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STEADY & UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION Define Fourier Law. What is the importance of ve sign in Fourier equation? Define thermal conductivity. What are its units? K value is highest for ________ and least for ________ Out of metals, liquids, gases which is having higher K value. What is the effect of temperature on K value for metals, liquids, gases? List out various factors effecting K value. Define thermal diffusivity. What are its units? What is the temperature profile for plain wall? What is the temperature profile for hallow cylinder. What is the temperature profile for hallow sphere. What are the assumptions made in lumped parameter analysis? Define Biot No and Fourier No. Define characteristic length. What are the characteristic lengths for wall, cylinder, and sphere? What is the importance of Heislar and Groober charts? When do we say that the system has attained steady state condition? What is meant by periodic and non-periodic variation of temperature? Give any two examples for pure conduction. What is the mechanism of conduction in solids. Give example where we use composite wall. What is meant by thermal contact resistance? What is meant by conductance resistance? Define Fin. What is the function of fin? Give examples. What is meant by fin effectiveness? What is meant by fin efficiency? What is the relation between fin effectiveness and efficiency? What is the general equation and solution for a fin? What is the boundary condition for infinite long fin? What is the boundary condition for fin insulated at tip? What is the boundary condition for fin loosing heat at tip? What is the temperature profile along a fin? What is the governing equation for conduction? What is Overall heat transfer coefficient? What are its units?
What is the equation for variable thermal conductivity? What are the assumptions of Fourier equation?
convection
Define Convection and give one example. Differentiate between free and forced convection. What are the significance of Nusselt no, Prandtl no, Reynolds no, Grashof no. What are the non-dimensional numbers used in free convection. What are the non-dimensional numbers used in forced convection. Define Newton law of cooling and write its equation. What are the factors on which h depends. What are the units of h. What is the mechanism of convection. What is the governing equation for convection. Out of free and forced convection , which is more effective. For same cross section and medium h value is more for _________ convection. Stanton no =_________ Ralygieans no =_________________ RADIATION Define radiation. What is the mechanism of radiation. Define Emissive power. Define monochromatic emissive power. Governing equation for radiation. Plancks law is valid for _______________ bodies. For longer wave length we use _________law. For shorter wave length we use ______________ law. Define Absorvitivity, Reflectivity, and Transmitivity. Define Black body, white body, grey body, diathermanous body, transparent body, opaque body. Define Krichoffs law. Define Emmisivity. Emmisivity value for black body is ___ What is the value of Stefan Boltzman constant.
What are the units for Stefan Boltzman constant. What is the relation between Emissive power and Intensity of radiation. What is Radiation shape factor. What is meant by radiation shielding.
HEAT EXCHANGER What is the principle of heat exchanger. Draw the temperature profiles for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger. Write the LMTD equation for parallel & counter flow heat exchanger. Define Effectiveness of heat exchanger. What does NTU indicates. For max effectiveness , NTU should be __________ What is the limitation of LMTD method. When do we use AMTD method. Give some examples of heat exchangers. Why LMTD value for counter flow is more than parallel flow. Does the temperature line for parallel and counter flow intersect? Expalin. What is the basic difference between Boiling and Condensation. Draw Boiling curve and indicate the zones of Boiling. What is the order of h values for free convection, forced convection and boiling.
This method of heat transfer is seen in the use of Space Heating and in heat distribution in a furnace. Convection can take place by the natural currents set up by the application of heat or increased heat transfer by mechanical means ( forced convection ) as when a fan or pump is used. Convection is also the principle used in the operation of a hot air balloon. Propane gas is combusted beneath the balloon opening and as the hot combustion gases rise into the canopy of the balloon, due to their temperature and expansion together with heated expanded air, the balloon is filled by lower density gases which gives lift to the balloon. The ascent and height of the balloon is controlled by the combustion of the propane. Birds, Gliders, Paragliding sports etc, also use natural convection currents (thermals) to soar around the sky. C. Heat transfer by Radiation Radiated heat is illustrated by the heat of the sun which reaches earth as 'Rays' of heat energy which are invisible but similar to rays of light. A further example is, heat from an open fire when you are standing in front of the fire, the side facing the fire becomes warm while the other side remains cool - (due to the convection currents). Radiated heat needs no material for its transfer and can travel through vacuum (as from the sun ). Substances in the path of radiated heat will increase in temperature. Heat transfer by radiation depends on :- The temperature of the radiating surface. - The type of receiving surface - i.e. colour and texture - Black, rough surfaces will absorb more heat than light, smooth ones. - The area of the receiving surface - greater area - greater heat reception. Examples of Heat Transfer by Radiation - Solar heating for homes, offices and power from solar cells. Heat transfer by direct radiation in furnaces for process operations.
Calculations: Read the Heat supplied Q = V x I Watts (In S. I. Units) For calculating the thermal conductivity of composite walls, it is assumed that due to large diameter of the plates, heat flowing through central portion is unidirectional i. e. axial flow. Thus for calculation, central half diameter area where unidirectional flow is assumed is considered. Accordingly, thermocouples are fixed at close to center of the plates. Total Thermal resistance to found out to be --------------------
Conclusion: Heat transfer coefficient form the fin for natural & forced convection is found out to be ----
THEORY: All bodies emits and absorb the thermal radiation to form surroundings the rate of thermal radiation depends up on temperature of the body. Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and they do not require any medium for propagation. When thermal radiation strikes a body part of it is reflected, part of it is absorbed an d part of it is transmitted through the body.
