ASSIGNMENT NUTRASETIKA ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID Pak Mulyadi

Arranged by : Wong Chun Ming Alex Biday Danaraj Thangavelu Keerthy Venthen Thineskumaran Ramanchandra Racheal Xunus Yap Jia Lin 2601103032 2601103034 2601103035 2601103045 2601103053 2601103058 2601103064

FAKULTAS FARMASI UNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN JATINANGOR 2013

Contents

Contents
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 Benefits and Functions of Essential Fatty Acids 1.3 Sources of Essential Fatty Acids 1.4 Deficiency Symptoms 1.5 The Danger of Fried Foods 1.6 What Are Free Radicals 1.7 Over coming Disease With EFA s 2.0 How to mobilize body fat 2.1 Introduction 2.2 How Is Body Fat Gained 2.3 How Is Body Fat Stored? 2.4 Fat Mobilization and Metabolism 3.0 OMEGA 3 FATTY ACIDS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Uses 3.3 Dietary Sources 3.4 Available Forms 3.5 How to Take It 3.6 Precautions 4.1 OMEGA 6 FATTY ACIDS 4.2 General Uses 4.3 Dietary Sources 5.1 OMEGA 9 FATTY ACIDS 5.2 What is omega-9 5.3 AVAILABLE FORMS

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Contents

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5.4 What are the symptoms of omega-9 deficiency 6.1 SQUALENE 6.2 History of Squalene 6.3 Structure of Squalene 6.4 Benefits of Squalene 6.5 Pharmacokinetics 6.6 How Squalene Produced in Body 6.7 Statins Inhibit Squalene Synthesis 6.8 Squalene and Cholesterol Metabolism 6.9 Sources of Squalene 6.10 Analysis of Squalene 7.0 LEPTIN 7.1 Introduction 7.2 SYNTHESIS 7.3 HISTORY 7.4 LEPTIN SUPPLEMENTS 7.5 BENEFITS 7.6 MECHANISM 7.7 PRODUCTS 8.0 Krill oil 8.1 An introduction 8.2 Krill oil properties and benefits to human 8.3 Why Do People Use Krill Oil 8.4 Side Effects 8.5 Nutrasetical analysis of krill oil 9.0 References

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

All About Fats some people shy away from anything that has the word Sfatty associated with it. They instantly think it will cause them to gain unnecessary weight. However, there are good fats and bad fats, and the beneficial ones can actually help decrease the desire to eat the harmful ones. Fats are important for health. Also known as lipids, they help balance the bodys chemistry and provide padding as protection for vital organs. Fats provide a source of energy for body processes, and they help with the transportation and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K. They are also a source of the vital nutrients known as essential fatty acids. Categories of fats include the following: SATURATED FATS: All fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules. The carbon atoms of fatty acids hold together in a chain-like fashion. These carbon atoms can attach hydrogen to them. When each place that can hold a hydrogen atom is filled and there is not room for even one more, they are described as saturated. The longer the chain, the harder the fat will be and thus, the higher its melting point. These types of long-chain fatty acids are found in hard fats, such as those in red meat, butter, cheese, sour cream and palm kernel and coconut oils. When a persons diet is high in saturated fats, these fats tend to clump together in the body and form deposits, along with protein and cholesterol. They then lodge in the cells, organs and blood vessels. This can lead to many health problems, including obesity, heart disease, and breast and colon cancers. UNSATURATED FATS: Unsaturated fats are called such because there are at least two adjacent carbon atoms on a chain which are not attached to hydrogen atoms. When at least two pairs of carbon atoms are empty it is known as a monounsaturated fatty acid. When two or more sets are empty, then it is referred to as a polyunsaturated fatty acid. A good rule of thumb is that the more saturated the fat, the more easily it will stay hard at room temperature.

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS: Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are vital nutritional components that our bodies need for many functions. They are found in the seeds of plants and in the oils of coldwater fish. Essential fatty acids sometimes referred to as vitamin F cannot be made by the body; they must be supplied in the diet. However, at this time, the government has not officially established a Recommended Daily Intake (RDI). Many factors, including stress, allergies, disease, and a diet high in fried foods, can increase the bodys nutritional need for essen-tial fatty acids.

1.2 Benefits and Functions of Essential Fatty Acids The body takes combinations of different triglycerides and makes fats from them to help in various processes. The basic building blocks of any fats are the fatty acids. Fatty acids are either essential or nonessential. A fatty acid is considered essential if 1) the body is unable to synthesize it and 2) the only way it can be obtained is through the diet. In addition, it is considered essential if a deficiency will cause a disease. As far back as 1930 researchers discovered that if an animal did not get essential fatty acids in the diet, it could cause symptoms such as poor reproduction, lowered immunity, rough, dry skin, and slow growth, among others. There are basically three essential fatty acids. They are linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid. Linoleic acid is the most vital. Linolenic and arachidonic acids can be converted from linoleic acid, but linoleic acid must be obtained from the diet. Most people are unaware of the many vital functions of essential fatty acids. The list includes: Lowering triglyceride levels. Helping to eradicate plaque from the walls of arteries. Lowering blood pressure.
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 Altering the production of leukotrienes which aggravate inflammation in the body. This has shown to be beneficial, especially to those suffering from conditions such as arthritis, lupus, psoriasis and other inflammationrelated ailments. Constructing body membranes. EFAs work with cholesterol and protein to repair old cell membranes and construct new ones. Helping strengthen cell and capillary structures. Fatty acid supplementation in the diet helps replace saturated fats with unsaturated fats. This increases the fluidity of cell membranes, and helps renew their proper function, preventing stiffness and deterioration. The health of the cell membrane depends upon adequate amounts of EFAs. Prolonging blood-clotting time, helping wounds to heal. EFAs prevent abnormal blood clotting by inhibiting the production of a substance known as thromboxane, which allows platelets to clot. Helping the body manufacture hemoglobin, the compound in the blood that provides oxygen to the cells from the lungs. Assisting in the manufacture of cholesterol, while at the same time helping to remove excess cholesterol from the blood. The much maligned body substance known as cholesterol has received a bad rap in the press. Cholesterol, a waxy alcohol, is actually necessary for many vital bodily functions. It is found in the bile, blood, brain tissue, liver, kidneys, adrenal glands, and myelin sheaths (insulating material) of nerve fibers. It helps the body absorb and transport fatty acids and is necessary for the body to synthesize vitamin D. It is also a building material for hormones produced by the adrenal and reproductive glands. The body will actually manufacture its own cholesterol to ensure a continuous supply of this important fat. Cholesterol is synthesized throughout the body. It is manufactured by cells, glands, the small intestine and the liver. Cholesterol is constructed from dietary by-products of pro-teins, sugars and fats. If the diet contains excessive fats, especially the saturated types, the body will convert them into cholesterol. People who eat high sugar or fat diets may there-fore experience elevated cholesterol levels.

Preventing the growth of bacteria and viruses, which will not thrive in the presence of oxygen, by oxygenating cell membranes. The ability of the highly unsaturated fatty acids to hold oxygen can provide additional benefits such as increasing resistance to disease, endurance, metabolic efficiency, energy conversion, and the balancing of sleep-wake cycles. The entire body is beneficially affected by essential fatty acid nutrition and supplementation. By oxygenation of body tissues, EFAs shorten the exercise recovery time for tired muscles. Assisting in the functions of glands and hormones. Nourishing skin, hair and nails. EFAs help eliminate eczema, psoriasis, dandruff, and help prevent hair loss. Brittle nails respond to essential fatty acids. EFAs balance the skins metabolism by controlling the flow of oils and nourish collagen, the supporting structure beneath the skin. Vitamins A and E are fat-soluble and work with essential fatty acids to provide glowing skin and hair. Increasing the rate at which the body burns fat. Helping the body maintain proper temperature. Assisting in the bodys production of electrical currents vital for a regular heartbeat. Acting as precursors to the production of hormone like substances called prostaglandins.

Gamma linolenic acid especially assists the body with this formation process. Prostaglandins are found in almost all body cells, and act as catalysts for many physiological processes. They help prevent abnormal blood clotting and nerve inflammation. Prostaglandins also help promote blood circulation by dilat-ing the blood vessels and improve immune system function. The most beneficial type of prostaglandin is called PGE-1. PGE-1 balances cholesterol and blood pressure levels, and stimulates the bodys production of T-lymphocytes which strengthen the immune capabilities. Each cell keeps tiny amounts of EFAs and produces prostaglandins from them as they are needed. The name prostaglandins was coined because these substances were originally found in high amounts in the prostate gland. To date, there have been dis-covered at least thirty-six different prostaglandins with a wide range of roles in the body.

