding sand, is raised to 30 to 80 mm at short intervals by the plunger 8 when compressed air is admitted through the hose 9 and the channel 10. The air is next released through the opening 11 and the table drops down suddenly and strikes the guiding cylinder 12 at its bottom. This sudden action causes the sand to pack evenly around the pattern. Springs 13 are used to cushion the table blows and thus reduce noise and prevent destruction of the mechanism and the foundation. The drawback i this method is that sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and around the pattern and remains less in the top. This necessitates, hand ramming of the mould at the back after the jolting action is completed. These machines are preferred for horizontal surfaces. Jolt-Squeeze Machine: In order to overcome the drawbacks of both the squeeze and jolt principles of ramming the sand, a combination of squeeze and, jolt action is often employed. A jolting action is used to consolidate the sand on the face of the pattern and it is followed by a squeezing action to impart the desired density throughout the mass of the sand. The jolt-squeeze machine is so constructed that both squeeze and jolt actions can be obtained one after the other. A high pressure jolt squeeze machine is capable of producing moulds of maximum hardness, rammed uniformly throughout the flask. Sand Slinger: In the slinging operation, the consolidation. and ran are obtained by the impact of sand which falls at a very high velocity. The principle of a sand slinger is illustrated in Fig. 4. The overhead impeller head consists of the housing 1 in which the blade 2 rotates at a very high speed. The sand is delivered to the impeller through the opening 3 by means of conveyor buckets. The impeller head by the rotation of the blade throws the. san through the outlet 4 down into the flask over the pattern at a rate raging from 500 to 2,000 kg per mm. The density of the sand can be controlled by the speed of the blade. Moulds produced by this method have adequate strength, since hardness is a function of sand velocity, which is controllable, in a sand slinger. These machines are most often used for ramming medium-size to large moulds. Classification of moulding machines according to the method of removing the pattern from the mould: Straight-Draw Moulding Machine: In the straight-draw moulding machining (Fig. 5), the pattern 1 is fixed On the pattern plate 3 on the table-5, and the flask or moulding box 2 is placed over it and filled with s It is then roughly rammed round the edges of the box. The squeeze head is next swung over in position and it squeezes the mould. The flask is then lifted from the pattern by stripping pins 6.

Stripping-Plate Moulding Machine: The principle of a stripping plate moulding machine is illustrated in Fig. 6. The stripping plate 4 is arranged between the flask 2 and pattern plate 3. The stripping plate has a recess whose contours equal those of the pattern 1. When the mould is ready the pattern is withdrawn from the mould downwards through the stripping plate, which supports the mo when the pattern is removed. Turn-over moulding machine: This is used for large size, high moulds, having parts which might e break away. In Fig 6, the flask 2 rests on the pattern plate 3 during the moulding operation. Then the flask together with the work table 5 is rotated 180 and pins 6 lift the table 5 together with the pattern 1 out of the mould. CORES Cores are defined as a body of sand which is used to form the hollow interior of the casting or a hole through the casting. These are prepared separately in a core box. Cores are held and located in the moulds in the seats formed by the core prints provided on the patterns. Essential Characteristics of Good Core Cores must possess 1 High permeability to allow an easy escape to the gases formed. 2 High refractoriness to withstand high temperature of molten metal. 3 Smooth surface. 4 High collapsibility i.e. it should be able to disintegrate quickly after the solidification of the metal is complete. 5 Sufficient strength to support itself. Functions (Purposes) of Cores 1 The cores are used to form the internal cavities. 2 Cores are used to form a part of a green sand mould. 3 Cores are used to strengthen the moulds. 4 Cores are used as a part of the gating system. TYPES OF CORES According to shapes and positions of the cores in the prepared moulds, these (cores) are classified as below 1 Horizontal core 2 Vertical core 3 Hanging or cover core 4 Drop core or stop off core 5 Ram up core 6 Kiss core. 1. Horizontal Core A horizontal core is placed horizontally at the parting line of the mould such that one half remains in the cope and the other half in the drag. The ends of the core rest on the seats of the mould provided by the core prints. Core prints are provided on the pattern (generally two piece or split pattern). 2. Vertical Core This is placed in a vertical position both in cope and drag halves of the mould. The amount of taper on the top is greater than that at the bottom. It rests on the seat made at the bottom of the mould by the core print and further supported by a similar seat made in the cope. 3. Balanced core A balanced core is one which is supported and balanced from its one end only. So it needs only one core print but it is large enough to give proper bearing to the core. The core length should be long enough so that sufficient length of the core may be embedded in the sand to balance the weight of the overhung. If the overhung is too much, such balancing will not be enough and the overhanging length of the core will be supported by means of chaplets. It is used when the casting does not need a through hole or cavity. 4. Hanging or Cover Core

Hanging core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at the bottom of the drag. Cover core covers the mould and rests on a seat made in the drag. Hanging cores are fastened with the help of wires etc.