APPARATUS: The dynamic apparatus uses compactor method for determining the emissivity of test plate. It consists of two aluminum plates, of equal physical dimensions. Mica heaters are provided inside the plates. The mounted in an enclose to provide undisturbed surroundings.One of the plates is blackened outside for use a comparator (because black surface has =1).Another plate having natural surface finish. Input to heaters can be controlled by separate dimmer stats. Heater input is measured on common ammeter and voltmeter. One thermocouple is fitted on surface on each plate is measure the surface temperature with digital temperature indicator. By adjusting the input to the heaters, both the plates are brought to same temperature, so that conduction and convection losses from both the plates are equal and difference in input is due to different emissivitys. Holes are provided at back side bottom and the top enclosure for natural circulation of air over the plates. The plate enclosure is provided with Perspex acrylic sheet at the front Conclusion:Emissivity of non black test plate surface is found out to be --------------
Mechanism of Thermal Energy Conduction In Metals: Thermal energy may be conducted in solids by two modes : 1. Lattice Vibration. 2. Transport by free electrons.
In good electrical conductors a rather large number of free electrons move about in the lattice structure of the material. Just as these electrons may transport electric charge, they may also carry thermal energy from a high temperature region to a low temperature region. In fact, these electrons are frequently referred as the electron gas. Energy may also be transmitted as
vibrational energy in the lattice structure of the material. In general, however, this latter mode of energy transfer is not as large as the electrons transport and it is for this reason that good electrical conductors are almost always good heat conductor viz. Copper, Aluminium and silver. With increase in the temperature, however the increased lattice vibrations come in the way of the transport by free electrons for most of the pure metals the thermal conductivity decreases with increase in the temperature. The experimental set up consists of the metal bar, one end of which is heated by an electric heater while the other end of the bar projects inside the cooling water jacket. The middle portion of the bar is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the asbestos insulating powder. The temperature of the bar is measured at eight different sections { Fig. 2 (1) to (4) } while the radial temperature distribution is measured by separate thermocouples at two different sections in the insulating shell. The heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the heat input. Water under constant heat condition is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise are noted.
Conclusion:Heat coefficient for a vertical tube losing heat by natural convection is found out to be
Type of Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers are classified in three categories. Transfer Type According to flow arrangement 1. Parallel flow 2. Counter flow 3. Cross flow Storage Type 1. Direct Transfer Type 2. Shell and tube heat Exchanger 3. Concentric tube Heat Exchanger A Transfer type heat exchanger is the one in which both fluids pass simultaneously flow through the device and heat is transferred through separating walls. In practice most of the heat exchangers used are transfer type ones. The transfer type heat exchangers are further classified according to flow arrangements as Parallel Flow, in which fluids flow in the same direction. Counter flow, in which they flow in opposite direction. Conclusion: Heat transfer coefficient of Parallel flow and counter flow heat exchanger is found out to be -----------
Conclusion:-Heat transfer coefficient in forced convection of air in a tube is found out to be -----
Figure 20.1 is a schematic of the apparatus used in this experiment. How the apparatus works in .pumping heat. is easily understood if we follow a finite mass of refrigerant around the circuit. The compressor is a component that takes in low temperature, low pressure refrigerant vapor and compresses it. The compressed refrigerant vapor is discharged as a highpressure, high temperature vapor. One way valves in the flow lines of the compressor controlthe flow direction. Upon leaving the compressor, the superheated vapor enters a finned tube heat exchanger. In the apparatus of this experiment, the heat exchanger is a cross flow type. Air flows in a duct across which are located small diameter tubes that convey the refrigerant. The small diameter tubes have fins in the form of thin sheet aluminum attached. The superheated vapor is higher in temperature than the air flowing across the finned tubes and so heat will be transferred from the refrigerant to the air. During this heat transfer process, the refrigerant will condense and so the heat exchanger is commonly called a condenser. Refrigerant leaving the condenser has
a very low quality. After leaving the condenser, the part liquid. part vapor refrigerant enters the top of a receiving tank. Within this tank, we have vapor rising to the top and liquid falling to the bottom; the tank thus acts as a separator. Liquid exits this tank at its bottom and then enters a throttling device. There are two such devices on this apparatus. One is called a thermostatic expansion valve and the other is a capillary tube (very small inside diameter tube). The object of a throttling device is to cause a significant loss in pressure of the refrigerant. (There are actually two thermostatic expansion valves. The second is used in reversing the flow direction of the refrigerant, which will not be done for this experiment.) When the refrigerant leaves the throttle, it has a low pressure and temperature. The refrigerant now enters another finned tube, cross flow heat exchanger. The refrigerant is cooler than the air passing through the exchanger and so heat is transferred to the air from the liquid refrigerant. During this process, the refrigerant vaporizes and so this heat exchanger is commonly called an evaporator. Refrigerant that has vaporized in the evaporator now enters the top of a reservoir called an accumulator tank. This tank also acts as a vapor.liquid separator. Vapor leaves this tank through another opening at the top of the tank and then returns to the compressor. Air that passes through the condenser absorbs energy from the refrigerant and is therefore heated in the process. Air that passes through the evaporator transfers energy to the refrigerant and is cooled in the process. The refrigerant thus pumps heat from the evaporator and discharges it at the condenser. In addition, the refrigerant gained energy from the compressor which is discharged also at the condenser. Experimental Procedure The unit used in the laboratory contains several pressure and temperature gages at various locations throughout the piping system. A number of valves are also in the circuit for flow control. Operation of the unit will be shown by the instructor. For the experiment, start and operate the unit as per directions given. Identify the compressor, condenser, receiving tank, throttling device, evaporator and the accumulator tank. Begin at the compressor and follow the closed loop made by the refrigerant. Observe the process of condensation and vaporization in the heat exchangers. Fans are used to move air past the cross flow heat exchanger tubes. Set the fans at a desired setting and with the compressor operating, allow the system to reach steady state. Use either the capillary tube or the expansion valve. Once steady state is reached, take temperature and pressure readings at all the gage locations.