1.3 Sources of Essential Fatty Acids Essential fatty acids are found in both plant and animal sources, although primarily in plants. The EFA family is com-posed of two main forms, Omega-3 and Omega-6. The following explains exactly what these forms are. OMEGA-3: The most common forms of Omega-3 are eicos-apentaenioic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and alpha-linolenic acid, which comes from plants and helps create EPA and DHA. Omega-3 is usually derived from fish oils. Dr. Roger Illingworth, associate professor of medicine and bio-chemistry atOregon Health Sciences University, explains that Omega-3 fatty acids are long chained metabolic products from linolenic acid. . . When animals consume and metabolize plants rich in linolenic acid, they produce Omega-3. EPA and DHA are liquid and remain that way, even at room temperature. It is said that they protect fish by providing a body fat that stays fluid even in cold temperatures. OMEGA-6: The most common form of Omega-6 is is gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). GLA is known to provide the following benefits, among many others: 1.Helps facilitate weight loss in overweight persons (but not in people who do not need to lose any weight). 2.Reduces platelet aggregation (abnormal blood clotting). 3.Helps reduce symptoms of depression and schizophrenia. 4.Alleviates premenstrual syndrome symptoms. 5.May help alcoholics overcome their addiction. Omega-6 is usually found in plant sources. The oils of cold-water fish such as salmon, bluefish, herring, tuna, mackerel and similar fish are known as Omega-3 fatty acids. The fresh-pressed oils of many raw seeds and nuts contain Omega-6 fatty acids. The most popular sources of Omega-3 and Omega-6 include:

BLACK CURRANT SEED OIL: This oil is rich in linoleic acid (44%) and provides almost twice as much gamma-linolenic acid as evening primrose oil. Black currant seed oil also is an excellent source of an Omega-3 precursor known as stearidonic acid. BORAGE OIL: This oil comes from Boragoofficinalis, a plant with blue flowers. It is widely recommended in Europe to strengthen the adrenal glands, alleviate symptoms of premenstrual syn-drome and relieve inflammation. Besides possibly helping with heart and joint function, it may also assist the growth of nails and hair. Borage oil is also an excellent source of GLA. In The Complete Medicinal Herbal, herbalist Penelope Ody asserts that it is helpful in some cases of menstrual irregularity, for irrita-ble bowel syndrome, or as emergency first aid for hangovers. SALMON OIL: This oil is high in Omega-3 essential fatty acids. These types of EFAs are known to thin the blood, prevent clotting, regulate cholesterol production and strengthen cell walls, making them less susceptible to viral and bacterial invasion. Salmon oil has a natural ability to help the body relieve inflammation. In the ground-breaking book The Omega-3 Breakthrough: The Revolutionary, Medically Proven Fish Oil Diet, professor Roger Illingworth writes that Linolenic acid is a fatty acid with 18 carbons and 3 double bonds. It is manufactured exclusively by plants. When animals consume and metabolize plants rich in linolenic acid, they produce Omega-3. Plankton, a minute form of marine life, is part plant and part animal. Its plant component manufactures linolenic acid. Fish eat the plankton, and the linolenic acid breaks down in their bodies in two types of Omega-3 fatty acids: EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) . . . The liquidity of EPA and DHA serves a vital function in fish, who require body fat that remains fluid even in very cold water. Fish oils, besides containing Omega-3 fatty acids, have shown to benefit those suffering from migraine headaches, arthritis, and high cholesterol levels. FLAX: Flax is a plant said to date back as far as 5000 B.C. It has been used since approximately 5000 B.C., making it one of the

oldest cultivated crops. It is exported from several countries, including Argentina, Canada, India, Russia and the United States. The flowers are usually blue, although they are sometimes white or pink. The mucilaginous seed is, of course, called flaxseed. The oil primarily provides Omega3/linolenic acid, and provides an average of 57 percent Omega-3, 16 percent Omega-6, and 18 percent of the non-essential Omega-9. Flaxseed oil is said to contain rich amounts of beta carotene (about 4,300 IU per tablespoon) and vitamin E (about 15 IU per tablespoon). In the October 1995 issue of Lets Live, the history and uses of flax were highlighted by herbalist Carla Cassata. She writes,. . . Its no wonder the Cherokee Indians highly valued the flax plant. They mixed flaxseed oil with either goat or moose milk, honey and cooked pumpkin to nourish pregnant and nursing mothers, providing them with the needed nutrients for creating strong and healthy children. It was also given to people who had skin diseases, arthritis, malnutrition as well as men wishing to increase virility. They believed flax captured energies from the sun that could then be released and used in the bodys metabolic process. This belief has merit. Flaxseed oil, rich in electrons, strongly attracts photons from sunlight. To be effective, EFAs must be combined with protein at the same meal. This flaxseed oil/protein/sunlight combination releases energy and enhances the bodys electrical system. Also, this combination, along with vitamin E, can be beneficial for infertile couples and women suffering from premenstrual syndrome . . . Flaxseed oil, having an anti-inflammatory effect on the body, can benefit the 40 million Americans suffering from osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. To achieve optimum results, however, substances that activate the sympathet-ic nervous system like refined sugar, soda, coffee, fluoridemust be eliminated. Stress must also be reduced, because it too,activates the sympathetic nervous system, promoting inflammation. EVENING PRIMROSE: This flower is indigenous to North America, although the oil is particularly popular throughout Europe for therapeutic purposes. It is also known as night wil low and evening star. It is an excellent source of both linolenic and linoleic acids. Both of these nutrients must be obtained from the diet, as the body cannot synthesize them. The seeds contain gamma linolenic acid. This polyunsaturated EFA helps with the production of energy and is a structural component of the brain, bone marrow, muscles and cell membranes. Evening primrose oil has also benefited those with multiple sclerosis, PMS, hyperactivity and obesity. It is estimated that it takes about 5,000 seeds to produce the oil for one 500 mg capsule.
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1.4 Deficiency Symptoms Many ailments can be traced to essential fatty acid deficiencies. A lack of linoleic acid in the diet can cause adverse symptoms including: Acne Arthritis Changes in personality or behavior Miscarriage Gallbladder dysfunction Slow healing of wounds Cardiovascular problems Prostate inflammation Poor growth Kidney problems Muscle tremors Skin disorders

Thirst due to excessive perspiration Sterility in males

A lack or low content of linolenic acid in the diet can cause adverse symptoms including: Poor growth Learning disability Tingling in the extremities Impaired motor coordination Poor vision

Adverse symptoms can disappear when adequate amounts of the deficient fatty acid are given to the person. However, long-term deficiencies of essential fatty acids can cause death. The human body requires forty-five known essential nutrients, and it requires linoleic acid more than any other. Researchers estimate that the body needs at least three to six grams a day, or one to two percent of your daily caloric intake to prevent deficiency symptoms. A much larger amount is helpful to preserve optimum health.

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How do you know how much your body needs? The requirements will be different for each person, depending on factors such as stress, diet, and the amount of physical activity you engage in daily. For instance, an obese person who eats a lot of saturated fats will require much more than a thin person who is careful about their dietary intake of saturated fats. A well-bal-anced diet that includes primary nutrients like vitamins B3, B6, C, zinc and vitamin A will help the body utilize essential fatty acids more efficiently. In his book, Lipid Nutrition, Dr. Randy L. Wong states, It should be mentioned . . . that the ability of lipids to hold relatively high levels of oxygen has negative implications for the obese. Increased oxygen in fat reserves can result in lipid oxidation and thus free radical formation, which can then increase various tissue pathologies. This process can be averted by a diet or supplementation regime rich in antioxidant nutrients such as vitamins A, C and E, among others. Several factors can interfere with fatty acid metabolism. They include a diet high in saturated fats and cholesterol, aging, alcohol, high blood sugar, viral infections and aspirin use. Stay away from fats in which the normal, health giving properties have been altered to the point where they actually cause damage to the bodys cells. Ideally, a health-minded person will not eat deepfried foods, as these are especially dangerous. However, because we are all human and it is almost impossible to eat a perfect diet nowadays, taking essential fatty acid supplements will help offset the damage done to the body by the bad fats. 1.5 The Danger of Fried Foods Even natural elements such as light, oxygen and heat can cause the breakdown and rancidity of fats. Recent research has shown that the composition of extremely heated fats, especially those of vegetable origin, may turn into cancer causing agents by causing free-radical damage to the body. You would think that liquid oils are healthier for you than solid fats. Well, not when it comes to frying. Because solid saturated fats are more stable than liquid unsaturated fats when they are exposed to light, heat and air, they are more desirable than oils for frying. Ideally, we shouldnt really heavily fry food at all, but prepare it like the Chinese do, by stir frying. The Chinese put water into the pan or wok and then the oil, then the vegetables and meat, constantly

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stirring the mixture around the entire time. This keeps the temperature of the oil lower. It also protects it from oxidation by forming steam which helps keep air from degenerating the oil. In many commercial restaurants and fast-food establishments, oil is repeatedly reused at high temperatures. It will soon become dark and rancid, exhibiting a strong odor and flavor. Many toxic substances can form when oils are heated to high temperatures. One of these is trans-fatty acids. These sub-stances are deformed fat molecules which can damage the cells and cause a fatty acid deficiency by inhibiting enzymes that cause fatty acids to be changed into essential molecules. This may, in turn, interfere with prostaglandin production and cause problems with blood pressure and normal platelet action. Ann Louise Gittleman, M.S., underscores the negative impact of commercial oils in her book, Super Nutrition of Women. Commercially processed oils, hydrogenated margarines, and fried foodswhat I call damaged fats interfere with the transformation of GLA and EPA into prostaglandins. The once beneficial polyunsaturates have been exposed to processing in the form of excess heat, air, light or hydrogenation that makes them now unusable for the human body. Without the ability to transform into prostaglandins, the EFAs are biologically worthless. The body cannot use trans-fatty acids so they simply collect around fatty tissues and the bodys organs. They also take up space where essential fatty acids normally would be, but do not perform any useful function. It is best to avoid frying food, but when it is necessary, use the Chinese method, or use a small amount of saturated fat (such as butter), and do not heat it to a high temperature. What About Cooking Oils? The liquid oils you purchase at the supermarket are exposed to light through the bottles, which causes deterioration. Once you open the bottle, oxygen adds its negative impact. Then, when you heat the oil to a high temperature, it is a detriment to your health. But that is not all. Before it even reaches the supermarket, the oil is already denatured because of the extraction process. If you use oil for cooking, use olive oil. Mass market refining is concerned with getting the job done as quickly and cheaply as possible. Petroleum (petrochemical) solvents are used to yield the oils from the seeds. Some companies
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also utilize caustic soda and acid-based clays during the refining and bleaching phases of refining. Following the bleaching stage, harmful substances known as peroxides may form in the oils, as a result of the oxidation and breaking down process. Believe it or not, the manufacturing process which separates oils from their sources has been employed for more than forty centuries. Modern technology has increased the amount of oil that can be extracted from seedbearing fruits of flowering plants, and enhanced an oils shelf life, while saving manufacturing costs. However, this has been at the expense of the aroma, flavor, and nutritional value of the oil. Sesame seeds are considered to be the first source of extracted oil. More than four thousand years ago, the Assyrians and Chinese would roast the seeds, grind them to a fine powder, and then wait for the oil to separate and rise in the bowl. This took a long time, with very little oil as a result, and this prompted the search for more efficient methods of extracting oil. Until the 1920s, and even through the early 1940s, oil extraction was conducted on a limited commercial scale, with slow, small, cool-running presses to extract the oil. It was primarily a cottage industry, where flax oil was poured into 100 milliliter bottles and delivered weekly to homes. In the 1920s, huge oil-producing companies began to emerge. They planted farms where the seeds of specific crops could be processed in huge machines that could press more than 100 tons oil seeds daily by running twenty-four hours a day. Pesticides, synthetic fertilizers and automation increased yields and reduced costs. The negative side was that oils which were previously nutritionally rich were now processed to increase shelf life. Due to this processing, essential fatty acids disappeared from massproduced oils. There following are signs that reveal the differences between mass-produced and tradi-tional oils. You can taste and smell traditional oils. Mass-produced oils are very bland and odorless. Traditional oils are produced naturally without pesticides, which can poison the nervous system and interfere with immune function. Mass-produced oils contain pesticide residues.