5. Drop core, Stop off Core or Wing Core A stop off or drop core is used when a hole, recess or cavity required in a casting is not in line with the parting surface i.e., it is above or below the parting line of the casting. These are also known as tail core, saddle core or chair core depending upon its shape and position in the mould. 6. Ram-up Core Ram-up core is placed with the pattern before the mould is rammed up. These are used when the core detail (cavity) is located in an inaccessible position i.e., interior and exterior portions of a casting. 7. Kiss Core Kiss cores do no require core seats for getting supported. These are held in position between drag and cope due to the pressure exerted by the cope on the drag. Number of holes can be produced simultaneously by using number of kiss cores. CORE MAKING The core making procedure consists of the following steps 1. Mixing of Core Sand Core binders (organic binders : core oils, resins, cereal binders, sulphite binders, pitch, wood floor, plastics or inorganic binders (fire clay, bentonites, silica flour, iron oxide) are added to the sand to improve the various properties of core sand. Mixing of core sand is done either manually or with the help of machines like paddle mixers or mullers. The mixing must be homogenous. 2. Ramming of Core Sand: Core box is filled with core sand and then ramming is done either manually or with the help of machines. 3. Venting of Core: In order to increase the permeability, vent holes are created in the cores with the help of vent wires for the escape of gases. 4. Reinforcing of Core: In order to increase the strength of the core, these are reinforced with the help of metal wires i.e. metal wires are placed inside the cores. 5. Baking of Core: Core box is inverted over the core plate. Core plate along with core is put in ovens or dielectric bakers or radiant bakers for baking. Core baking is done at temperatures up to 650F to improve the strength. The under baked cores give off much gas and over baked cores may collapse too soon. So proper baking is essential. 6. Finishing of Cores Cores are then finished to bring them to correct dimensions. Finishing is done by rubbing or filling. Sometimes coating of cores is done with a refractory or protective material, which improve their resistance to molten metal. 7. Joining of Cores Sometimes cores are made of two or more pieces before they can be used. They are held together by pasting, bolting or leading. 8. Setting of Cores Now the cores are ready for placing in the moulds. Cores should be accurately and securely positioned in the mould. Core chaplets Chaplets are metal shapes used for supporting large and odd shaped cores which can not be adequately supported by their own core prints.

When the molten metal is poured, chaplet melts and becomes a part of the casting so chaplets should be of the same material which is being cast. Dirty, rusty, greasy or wet chaplets should be properly cleaned and dried before use. If possible use of chaplets should be avoided because sometimes these are not completely fused and create problem in further machining of the casting.