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Traditional oils are not extracted with solvents. Mass-produced oils may contain residues of these chemicals, many of which may depress central nervous system function and act as lung irritants. Traditional oils contain naturally occurring preservatives. Mass-produced oils are kept fresh with synthetic antioxidants such as BHT, BHA, citric acid, and methyl silicone. These synthetic antioxidants may interfere with cellular respiration and metabolism. When ingested over a period of years, they may cause degeneration of body systems, leading to disease.

1.6 What Are Free Radicals?

Traditional oils involve a relative minimum of heat in their production. Lewis Harrison explains, Mass-produced oils are produced under very high temperatures with loss of many nutritional factors and natural antioxidants. Among those substances removed are lecithin, vitamins A and E, minerals, chlorophyll, and various aromatic and volatile compounds. Free radicals are often found in overly-heated oils. Processing destroys the nutritious components of essential fatty acids and creates what are known as trans fatty acids. In TFAs, the nourishing structure of fatty acids are changed by heat and chemicals, the by-product of which are cancercausing free radicals. Technically, a free radical is an element or molecule with an unpaired electron. If not limited and controlled, they can dam-age the bodys cells and accelerate the processes of disease and aging. Certain enzymes and nutrients, known as antioxidants, will scavenge for free radicals and neutralize them, preventing them from harming the body. They are also known as free rad-ical scavengers. These nutrients include vitamins C and E, beta carotene (provitamin A), grape seed extract, the mineral seleni-um, and the enzymes glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD). There are a host of others, including herbs, which are too numerous to mention. Some signs of free radical damage to the body may include premature aging, liver spots, cancer, arthritis and cross-linking which causes wrinkles.

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Diet Imbalance
Besides the loss of quality in the production of cooking oils, there are other aspects of our modern world can contribute to imbalanced EFA intake. John Belleme explains in the September/October 1996 issue of Health Magazine that For most of us, our diets are out of balance when it comes to EFAs. Unlike our ancestors, whose diets were made up of foods containing roughly equal amounts of the two essential fatty acids, Western diets ar short on Omega-3s and too rich in Omega-6s. In fact, the average American diet contains between ten and twenty-five times as much Omega-6 as Omega-3 far from the ideal ratio of three to one. How did our diets become so skewed? In large part, its because we now grow food domestically that is lower in Omega-3s than foods grown in the wild. For example, one researcher found that the eggs of range-fed chickens have a balanced amount of fatty acids, whereas standard United States Department of Agriculture eggs provide twenty times as much Omega-6 as Omega-3. The same disparity is also true of the meat of domesticated pigs, chicken, and cows compared with wild boar, fowl, and deer. Even wild vegetables seem to have more Omega-3s than farm vegetables. In addition, our overconsumption of Omega-6s is partly due to modern food processing, which destroys delicate Omega-3s. At the same time, we are consuming fewer foods that are rich in Omega-3s (such as fish and flaxseeds) and eating more foods that are high in Omega-6s (meat, eggs, and grains). And many of us are eating only vegetable oils that are high in Omega-6s and low in Omega-3s, such as sunflower, corn, sesame, and safflower, which increases our risk of an Omega-3 deficiency. Many researchers theorize that these radical changes in our diet most of which have occurred over the last two hundred years are a major factor in the almost epidemic rates of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and depression these days . . . Although you can remedy a deficiency by taking supplements, dont tip the scale too far in the other direction. Longterm (more than two years) and excessive use (two to four tablespoons a day) of flaxseed or fish oil can cause an Omega-6 deficiency. Once you have eliminated your original Omega-3 deficiency, then concentrate on getting a balance amount of EFAs. Note: When taking EFA supplements, its important to make sure your diet is rich in vitamins and minerals. Your body needs vitamins A, carotene, B3, B6, C, E, and the minerals magnesium, selenium and zinc to metabolize EFAs . . .Protect your oils. Omega-3 oils usually come in dark bottles but should still always be refrigerated.
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1.7 Over coming Disease With EFA s Studies show that EFAs may be helpful for many chronic, stubborn conditions. The EFAs evergrowing repertoire of valuable applications includes, among many others, overcoming diseases such as alcoholism, breast cancer and cardiovascular disease, strengthening the immune system, helping eliminate yeast infection, reducing symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, minimizing inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis, and assisting in the proper management of weight. ALCOHOLISM: Alcohol dependence is a serious condition that can result in decreased life expectancy, suicide, degeneration of the brain and liver, osteoporosis and many other ill effects. The rate at which alcohol is metabolized in the body is different for each person. It has a lot to do with the persons nutritional status, the concentration and activity of certain liver enzymes, and the speed at which the alcohol itself is consumed.Alcoholics tend not to eat, because the abundant yet nutrient-poor calories diminish the appetite. Because of this, alcoholics become extremely malnourished. It is suggested that an overall nutritional program be employed with persons addicted to alcohol. Especially important are vitamins A, C, and B-com-plex, as well as the minerals zinc, magnesium and selenium. Amino acids (primarily glutamine or glutamic acid), the herb milk thistle, Lactobacillus acidophilus, antioxidants, L-carnitine, and the essential fatty acids are also extremely important. Studies show that EFAs, especially those high in gammalinolenic acid, keep blood lipid levels from going out of control. BREAST CANCER: The bodys immune system plays a vital role in protecting us against cancer. Every day, each of us has the potential for getting cancer, but the bodys immune system recognizes and annihilates the wayward cells before they have a chance to multiply and do damage. However, when the immune system is overwhelmed or is not functioning properly, the abnormal cells reproduce without anything to stop them. Cancer patients become malnourished and lose weight because the rapidly growing tumors have a voracious appetite for nutrition to keep them going and the person is left with virtually nothing to nutritionally support their health.There are many natural approaches to preventing breast cancer. Studies show that, among other things, we should have a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli and cabbage, as well as any food high in fiber. Antioxidants such as grape seed concentrate, vitamins A, C, and E, minerals and essential fatty acids should also be key parts of our daily diet. Research has shown EFAs, especially gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), to have anti-tumor properties.
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CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE: All cells of the body depend upon nutrients transported by the circulatory network. When the blood vessels become clogged with fats and cholesterol, nutri-tion distribution becomes impeded. When blood flow is stopped in some areas, the heart can die, whether from a sudden heart attack or from gradual weakening over time. Free radicals can damage the linings of the blood vessels, roughening them and making it easier for fat particles to snag and adhere to the blood vessel walls. Some argue that homogenized milk also contributes to blood vessel damage in the same way that free radicals do. What are some solutions? Exercise is a great way to increase circulation and keep the blood from stagnating. A diet high in fruits, vegetables, natural fiber and low in saturated fats, meats and homogenized dairy products will also help. In addition, antioxidants, hawthorn be Ginkgo biloba, vitamin E, Co Q-10, L-carnitine, the minerals calcium, magnesium and potassi-um, and EFAs will also benefit the cardiovascular system.Studies show that essential fatty acids can help reduce blood pressure and blood fats (lipids), including excessive cholesterol. When fats combine with proteins and carbohydrates, they are called lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are categorized according to the ratio of fat to protein that they contain. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) help the body get rid of excessive choles-terol. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) do the opposite; that is, they contribute to the accumulation of arterial plaque, or the buildup of cholesterol on arterial walls. If a person has high HDL levels and low LDL levels in their blood, the likelihood of a heart attack is greatly reduced. Omega-3 fatty acids from cold-water fish sources raise the level of HDL in the blood.

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2.0 How to mobilize body fat 2.1. Introduction The two types of fat in the body are: essential fat and nonessential fat, or storage fat,Essential fat is needed for normal physiological and biological functioning. It is found in bonemarrow, the brain, the spinal cord, cell membranes, muscles, and other internal organs. The levelessential fat is approximately 3% of total body weight for men and 12% of total body weightfor women. Women have a higher essential body fat requirement because of genderspecific fatdeposits in breast tissue and the area surrounding the uterus. When essential fat drops below acritical level, normal physiological and biological function may be impaired (Heyward andWagner 2004).

Nonessential fat has three main functions: 1) As an insulator to retain body heat. 2) As an energy substrate during rest and exercise. 3) As padding against trauma.

Nonessential fat, known as storage fat, is typically layered below the skin and is referred toas subcutaneous fat. Storage fat is also found surrounding internal organs in the abdominalcavity and this fat is referred to as visceral fat. Older people tend to have less subcutaneous fatand more visceral fat than younger people (Heyward and Wagner 2004).

2.2. How Is Body Fat Gained?

Storage fat is found in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is a form of connective tissue composed of fat cells, called adipocytes, that are separated by a matrix ofcollagenous (whitefibrous protein) and elastic fibers. Body fat accumulates in two ways:

(1) Hypertrophy of fat cells: filling existing adipocytes, causing an increase in their size.

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(2) Hyperplasia of fat cells: forming new fat cells.

Fat cells normally increase in size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia) from birth tomaturity. Obese adults typically have 60 to 100 billion fat cells compared with 30 to 50 billionfat cells found in non-obese adults (Pollock and Willmore 1990). Previous research indicates thatthe number of fat cells increased markedly during the first year of life, gradually until puberty,and then modestly for a period of several years, with the maximum number of cells becomingfixed by adulthood. Current evidence suggests that the size and number of fat cells can increaseat any age. The exact mechanism for hyperplasia is still unknown; however, it is hypothesizedthat fat cells have a certain size capacity and once that capacity is reached a new cell is formedvia hyperplasia (Liebman 2004). Fat cells can increase or decrease in size, but once a fat celldevelops it is permanent and can be removed only by liposuction.

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2.3. How Is Body Fat Stored? Fat in the body is in the form of triglycerides. Triglycerides (TG) are made up of three freefatty acid (FFA) molecules held together by a molecule of glycerol (not a fat but a type ofalcohol) (Brown, Miller, and Eason 2006).

Most of the bodys fat is stored in the adipocytes. Typically, about 50,000 to 60,000kilocalories (kcals) of energy are stored as TG in adipocytes throughout the body (Manore andThompson 2000). Fat can also be stored as droplets within skeletal muscle cells. These fatdroplets are called intramuscular triglycerides (IMTG) and they may hold 2,000 to 3,000 kcalsof stored energy (Manore and Thompson 2000). In addition to the stores of fat, some TG travelfreely in the blood. During exercise, TG in fat cells, muscle cells, and in the blood can be brokendown (a process called lipolysis) and used as fuel by the exercising muscles.

In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin (subcutaneous fat), around internal organs (visceral fat), in bone marrow (yellow bone marrow) and in breast tissue. Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other cell types are present collectively termed stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells. Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, the subcutaneous layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it provides protective padding. However, its main function is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be
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burned to meet the energy needs of the body and to protect it from excess glucose by storing triglycerides produced by the liver from sugars, although some evidence suggests that most lipids synthesized from carbohydrates occurs in the adipose tissue itself.Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles. Under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain. 2.4. Fat Mobilization and Metabolism

The mobilization of fat refers to the process of releasing fat from storage sites in the body.Two main enzymes regulate the mobilization of free fatty acids: hormone sensitivelipase (HSL)and lipoprotein lipase (LPL). The metabolism of fat is the complete biological breakdown, oroxidation (which means loss of electrons) of fat into energy that can be used by the body. Theprimary sites of fat oxidation are cardiac and skeletal muscle and the liver.

2.4.1. Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)

HSL is located directly in the fat cell and is regulated primarily by the circulatingconcentrations of epinephrine and insulin. HSL is stimulated by the hormone epinephrine andinhibited by the hormone insulin. When HSL is stimulated, it acts to break apart the triglyceridesin the adipose tissue, releasing three free fatty acids (FFA) and glycerol, which are thecomponents of TG, into the blood stream. This process is called lipolysis. When HSLis inhibited, lipolysis is inhibited. Under most physiological conditions, the rate of lipolysis isdetermined by the balance between the stimulating effect of epinephrine and the inhibitory effectof insulin.

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Lipolysis of a triglyceride

Epinephrine, which is released by the sympathetic nervous system during exercise, is theprimary stimulator of lipolysis (Rasmussen and Wolfe 1999). Epinephrine binds to specificreceptors on the fat cell, which in turn, activate HSL. An individuals physiological state canaffect the bodys sensitivity to epinephrine. For example, during aerobic exercise HSLresponsiveness to epinephrine is enhanced due to an increase in body temperature and a greaterconcentration of epinephrine in the blood stream. Additionally, in an endurancetrainedindividual the HSL response to epinephrine is enhanced such that HSL can be activated by alower concentration of epinephrine compared with a non-endurance-trained individual. Ametabolic training effect of aerobic exercise is an enhanced ability to mobilize and break apartTG for energy use. In contrast, obesity blunts the HSL responsiveness toepinephrine, meaningthat a higher concentration of epinephrine is needed to activate HSL in obese individuals(Rasmussen and Wolfe 1999).

Once in the blood stream, the FFA molecules bind to albumin , a blood proteinthe main transporter of FFA molecules. FFA molecules are not water soluble and thusrequire a protein carrier to allow them to be transported to cells and within the blood stream. Once the FFA molecules are transported to the muscle cell, they are released from albumin andcarried across the muscle cell membrane by specific transporters.

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Fatty acids (FA) transported by albumin in blood to target tissues in the body Three main FFA transporters located on the muscle cell membrane take over at this point:fatty acid binding protein (FABP), fatty acid translocase (FAT), and fatty acid transport protein(FATP) (Turcotte 2000). These proteins bind the FFA molecules and transport them across thecell membrane to the mitochondria, the organelle of cells responsible for energyproductionfor complete oxidation. Aerobic training can increase the number of FFAtransporters on the muscle cell membrane, thus enhancing the ability to metabolize fat. Theglycerol molecule released from the process of lipolysis is circulated to the liver for oxidationand is either used as a molecule in the breakdown of glucose or to make more TG (Robergs andKeteyian 2003).

2.4.2. Liproprotein Lipase (LPL) LPL, the second enzyme that regulates the mobilization of FFA, is located on blood vesselwalls throughout the body. Both adipose tissue and the liver have large quantities of this enzyme.LPL acts on TG within lipoproteins, special transporters that carry cholesterol and TG throughthe blood stream to fat storage depots and body cells for fuel and cellular life support. TG areeither broken down to FFA molecules and used as fuel by active tissues or they diffuse into fatand liver cells where they are resynthesized into TG and stored. LPL is often referred to as thegatekeeper that controls the distribution of fat in the various storage depots of the body.

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Epinephrine

Epinephrine is the primary hormone that stimulates lipolysis (the breakdown oftriglycerides) (Blaak 2001). Epinephrine binds to receptors on various cells throughout the body,such as adipocytes and muscle cells, and can either activate or inhibit HSL (Blaak 2001). Asexplained above, when HSL is stimulated, it acts to break apart TG in the adipose tissue andrelease the three FFA molecules and glycerol into the bloodstream.The two main types of epinephrine receptors are alpha receptors and beta receptors.Epinephrine can stimulate lipolysis through the beta receptors and can inhibit lipolysis throughthe alpha receptors (Blaak 2001). The type of receptor available and its sensitivity to epinephrinedetermines the response ofHSL in any given tissue. Alpha and beta receptors can be located onthe same cells; the response of HSL depends on which type is more abundant and available forbinding with epinephrine. When the beta receptors are stimulated, HSL is activated. Incontrast, when the alpha receptors are stimulated, HSL is inhibited.

Epinephrine acting on the alpha receptors in fat cells

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Epinephrine acting on the beta receptors in fat cell

3.0 OMEGA 3 FATTY ACIDS 3.1 introduction

Omega-3 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids: They are necessary for human health but the body can' t make them -- you have to get them through food. Omega-3 fatty acids can be found in fish, such as salmon, tuna, and halibut, other seafood including algae and krill, some plants, and nut oils. Also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), omega-3 fatty acids play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and development. They have also become popular because they may reduce the risk of heart disease. The American Heart Association recommends eating fish (particularly fatty fish such as mackerel, lake trout, herring, sardines, albacore tuna, and salmon) at least 2 times a week. Research shows that omega-3 fatty acids reduce inflammation and may help lower risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and arthritis. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly concentrated in the brain and appear to be important for cognitive (brain memory and performance) and behavioral function. In fact, infants who do not get enough omega-3 fatty acids from their mothers during pregnancy are at risk for developing vision and nerve problems.
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Symptoms of omega-3 fatty acid deficiency include fatigue, poor memory, dry skin, heart problems, mood swings or depression, and poor circulation. It is important to have the proper ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 (another essential fatty acid) in the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation, and most omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation. The typical American diet tends to contain 14 - 25 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids, which many nutritionally oriented physicians consider to be way too high on the omega-6 side. The Mediterranean diet, on the other hand, has a healthier balance between omega-3 and omega6 fatty acids. Many studies have shown that people who follow this diet are less likely to develop heart disease. The Mediterranean diet emphasizes foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, as well as moderate wine consumption.

3.2 Uses
Clinical evidence is strongest for heart disease and problems that contribute to heart disease, but omega-3 fatty acids may also be used for: High cholesterol People who follow a Mediterranean style diet tend to have higher HDL or good cholesterol levels, which help promote heart health. Inuit Eskimos, who get high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids from eating fatty fish, also tend to have increased HDL cholesterol and decreased triglycerides (fats in the blood). Several studies have shown that fish oil supplements reduce triglyceride levels. Finally, walnuts (which are rich in alpha linolenic acid or ANA, which converts to omega-3s in the body) have been reported to lower total cholesterol and triglycerides in people with high cholesterol levels.