MELTING FURNACES FOR FERROUS METALS: CUPOLA

Cupola furnace used in foundries for melting and refining pig iron along with scrap. The primary objective in cupola is to produce iron of desired composition, temperature and properties at the required rate in the most economical manner. Besides, this furnace has many distinct advantages over the other types, e.g., simplicity of operation, continuity of production, and increased output coupled with a high degree of efficiency. Description of a cupola The cupola furnace (Fig. 1) consists of a vertical, cylindrical steel sheet, 6 to 12 mm thick, and lined inside with acid refractory bricks or acid tamping clay. The refractory bricks or the tamping clay used consist of silicon oxide acid (SiO 2 and alumina Al 2 O 3 The lining is generally thicker in the lower region where the temperatures encountered are higher than in the upper region The shell is mounted either on a brick work foundation or on steel columns In a steel column arrangement used on most modern cupolas; the bottom of the shell is provided with drop-bottom doors through which debris, consisting of coke, slag, etc can be discharged at the end of a melt. In drop-bottom cupolas, the working bottom is built up with moulding sand which covers the drop-doors. This bottom slopes towards the metal tapping hole situated at the lowest point at the front of the cupola. Opposite this tap hole, and somewhat above it, is another hole, called the slag hole, which enables the slag to be taken out. A constant volume of air for combustion is obtained from a motorized blower. The air is carried from the blower through a pipe called wind box (air blast inlet), first to a circular jacket around the shell called wind box and then into the furnace through a number of openings called tuyeres which are provided at a height of between 450 to 500 mm above the Working bottom or bed of the cupola, These tuyeres are generally 4, 6, 8 in number depending on the size of the cupola and they may be fitted in one or more number of rows. The total area of the tuyeres should be about one-fifth to onesixth of the cross-sectional area of the cupola inside the lining at tuyere level Usually tuyeres have a size of 50x150 mm or 100x300 mm tuyeres are sometimes provided to raise melting efficiency. A valve is provided in the blast pipe to control the supply of air. Depending on the size of the cupola, the type of iron melted, and the compactness of the charge the pressure of air may very from 250 mm to 400 mm of water for small and medium-sized furnaces and from 400 mm to 850 mm for large-sized furnace. A volume meter is sometimes installed to know the volume of air passing. The amount of air, required to melt one tonne of iron depends upon the quality of coke and the coke-iron ratio. Long practice proves that it takes about 800 to 900 cu m of air to melt one tonne of iron in a cupola, assuming that 10 to 1 ratio of iron to coke is used for lower ratio, higher volumes of air will be needed. A charging door is provided through which metal, coke and flux are fed into the furnace; and this is situated 3 to 6 m above the tuyeres, according to the size of the cupola. A large platform or stage usually surrounds the cupola at the level of about 300 mm below the bottom of the charging door. The shell is usually continued for 4.5 to 6 m, above the charging door to form a chimney. At the top of the furnace a conical cap called the spark arrested, prevents the spark from emerging to the outside. The spark arrested -and allows only s to from the opening. Sometimes, a cupola may be, fitted with a collector, fitter, and precipitator, to minimize atmospheric pollution. Zones in a Cupola: On the basis of combustion reactions, the entire shaft of the cupola may be divided as under: Crucible zone is between top of the sand bed and bottom of the tuyeres The molten iron is accumulated here This is also called the well or hearth. Combustion or oxidizing zone is situated normally 150 to 300 mm above the top of the tuyeres. All the oxygen in the air blast is he-re owing to the actual combustion, taking place in this zone. Thus a lot of h is liberated and this is supplied from here to other zones. Heat is also evolved due to the oxidation of silicon and manganese. Due to this high heat, the temperature being 1550 to 1850C, molten drops of cast iron pour into the hearth. The chemical reactions which occur in this zone are: C O 2 + Heat C+O 2 Si O 2 + Heat Si+ O 2 2 MnO 2 + Heat 2Mn+ O 2

Reducing zone extends from thej of the combustion zone to the top of the coke bed. In this zone, the reduction of CO to CO 2 occur and the drops to about 1200C at the coke bed. Due to the reducing the charge is protected from any oxidizing influence the action taking place in this zone is CO 2 + C (coke) 2 CO Heat

Melting zone starts from the first layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extend up to a height of 900 mm. Highest temperature is developed in this zone for complete combustion of the coke and iron is thus melted here. The temperature in this zone is around 1600C. A considerable carbon pickup by the molten metal also Occurs in this zone according to the following reactions: 3Fe+2C0 Fe 3 C + CO 2 Preheating zone or charging zone starts form above the melting zone and extends up to the bottom of the charging door Preheating zone contains cupola charge as alternate layers of coke, flux and metal and they are preheated there at a temperature of about 1100C before coming to the melting zone. Stack zone extends from above the preheating zone to the top of the cupola It carries the gases generated within the furnace to the atmosphere Capacity of a cupola: The output of cupola is defined as the tonnes of molten metal obtained per hour of the heat Cupola capacities (sizes) vary from 1 to 15 tonnes (or even more) of melted iron per hour The size depends not only upon the cross-sectional area of the cupola, but upon the intensity of coke consumption as well. But the intensity of coke consumption is meant the tonnes of coke burned per sq. m of the cross- sectional area of the cupola in unit time. It has been observed that 14 cm of cupola plan area burns about 1 kg of coke per hour. The diameter of cupola varies from 1 to 2 m with a height of from 3 to 5 times the diameter.