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High blood pressure Several clinical studies suggest that diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids lower blood pressure in people with hypertension. An analysis of 17 clinical studies using fish oil supplements found that taking 3 or more grams of fish oil daily may reduce blood pressure in people with untreated hypertension. Doses this high, however, should only be taken under the direction of a physician. Heart disease The role of omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease is well established. One of the best ways to help prevent heart disease is to eat a diet low in saturated fat and to eat foods that are rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats (including omega-3 fatty acids). Clinical evidence suggests that EPA and DHA (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, the 2 omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oil) help reduce risk factors for heart disease, including high cholesterol and high blood pressure. Fish oil has been shown to lower levels of triglycerides (fats in the blood), and to lower the risk of death, heart attack, stroke, and abnormal heart rhythms in people who have already had a heart attack. Fish oil also appears to help prevent and treat atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) by slowing the development of plaque and blood clots, which can clog arteries. Large population studies suggest that getting omega-3 fatty acids in the diet, primarily from fish, helps protect against stroke caused by plaque buildup and blood clots in the arteries that lead to the brain. Eating at least 2 servings of fish per week can reduce the risk of stroke by as much as 50%. However, high doses of fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding. People who eat more than 3 grams of omega-3 fatty acids per day (equivalent to 3 servings of fish per day) may have higher risk for hemorrhagic stroke, a potentially fatal type of stroke in which an artery in the brain leaks or ruptures. Diabetes People with diabetes often have high triglyceride and low HDL levels. Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil can help lower triglycerides and apoproteins (markers of diabetes), and raise HDL, so eating foods or taking fish oil supplements may help people with diabetes. Another type of omega-3 fatty acid, ALA (from flaxseed, for example) may not have the same benefit as fish oil.
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Some people with diabetes can' t efficiently convert ANA to a form of omega-3 fatty acids that the body can use. Also, some people with type 2 diabetes may have slight increases in fasting blood sugar when taking fish oil, so talk to your doctor to see if fish oil is right for you. Rheumatoid arthritis Most clinical studies examining omega-3 fatty acid supplements for arthritis have focused on rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation in the joints. A number of small studies have found that fish oil helps reduce symptoms of RA, including joint pain and morning stiffness. One study suggests that people with RA who take fish oil may be able to lower their dose of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). However, unlike prescription medications, fish oil does not appear to slow progression of RA, only to treat the symptoms. Joint damage still occurs. Laboratory studies suggest that diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids (and low in the inflammatory omega-6 fatty acids) may help people with osteoarthritis, although more study is needed. New Zealand green lipped mussel (Pernacanaliculus), another potential source of omega-3 fatty acids, has been reported to reduce joint stiffness and pain, increase grip strength, and improve walking pace in a small group of people with osteoarthritis. For some people, symptoms got worse before they improved. An analysis of 17 randomized, controlled clinical trials looked at the pain relieving effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplements in people with RA or joint pain caused by inflammatory bowel disease (IBS) and painful menstruation (dysmenorrhea). The results suggest that omega-3 fatty acids, along with conventional therapies such as NSAIDs, may help relieve joint pain associated with these conditions. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) Several small studies suggest that EPA and fish oil may help reduce symptoms of lupus, an autoimmune condition characterized by fatigue and joint pain. However, 2 small studies found fish oil had no effect on lupus nephritis (kidney disease caused by lupus, a frequent complication of the disease).

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Osteoporosis Some studies suggest that omega-3 fatty acids may help increase levels of calcium in the body and improve bone strength, although not all results were positive. Some studies also suggest that people who don' t get enough of some essential fatty acids (particularly EPA and gammalinolenic acid [GLA], an omega-6 fatty acid) are more likely to have bone loss than those with normal levels of these fatty acids. In a study of women over 65 with osteoporosis, those who took EPA and GLA supplements had less bone loss over 3 years than those who took placebo. Many of these women also experienced an increase in bone density. Depression Studies have found mixed results as to whether taking omega-3 fatty acids can help depression symptoms. Several studies have found that people who took omega-3 fatty acids in addition to prescription antidepressants had a greater improvement in symptoms than those who took antidepressants alone. Other studies show that omega-3 fatty acid intake helps protect against postpartom depression, among other benefits. However, other studies have found no benefit. Studies are also mixed on whether omega-3 fatty acids alone have any effect on depression. Depression is a serious illness and you should not try to treat it on your own. See a doctor for help. Bipolar disorder In a clinical study of 30 people with bipolar disorder, those who took fish oil in addition to standard prescription treatments for bipolar disorder for 4 months experienced fewer mood swings and relapse than those who received placebo. But another 4 month long clinical study treating people with bipolar depression and rapid cycling bipolar disorder did not find that EPA helped reduce symptoms. Schizophrenia Preliminary clinical evidence suggests that people with schizophrenia may have an improvement in symptoms when given omega-3 fatty acids. However, a recent well designed study concluded that EPA supplements are no better than placebo in improving symptoms of this condition.
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Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have low levels of certain essential fatty acids (including EPA and DHA). In a clinical study of nearly 100 boys, those with lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids had more learning and behavioral problems (such as temper tantrums and sleep disturbances) than boys with normal omega-3 fatty acid levels. However, studies examining whether omega-3 fatty acids help improve symptoms of ADHD have found mixed results. A few studies have found that omega-3 fatty acids helped improve behavioral symptoms, but most were not well designed. One study that looked at DHA in addition to stimulant therapy (standard therapy for ADHD) found no effect. More research is needed, but eating foods that are high in omega-3 fatty acids is a reasonable approach for someone with ADHD. Cognitive decline A number of studies show that reduced intake of omega-3 fatty acids is associated with increased risk of age related cognitive decline or dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. Scientists believe the omega-3 fatty acid DHA is protective against Alzheimer's disease and dementia.

Skin disorders In one clinical study, 13 people with sun sensitivity known as photo dermatitis showed less sensitivity to UV rays after taking fish oil supplements. However, topical sunscreens are much better at protecting the skin from damaging effects of the sun than omega-3 fatty acids. In another study of 40 people with psoriasis, those who took EPA with their prescription medications did better than those treated with the medications alone. However, a larger study of people with psoriasis found no benefit from fish oil. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) Results are mixed as to whether omega-3 fatty acids can help reduce symptoms of Crohn' s disease and ulcerative colitis, the 2 types of IBD. Some studies suggest that omega-3 fatty acids may help when added to medication, such as sulfasalazine (a standard medication for IBD).
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Others find no effect. More studies are needed. Fish oil supplements can cause side effects that are similar to symptoms of IBD (such as flatulence, belching, bloating, and diarrhea). Asthma Studies examining omega-3 fatty acids for asthma are mixed. In one small, well designed clinical study of 29 children with asthma, those who took fish oil supplements rich in EPA and DHA for 10 months reduced their symptoms compared to children who took placebo. However, most studies have shown no effect. Macular Degeneration A questionnaire given to more than 3,000 people over the age of 49 found that those who ate more fish were less likely to have macular degeneration (a serious age related eye condition that can progress to blindness) than those who ate less fish. Similarly, a clinical study comparing 350 people with macular degeneration to 500 without the eye disease found that those with a healthy dietary balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and more fish in their diets were less likely to have macular degeneration.

Menstrual pain In one study of 42 women, they had less menstrual pain when they took fish oil supplements than when they took placebo. Coloncancer Eating foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids seems to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer. For example, Eskimos, who tend to have a high fat diet, but eat significant amounts of fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids, have a low rate of colorectal cancer. Animal studies and laboratory studies have found that omega-3 fatty acids prevent worsening of colon cancer. Preliminary studies suggest that taking fish oil daily may help slow the progression of colon cancer in people with

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early stages of the disease. If you have colorectal cancer, ask your doctor before taking any supplements. Breast cancer Although not all experts agree, women who eat foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids over many years may be less likely to develop breast cancer. More research is needed to understand the effect that omega-3 fatty acids may have on the prevention of breast cancer. Prostate cancer Population based studies of groups of men suggest that a low fat diet including omega-3 fatty acids from fish or fish oil help prevent the development of prostate cancer.

3.3 Dietary Sources

Fish, plant, and nut oils are the primary dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are found in cold water fish such as salmon, mackerel, halibut, sardines, tuna, and herring. ALA is found in flaxseeds, flaxseed oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, soybeans, soybean oil, pumpkin seeds, pumpkin seed oil, purslane, perilla seed oil, walnuts, and walnut oil. The health effects of omega-3 fatty acids come mostly from EPA and DHA. ALA from flax and other vegetarian sources needs to be converted in the body to EPA and DHA. Many people do not make these conversions very effectively, however. This remains an ongoing debate in the nutrition community; fish and sea vegetable sources of EPA and DHA versus vegetarian sources of ALA. Other sources of omega-3 fatty acids include sea life such as krill and algae.

3.4 Available Forms

Both EPA and DHA can be taken in the form of fish oil capsules. Flaxseed, flaxseed oil, fish, and krill oils should be kept refrigerated. Whole flaxseeds must be ground within 24 hours of use, so the ingredients stay active. Flaxseeds are also available in ground form in a special mylar package so the components in the flaxseeds stay active.

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Be sure to buy omega-3 fatty acid supplements made by established companies who certify that their products are free of heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium. 3.5 How to Take It Dosing for fish oil supplements should be based on the amount of EPA and DHA, not on the total amount of fish oil. Supplements vary in the amounts and ratios of EPA and DHA. A common amount of omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil capsules is 0.18 grams (180 mg) of EPA and 0.12 grams (120 mg) of DHA. Different types of fish contain variable amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, and different types of nuts or oil contain variable amounts of ALA. Fish oils contain approximately 9 calories per gram of oil. Children (18 years and younger) There is no established dose for children. Omega-3 fatty acids are used in some infant formulas. Fish oil capsules should not be used in children except under the direction of a health care provider. Children should avoid eating fish that may be high in mercury, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish. (See Precautions section.) Adults Do not take more than 3 grams daily of omega-3 fatty acids from capsules without the supervision of a health care provider, due to an increased risk of bleeding.

For healthy adults with no history of heart disease: The American Heart Association (AHA) recommends eating fish at least 2 times per week.

For adults with coronary heart disease: The AHA recommends an omega-3 fatty acid supplement (as fish oils), 1 gram daily of EPA and DHA. It may take 2 - 3 weeks for benefits of fish oil supplements to be seen. Supplements should be taken under the direction of a physician.

For adults with high cholesterol levels: The AHA recommends an omega-3 fatty acid supplement (as fish oils), 2 - 4 grams daily of EPA and DHA. It may take 2 - 3 weeks for benefits of fish oil supplements to be seen. Supplements should be taken under the direction of a physician.
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For adults with high blood pressure, scientists generally recommend 3 - 4 grams per day, but you should only take under the supervision of a health care provider.

3.6 Precautions
Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, you should only take dietary supplements only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider. Omega-3 fatty acids should be used cautiously by people who bruise easily, have a bleeding disorder, or take blood thinning medications including warfarin (Coumadin), clopidogrel (Plavix), or aspirin. High doses of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, even in people without a history of bleeding disorders -- and even in those who are not taking other medications. Fish oil can cause gas, bloating, belching, and diarrhea. Time release preparations may reduce these side effects, however. People with either diabetes or schizophrenia may lack the ability to convert alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the forms more readily used in the body. People with these conditions should be sure to get enough EPA and DHA from their diets. Also, people with type 2 diabetes may experience increases in fasting blood sugar levels while taking fish oil supplements. If you have type 2 diabetes, use fish oil supplements only under the supervision of a health care provider. Although studies suggest that eating fish (which includes the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA) may reduce the risk of macular degeneration, a recent study including 2 large groups of men and women found that diets rich in ALA may increase the risk of this disease. Until more information becomes available, people with macular degeneration should get omega-3 fatty acids from sources of EPA and DHA, rather than ALA. Fish and fish oil may protect against prostate cancer, but some suggest that ALA may be associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in men. More research in this area is needed. Some fish may contain potentially harmful contaminants, such as heavy metals (including mercury), dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). For sport caught fish, the U.S.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends that pregnant or nursing women eat no more than a single 6 ounce meal per week, and young children less than 2 ounces per week. For farm raised, imported, or marine fish, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommends that pregnant or nursing women and young children avoid eating types with higher levels of mercury (such as mackerel, shark, swordfish, or tilefish), and eat up to 12 ounces per week of other fish types. Buy fish oil from a reputable source that tests to make sure there is no mercury or pesticide residues in its products. Possible Interactions: If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use omega-3 fatty acid supplements, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), without first talking to your health care provider. Blood thinning medications -- Omega-3 fatty acids may increase the effects of blood thinning medications, including aspirin, warfarin (Coumadin), and clopedigrel (Plavix). Taking aspirin and omega-3 fatty acids may be helpful in some circumstances (such as in heart disease), but they should only be taken together under the supervision of a health care provider. Diabetes medications -- Taking omega-3 fatty acid supplements may increase fasting blood sugar levels. Use with caution if taking medications to lower blood sugar, such as glipizide(Glucotrol and Glucotrol XL), glyburide (Micronase or Diabeta), glucophage (Metformin), or insulin. Your doctor may need to increase your medication dose. These drugs include:

Glipizide (Glucotrol and Glucotrol XL) Glyburide (Micronase or Diabeta) Metformin (Glucophage) Insulin

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Cyclosporine -- Cyclosporine is a medication given to people with organ transplants. Taking omega-3 fatty acids during cyclosporine (Sandimmune) therapy may reduce toxic side effects, such as high blood pressure and kidney damage, associated with this medication. Etretinate and topical steroids -- Adding omega-3 fatty acids (specifically EPA) to the drug therapy etretinate (Tegison) and topical corticosteroids may improve symptoms of psoriasis. Cholesterol-lowering medications -- Following dietary guidelines, including increasing the amount of omega-3 fatty acids in your diet and reducing the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio, may help a group of cholesterol lowering medications known as statins to work more effectively. These medications include:

Atorvastatin (Liptor) Lovastatin (Mevacor) Simvastatin (Zocor)

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) -- In an animal study, treatment with omega3 fatty acids reduced the risk of ulcers from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs include ibuprofen (Motrin or Advil) and naproxen (Aleve or Naprosyn). More research is needed to see whether omega-3 fatty acids would have the same effects in people.

Reviewed last on: 5/10/2011 Steven D. Ehrlich, NMD, Solutions Acupuncture, a private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.
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4.1 OMEGA 6 FATTY ACIDS

Omega-6 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids: They are necessary for human health but the body can' t make them -- you have to get them through food. Along with omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and development. Also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), they help stimulate skin and hair growth, maintain bone health, regulate metabolism, and maintain the reproductive system. A healthy diet contains a balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation, and some omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation. In fact, some studies suggest that elevated intakes of omega-6 fatty acids may play a role in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. The typical American diet tends to contain 14 - 25 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. The Mediterranean diet, on the other hand, has a healthier balance between omega-3 and omega6 fatty acids. Many studies have shown that people who follow this diet are less likely to develop heart disease. The Mediterranean diet does not include much meat (which is high in omega-6 fatty acids, though grass fed beef has a more favorable omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acid ratio) and emphasizes foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, as well as moderate wine consumption. There are several different types of omega-6 fatty acids, and not all promote inflammation. Most omega-6 fatty acids in the diet come from vegetable oils, such as linoleic acid (LA). Be careful not to confuse this with alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid. Linoleic acid is converted to gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) in the body. It is then further broken down to arachidonic acid (AA). GLA is found in several plant based oils, including evening primrose oil (EPO), borage oil, and black currant seed oil.

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GLA may actually reduce inflammation. Much of the GLA taken as a supplement is converted to a substance called DGLA that fights inflammation. Having enough of certain nutrients in the body (including magnesium, zinc, and vitamins C, B3, and B6) helps promote the conversion of GLA to DGLA.

4.2 General Uses

Omega-6 fatty acids may be useful for the following health conditions: Diabetic neuropathy Some studies show that taking gamma linolenic acid (GLA) for 6 months or more may reduce symptoms of nerve pain in people with diabetic neuropathy. People who have good blood sugar control may find GLA more effective than those with poor blood sugar control. Rheumatoid arthritis Studies are mixed as to whether evening primrose oil helps reduce symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. Some preliminary evidence suggests evening primrose oil may reduce pain, swelling, and morning stiffness; but other studies have found no effect. When using GLA for symptoms of arthritis, it may take 1 - 3 months for benefits to appear. It is unlikely that evening primrose oil would help stop progression of the disease, so joint damage would still occur. Allergies Omega-6 fatty acids from food or supplements, such as GLA from evening primrose oil or other sources, have a longstanding history of folk use for allergies. Women who are prone to allergies appear to have lower levels of GLA in breast milk and blood. However, there is no good scientific evidence that taking GLA helps reduce allergy symptoms. Well conducted research studies are needed. If you decide to try GLA for allergies, work with your health care provider to first determine if it is safe for you. Then follow your allergy symptoms closely for any signs of improvement or lack or improvement.

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Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Clinical studies suggest that children with ADHD have lower levels of EFAs, both omega-6s and omega-3s. EFAs are important to normal brain and behavioral function. Some studies indicate that taking fish oil (containing omega-3 fatty acids) may help reduce ADHD symptoms, though the studies have not been well designed. Studies that used evening primrose oil have found it was no better than placebo at reducing symptoms. Breast cancer One study found that women with breast cancer who took GLA had a better response to tamoxifen (a drug used to treat estrogen sensitive breast cancer) than those who took only tamoxifen. Other studies suggest that GLA inhibits tumor activity among breast cancer cell lines. There is some research suggesting that a diet rich in omega-6 fatty acids may promote breast cancer development. Eczema Evidence is mixed as to whether evening primrose oil can help reduce symptoms of eczema. Some early studies found benefit, but they were not well designed. Later studies that examined people who took evening primrose oil for 16 - 24 weeks found no improvement in symptoms. If you want to try evening primrose oil, talk to your health care provider about whether it is safe for you. High blood pressure (Hypertension) There is some preliminary evidence that GLA may help reduce high blood pressure, either alone or in combination with omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), found in fish oil. In one study, men with borderline high blood pressure who took 6g of blackcurrant oil had a reduction in diastolic blood pressure compared to those who took placebo. Another study examined people with intermittent claudication, pain in the legs while walking that is caused by blockages in the blood vessels. Those who took GLA combined with EPA had a reduction in systolic blood pressure compared to those who took placebo.
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More research is needed to see whether GLA is truly effective for hypertension. Menopausal symptoms Evening primrose oil has gained popularity as a way to treat hot flashes associated with menopause, but so far studies have not shown that it works. If you want to try evening primrose oil for hot flashes and night sweats, ask your health care provider whether it is safe and right for you. Mastalgia Some evidence suggests that evening primrose oil may reduce breast pain and tenderness in people with cyclic mastalgia. It may also help reduce symptoms to a lesser extent in people with non cyclicmastalgia. However, it does not seem to be effective for severe breast pain. Multiple Sclerosis Evening primrose oil has been suggested as an additional treatment (in addition to standard therapy) for multiple sclerosis (MS) although there is no scientific evidence that it works. MS patients who want to add evening primrose oil to their treatment regimens should talk with a health care provider. Osteoporosis Some studies suggest that people who don' t get enough of some essential fatty acids (particularly EPA and GLA) are more likely to have bone loss than those with normal levels of these fatty acids. In a study of women over 65 with osteoporosis, those who took EPA and GLA supplements had less bone loss over 3 years than those who took placebo. Many of these women also experienced an increase in bone density. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) Although most studies have found no effect, some women report relief of PMS symptoms when using GLA. The symptoms that seem to be helped the most are breast tenderness and feelings of depression, as well as irritability and swelling and bloating from fluid retention.