CUPOLA OPERATION
The different steps involved in cupola operation are: 1. Preparation of cupola. The first operation in preparing a cupola is to clean out the slag and refuse on the lining and around the tuyeres from the previous run. An bad spots or broken bricks are repaired with a daubing mixture of fire clay and silica sand or ganister. The preparation of the sand bottom in the cupola is begun as soon as the patching of the 1mm; has been completed. The bottom doors are raised and held in this position by metal props. The bottom sand is introduced through the charging door and is rammed well around the lining and across the intersection of the bottom doors. This layer of sand is built up to a height o 100 to 200 mm above the cast iron door. The surface of the sand bottom is sloped from all directions towards the tapping hole so that the molten metal can be drained completely from the cupola at any time. An opening about 35 mm diameter is provided for the removal of the slag; and a tap hole is formed around a wooden pattern about 20 mm in diameter. The cupola should be thoroughly dried before firing. 2. Firing the cupola: In firing a cupola, a fire of kindling wood is ignited n the sand bottom. This should be done 23 to 3 hours before the molten metal is required. On the top of the kindled wood, a bed of coke is built. When the wood is burning well coke is dumped into the well from above in several portions making sure that the coke begins to burn too. The coke is added to a level slightly above the tuyeres and the air blast is turned on at a lower than normal blowing rate to ignite the coke. As soon as red spots begin to show over the top of the fuel bed, additional coke is introduced into the cupola to reach a height of 700 to 800 mm above the upper row of tuyeres. The coke bed must be thoroughly hot before it is finished off to its final height. The height of the coke bed is determined by using a measuring rod which has been prepared to indicate the distance from the sill of the charging door to the top of the coke bed. The layer of coke resting on the sand bottom before beginning the heat is called bed charge. The amount of coke in the bed is dependent upon the pressure of the air supplied to the cupola. The height of the bed charge or coke-bed is very important to the cupola operation; it affects the temperature, melting rate, and chemical composition. Other things being equal, a low bed will yield cooler metal than one which than one which is high. 3. Charging the cupola: As soon as the coke bed is built up to the correct height and ignited uniformly through out, alternate layers of pig iron, coke and flux (limestone) are charged from the charging door until the cupola is full. Suitable scrap is also added along with the pig iron, to control the chemical corn-position of the iron produced. The proportion of this scrap is ordinarily from 25 to 50 per cent of the total weight of the metal poured. When considerable steel scrap is used along with pig iron, a small amount, say from 2 to 4 per cent of Ferro- manganese is used as a deoxidizer. The Weight of the metal charge should be from JO to 15 per cent of the hourly Out-put of the cupola. The

object of adding flux is to remove impurities in the iron, and to protect the iron from oxidation, to reduce the melting point of the slag, and to increase its fluidity for easy disposal. Besides limestone, fluorspar and soda ash are also sometimes used as fluxing material. The quantity of limestone required may be 30 to 40 kg per tonne of iron melted or 25 per cent by weight of the coke charged The ratio between the metal melted and coke charged depends on a great number of factors So it is not possible to give definite recommendations for this ratio which can be achieved on different classes of work. Table 11.11 is given only as a guide and shows good average practice in the industry. More commonly it is kept 10: 1. This means that 1 tonne of coke is required to melt 10 tonnes of iron. 4 Soaking of iron: After the cupola is fully charged up to the charging door, the charge should soak in the heat for about 45 minutes. The charge gets slowly heated, since the, air blast is kept at a lower than normal blowing rate (practically kept shut) during this time. This causes the iron to get soaked. 5. Air blast: At the end of the soaking period, hill. blast is turn on. Before turning on the blast, the tuyere openings and the tapping hole are kept closed. After the blast has been on for a few -minutes, say about W minutes. molten metal starts accumulating in the hearth. When the metal in the cupola starts melting, the rate of charging should be equal to the rate of melting, so that the furnace is kept full throughout the heat. At the end of the melt the charging is stopped but th blast is kept on until all the metal has melted. 6. Tapping and slagging: The first tapping can be made 40 to 50 minutes after the full air blast is turned on. During is period, sufficient metal is collected in the, hearth above the sand bed. When. slag accumulates in the, well, the slag hole is opene4 and the slag is run off, preferably into a bogie for easy removal. Molten metal is collected in ladles and is carried to the moulds for pouring. The same procedure is repeated until l1 the metal is, melted and the operation is over. closing the cupola. When the operation is over, the blast is shut off and the prop under the bottom door is knocked 4own so that the bottom plates swing open. This enables the cupola remains to drop on to the floor or into a bucket. They are then quenched and removed from underneath the cupola. Generally, cupo1 are run continuously as are blast furnaces, but are worked only for such periods as may be required. At many foundries the melting period does not exceed 4 hours, but cupola( may be operated continuously for 10 hours or more.