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4.3 Dietary Sources: For general health, there should be a balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. The ratio should be in the range of 2:1 - 4:1, omega-6 to omega-3 -- and some health educators advocate even lower ratios. The average diet provides plenty of omega-6 fatty acids, so supplements are usually not necessary. People with specific conditions such as eczema or psoriasis, arthritis, diabetes, or breast tenderness (mastalgia) may want to ask their health care providers about taking omega-6 supplements. Available Forms: Omega-6 fatty acids are available in supplemental oils that contain linoleic acid (LA) and gamma linolenic acid (GLA), such as evening primrose (Oenotherabiennis) and black currant (Ribesnigrum) oils. Spirulina (often called blue-green algae) also contains GLA. How to Take It: The average diet provides sufficient omega-6 fatty acids, so supplementation is usually not necessary unless you're treating a specific condition, such as eczema or psoriasis, arthritis, diabetes, or breast tenderness (mastalgia). The dose and form of omega-6 fatty acids to be supplemented depends on many factors, including condition being treated, age, weight, and other medications and supplements being used. Speak to your doctor to determine what form and what dose of omega-6 fatty acids are most appropriate for you. Precautions: Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, dietary supplements should be taken only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider. Do not take omega-6 if you have a seizure disorder because there have been reports of these supplements causing seizures. Several reports describe seizures in people taking evening
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primrose oil. Some of these seizures developed in people with a previous seizure disorder, or in people taking evening primrose oil in combination with anesthetics. People who plan to undergo surgery requiring anesthesia should stop taking evening primrose oil 2 weeks ahead of time. Borage seed oil, and possibly other sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), should not be taken during pregnancy because they may harm the fetus and induce early labor. Avoid doses of GLA greater than 3,000 mg per day. At that level, an increase in inflammation may occur. Side effects of evening primrose oil can include occasional headache, abdominal pain, nausea, and loose stools. In animal studies, GLA is reported to decrease blood pressure. Early results in human studies do not show consistent changes in blood pressure. Laboratory studies suggest that omega-6 fatty acids, such as the fat found in corn oil, promote the growth of prostate tumor cells. Until more research is done, health care professionals recommend not taking omega-6 fatty acids, including GLA, if you are at risk of or have prostate cancer. Possible Interactions: If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use omega-6 supplements without first talking to your health care provider. Blood thinning medications -- People taking blood thinning medications, including warfarin (Coumadin) or clopidogrel (Plavix), should not take omega-6 fatty acid supplements without consulting a health care provider. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding. Ceftazidime -- Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) may increase the effectiveness of ceftazidime. Ceftazidinme, an antibiotic, is used against a variety of bacterial infections. Chemotherapy for cancer -- GLA may increase the effects of anti cancer treatments, such as doxorubicin, cisplatin, carboplatin, idarubicin, mitoxantrone, tamoxifen, vincristine, and vinblastine.

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Cyclosporine -- Cyclosporine is a medication used to suppress the immune system after organ transplant. Taking omega-6 fatty acids with cyclosporine may increase the immunosuppressive effects of this medication. It may also protect against kidney damage (a potential side effect from this medication). Phenothiazines -- People taking a class of medications called phenothiazines to treat schizophrenia should not take evening primrose oil. Evening primrose oil may interact with these medications and increase the risk of seizures. The same may be true for other omega-6 supplements. These medications include:

Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) Fluphenazine (Stelazine) Perphenazine (Trilafon) Promethazine (Compazine) Thioridazine (Mellaril)

Alternative Names: Evening primrose oil; EPO; Linoleic acid; LA

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5.1 OMEGA 9 FATTY ACIDS

Some omega9 fatty acids are common components of animal fat and vegetable oil. Two omega9 fatty acids important in industry are: Oleic acid (18:1, n9), which is a main component of olive oil and other monounsaturated fats Erucic acid (22:1, n9), which is found in rapeseed, wallflower seed, and mustard seed. Rapeseed with high erucic acid content is grown for commercial use in paintings and coatings as a drying oil. Canola oil comes from a cultivar of the rapeseed plant that has been bred, or in some cases genetically modified, to contain very little erucic acid. Unlike omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acid, omega9 fatty acids are not classed as essential fatty acids (EFA). This is both because they can be created by the human body from unsaturated fat, and are therefore not essential in the diet, and because the lack of an omega6 double bond keeps them from participating in the reactions that form the eicosanoids. Under severe conditions of EFA deprivation, mammals will elongate and desaturate oleic acid to make mead acid, (20:3, n9). This has been documented to a lesser extent in one study following vegans, vegetarians and semi-vegetarians who followed unbalanced diets. Omega9 fatty acids Common name oleic acid elaidic acid Lipid name Chemical name

18:1 (n9) 18:1 (n9)

9-octadecenoic acid (E)-octadec-9-enoic acid 11-eicosenoic acid 5,8,11-eicosatrienoic acid 13-docosenoic acid 15-tetracosenoic acid

gondoic acid 20:1 (n9) mead acid erucic acid 20:3 (n9) 22:1 (n9)

nervonic acid 24:1 (n9)

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5.2 What is omega-9 Omega-9 fatty acid is a monounsaturated fat that is also known as oleic acid. It is not considered an essential fatty acid because of our bodys ability to produce it in small amounts. However, this can only happen if the essential fatty acids (EFAs) omega-3 and omega-6 are present if the body is low on one of these EFAs it cannot produce enough omega-9. In this instance, omega-9 transforms into an essential fatty acid because of the bodys inability to produce it. While omega-9 is crucial to the body, it plays a much smaller role than the essential fatty acids omega-3 and omega-6. Primarily, omega-9 has a positive health affect on the lowering of cholesterol levels and promotes healthy inflammation responses within the body. Other major health benefits of omega-9 include the reduction of the arteries, reduction of insulin resistance, improvement of immune function, and provides protection against certain types of cancer. 5.3 AVAILABLE FORMS Omega-9 fatty acids are found in lard, butter, bacon fat, chicken fat, and also in: Almonds Avocados Cashews Hazelnuts Macadamia nuts Olives Peanuts Pecans Pistachio nuts Sesame oil The best source of omega-9 fatty acids, however, is olive oil.
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Olive oil is the most important nutrient in the Mediterranean diet. Moderate use of olive oil in dressing salads and as a dip for bread is associated with lower blood pressure, lower LDL cholesterol, and lower rates of heart attack and hardening of the arteries. A little olive oil with your meal slows down the rate at which your stomach empties into the small intestine. This helps you feel full faster and keeps you feeling full longer. Olive oil stimulates the release of a hormone called cholecystokinin. This is the hormone that is triggered by eating "comfort foods," most of which are high in calories and sugar. The "creaminess" imparted by just a little olive oil is what causes the release of the hormone. If you diet also contains fish or fish oil, olive oil slows down fat gain. The additional fat in your meal increases the rate at which your body burns fat, compensating for the extra fat in the olive oil. A little olive oil, up to one and one-half tablespoons (25 ml) per meal is a good thing. Like all good things, it's possible to get too much. But olive oil is by far the easiest omega-9 fatty acid to incorporate into your diet. What about taking omega-9 supplements? It's important to remember that the omega-9's are nonessential. Our bodies can make them. The problem for most of us who do not live in famine conditions is that our bodies make too much! When a small amount of omega-9 fat is obtained from the diet, even if it's lard or bacon fat, we have all the fat we need for storage. It's far more important to obtain the omega-3's and omega6's our bodies need for hormones from supplements

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5.4 What are the symptoms of omega-9 deficiency? Each EFA (3, 6, 9) share a symbiotic bond that requires each other to operate to their fullest potential and to provide the body with most positive health effects as possible. A lack of omega9 in the body can have a detrimental effect that the benefits the other omega fatty acids provide. Signs of omega-9 deficiency can include:

Eczema-like skin eruptions Bumps on the back of upper arms Cracking/peeling fingertips Dandruff Hair loss Behavioral changes Dry glands Male sterility Growth retardation Dry skin Dry Eyes Miscarriage Irregular heart beat Craving of fatty foods Stiff or painful joints

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Who can benefit from using supplements containing omega-9? Because of the expansive list of benefits of the entire omega fatty acid group provides to our bodies, every healthy adult should consume omega-9. The omega fatty acid group can help prevent and combat many common illnesses and health problems. These include countless conditions, like anorexia, ADHD, diabetes, eye disease, osteoporosis, menopausal symptoms, premenstrual syndrome, acne, eczema, alcoholism, allergies, arthritis, cancer, weight loss, high blood pressure, heart disease, tuberculosis, and ulcers.

Does omega-9 have any side effects? While omega-3 and omega-6 have some (rare) reported side effects, omega-9 has none. However, be cautious if you are using anticoagulants or antiplatelet drugs due to an increased risk of bleeding.