EFFICIENCY OF CUPOLA
Thermal or melting efficiency of a cupola in per cent is expressed as Heat utilized in preheating melting and superheating x100 Potent heat in coke + heat from oxidation of Fe, Si, Mn + heat in the air blast The efficiency of a cupola varies from 30 to 50 per cent depending on 1. coke rate or coke ratio expressed as the inverse of the metal-fuel ratio in percentage, 2. blast rate, and 3. mean coke size. AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR CUPOLA For complete combustion of the fuel in the furnace, about 8.4 cu m of air is required per kg of coke at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature If ratio of meal to coke charged 10 1, w is considered a satisfactory figure the coke required per tonne of icon will be 1000/10 kg ie 100 kg Thus, the volume of air required per tonne of melted is 8.4 x 100 = 840 cu for leakage, etc., the air supplied is generally a little in excess i.e. about 900 cu m per ton of iron.

DIMENSIONS OF A CUPOLA
The Principal dimensions of a cupola are selected on the basis of empirical data. Thus, the crosssectional area A of a cupola depends upon the designed hourly output and is determined from the formula

Where d = cupola diameter in the clear, m, Q = designed cupola output, tonnes per hour, Q = specific output per sq. m cross-sectional area, tonnes per hour. As a rule 6 to 8 tonnes per hour. The useful height of a cupola (distance from the axis of the main tuyeres to the lower edge of the charging hole) depends upon the diameter and is designed according to the ratio H d = from 3 to S

The cupola height directly affects the melting rate, fuel consumption and the temperature and quality of molten metal. If it is too high the coke may be crushed as the charge drops; if it is too low the metal ,is not heated to a sufficient degree the draught is reduced and the cupola output is decreased. The inside diameter of the cupola determines the amount of coke consumed and the amount of iron melted per unit of time. it has been found that 14 cm of cupola plan area bums about 1 kg of coke per hour. Thus, a cupola having a capacity Of 3 tonnes per hour will require (3 xl 00)or 300 kg of coke per hour, assuming a metal-fuel ratio of 10: 1; The cupola area will therefore be equal to (14x300) or 4200 cm The internal diameter will then be

Cupola charges:
If products of uniform quality are desired, a careful consideration must be given to the cupola charge. Usually, several grades of pig iron and scrap are available to the foundry man. To achieve a desired composition of the cast metal these grades need to be adjusted and controlled. Since the various elements in metal undergo chemical changes during the re-melting operation allowances have to be given for their loss or gain while making up the charge. The loss or gain of various elements is as follows. 1. Carbon: Molten metal picks up carbon as it passes through the incandescent coke forming the bed. With properly controlled melting conditions, a gain of 0.15 per cent may be expected. While the carbon content of the metal increases because of carbon absorption from the coke, the same suffers a little loss due to oxidation. 2. Silicon. Silicon suffers some loss due to oxidation as the drops of the molten iron trickle past the tuyeres. The loss may be 10 per cent of the silicon present in the charge. 3. Manganese: Manganese also has a tendency to get lost along with silicon during melting the loss may be about 1 to 20 per cent of the manganese present in the charge. 4. Sulphur: Sulphur is picked up from coke, scrap and flux etc Generally, the gain in sulphur content is assumed to be about 003 to 005 per cent 5. Phosphorus: There is practically no loss or gain in the phosphorus content. 6. Iron: Iron itself also tends to get Oxidized and lost, but the loss which is quite small, may be assumed to be about 3 to 4 per cent. Cast iron Advantages Cheap Easy to file and fit. Strong Good resistance against sand abrasion. Good surface finish. Disadvantages Heavy. Easily broken. Rust. Brittleness. (b) Brass Advantages Strong, tough. Does not rust. Better surface finish than cast iron. Very thin sections can be cast Disadvantages Costly Heavier than cast iron. (c) Aluminum Alloy (80% Al, 14% Zn, 3% Cu, 1.5% Fe, 1.5% Si) Advantages Easy to cast. Light in weight. Easily machined. Does not rust. Disadvantages Softer than brass and cast iron.

 Easily damaged by sharp edges. Storing and transportation needs proper care. (d) White Metal (Alloy of antimony, copper and lead) Advantages Low melting point 260 degree centigrade (2600C). Best material for lining, stripping plates. Can be cast into narrow cavities. Disadvantages Soft. Easily worn away by sand or sharp edges. Storing and transportation needs proper care.