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6.1 SQUALENE Squalene is a unique oil that naturally occurs in skin and helps to stabilize the structure of skin. This unique fatty substance is structured as an isoprenoid, which is a fat-soluble antioxidant with a unique ability to anchor itself to cell membranes. Vitamin E, tocotrienols, Q10, mangosteen, and beta carotene are other examples of nutrients with primary isoprenoid structure. Many fruits and vegetables have small amounts of isoprenoids. Squalene, an isoprenoid compound structurally similar to beta-carotene, is an intermediate metabolite in the synthesis of cholesterol. In humans, about 60 percent of dietary squalene is absorbed. It is transported in serum generally in association with very low density lipoproteins and is distributed ubiquitously in human tissues, with the greatest concentration in the skin, where it is one of the major components of skin surface lipids. Squalene is a derivative of shark liver and is often referred to as shark liver oil. It's benefits may include temporary relief from arthritic pain and joint inflammation, and for maintaining healthy immune function, endurance and fighting disease. Shark liver oil is promoted as a complementary or alternative form of treatment for cancer and other diseases. The oil is taken from the liver of cold-water sharks. Shark liver oil is a rich source of alkylglycerols, chemicals that may have anti-cancer properties. Alkylglycerols are also found in human bone marrow and in breast milk. Other chemicals in shark liver oil being studied against cancer are squalamine and squalene. 6.2 History of Squalene The uses of sharks and/or sharks liver oil for health benefits are not new, but have been widely practiced throughout the world for a long time. An ancient Chinese medicine reference book, Bon Cho Gang Mok, often referred to as the Bible of Chinese medicine, contained 2 pages of information on sharks and their health benefits. Through this we know that ancient Chinese people also had much interest in sharks, and used them for medical purposes. Squalene was discovered in 1906 by a Japanese marine oil chemist, Mitsumaru Tsumimoto. Paul Karrer, Ph. D, winner of a Nobel Prize, identified the molecular structure of

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squalene in 1935, which brought much interested in the substances in Japan, Europe and in North America. The West is no exception. The famous American novelist, Earnest Hemingway, wrote in his novel, THE OLD MAN AND THE SEA, but it (shark liver oil) was no worse than getting up at the hours that they rose and it was very good against all colds and grippes and it was good for the eyes This shows that since the olden days, shark liver oil was used efficiently even among the Caribbean fisherman. 6.3 Structure of Squalene Isoprenoids are fat-soluble antioxidants with the unique ability to anchor themselves to cell membranes. A carbon spine is the backbone of any fat. Hydrogen molecules are attached to each side of the carbon, forming the fat structure. Saturated fat has two hydrogens per carbon, one on each side. Unsaturated fat means one of the hydrogens is missing. Olive oil is called an omega 9 oil because it is missing one hydrogen at the 9th carbon, a monounsaturated oil. DHA is a polyunsaturated oil, and has 6 missing hydrogens. Saturated fats are stiff. They are easy to use for fuel, as our bodies chop them up into smaller units to metabolize. Unsaturated fats can bend and fold as well as chemically interact, thus forming different shapes that enable them to interact in body structure in an endless array of possibilities. Squalene has a 30-carbon-long skeleton. By comparison, the longest length essential fatty acid, DHA, is 22 carbons long. Squalene is not a fatty acid because it does not have an acid molecule attached to the end of its carbon skeleton. Like DHA, squalene is highly unsaturated (10 missing hydrogens), enabling significant bending of its carbon spine and biological interaction. In fact, squalene forms 3 interconnected rings composed of 6 isoprenoid units, a fascinating structure to say the least. The unsaturated bonds of DHA are easily damaged by oxygen. The structure of squalene, on the other hand, is highly stable against oxygen and is itself able to act as an antioxidant. In fact, adding squalene to food has been shown to protect DHA from oxygen induced free radical damage. It is the isoprenoid structure that enables this excellent antioxidant activity.

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6.4 Benefits of Squalene Squalene is a natural lipid belonging to the terpenoid family and a precursor of cholesterol biosynthesis. It is synthesized in humans and also in a wide array of organisms and substances, from sharks to olives and even bran, among others. Because of its significant dietary benefits, biocompatibility, inertness, and other advantageous properties, squalene is extensively used as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations for disease management and therapy. In addition, squalene acts as a protective agent and has been shown to decrease chemotherapy-induced side-effects. Moreover, squalene alone exhibits chemopreventive activity. Although it is a weak inhibitor of tumor cell proliferation, it contributes either directly or indirectly to the treatment of cancer due to its potentiation effect. In addition, squalene enhances the immune response to various associated antigens, and it is therefore being investigated for vaccine delivery applications. Since this triterpene is well absorbed orally, it has been used to improve the oral delivery of therapeutic molecules. All of these qualities have rendered squalene a potentially interesting excipient for pharmaceutical applications, especially for the delivery of vaccines, drugs, genes, and other biological substances. 6.4.1 Squalene for Skin Health Squalene is naturally produced during cholesterol synthesis and is widely distributed in human tissues. Its major concentrations are in the skin and in the oils secreted by sebaceous glands, which provide a protective barrier to the skin surface. Squalene helps maintain skin moisture by lubricating the skin surface. Squalene can deactivate the free radical known as singlet oxygen, the free radical that is generated by exposure to the sun's UV radiation. Squalene can also absorb and bind fat-soluble toxins, helping to excrete them from the body. These multiple functions of squalene make it an excellent nutritional support product for the skin. With squalene, the elasticity of the skin is enhanced, thus preventing dryness that leads to fine lines, as well as wrinkles.

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Squalene is also present within a mothers womb, protecting the unborn childs skin, and keeping it well-hydrated. It is a component of the vernix, a cheesy like substance, helping in moisturizing and protecting baby skin, even before he is born. Squalene provides moisturizing and hydrating for the skin, and is a powerful antioxidant that not only the face can benefit from, but the entire body as well. The great thing about squalene is that it does not feel greasy on the skin, is hypoallergenic, and does not cause any irritations. As a matter of fact, squalene is an active component in numerous medications or skin ointments. 6.4.2 Immune Support The use of squalene as an immune support supplement was popularized by Hans Nieper, world-renowned German physician and physicist. He became interested in the oil because squalene is 80 percent of the oil in the shark's liver. Plus, the shark's liver is 25 percent of its mass. He believed it was the squalene that enabled sharks to maintain their energy in low-oxygen depths of the sea. His research indicated squalene was extremely Kirlian-positive, which meant squalene helped convert field energy into photon energy (like getting energy from the sun instead of from calories). He noticed those taking the oil would warm up and have improved circulation in their extremities. His research is little understood in modern context and the immune support principles he espoused have never been verified in human studies, though a few animal and cell studies show some support. Squalene contains isoprenoid structures that are known to attach to cell membranes, has significant antioxidant and detoxification capacity, and shows great potential as an immunesupport nutrient. 6.4.3 Squalene in Vaccines Since 1997, an influenza vaccine (FLUAD, Chiron) which contains about 10 mg of squalene per dose, has been approved in health agencies in several European countries. Squalene is present in the form of an emulsion and is added to make the vaccine more immunogenic. Squalene is being added to improve the efficacy of several experimental vaccines including pandemic flu and malaria vaccines which are being developed. Squalene is a component of some adjuvants that are added to vaccines to enhance the immune response. MF59, an adjuvant produced by Novartis and added to the FLUAD flu
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vaccine, is such an example. Squalene by itself is not an adjuvant, but emulsions of squalene with surfactants do enhance the immune response. 6.4.4 Squalene as an Antioxidant Squalene accumulates at the greatest concentrations in the skin, where it appears to play a vital role in quenching free radical oxygen (oxygen singlets), preventing the harmful effects of lipid peroxidation. Adequate concentrations of squalene in the skin prevent oxidative damage from ultraviolet light. Squalene also appears to play a similar role in the retina, where it is known to play some kind of important function. 6.4.5 Squalene for Detoxification Administration of squalene at high doses induces the detoxification and elimination of toxic pollutants such as organochlorines, theophylline, and strychnine in animals. The doses used are very high, and it is as yet unclear what the implications of this are for human health. Squalene as an Anti-Cancer Agent, Tumors, and Chemotherapy A significant body of evidence indicates that reasonable doses of supplemental squalene prevents the chemical initiation of some kinds of cancers, and promotes the regression of some kinds of preexisting tumors. One animal study found that a 1% squalene diet reduced a certain type of colon cancer foci by 46%. Another study found that squalene as 2% of the diet made animals resistant to the toxic effects of whole-body gamma radiation. According to the American Cancer Association, squalene can help to prevent cancer and may even be beneficial with reducing the growth of blood vessels that feed tumors. In fact, the American Cancer Society reports that squalene supplements along with chemotherapy may go a long way in treating cancer. In addition, the American Cancer Society also reports that since squalene has cell-protecting abilities it can help to reduce side effects of chemotherapy. Taking squalene supplements can prevent nausea, vomiting, and other problematic side effects caused by chemotherapy from reducing your quality of life. 6.4.6 Squalene in Food While the oils of olive, palm, wheat-germ, amaranth, and rice bran contain some squalene, none match the squalene content of shark liver oil, after (the latin name of) which squalene is named.
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Shark liver oil, like cod liver oil, contains the same benefits as cod liver oil, such as vitamins A and D, and omega-3 fatty acids, but its high squalene content as well as its alkoxylglycerol content make it an even more prized supplement to a healthy diet. Many people find that shark liver oil boosts their immune system and increases the health of their skin, and some researchers suggest it has cancer-preventative properties because of its high squalene content. Squalene also does wonders for the skin topically, although shark liver oil is not practical to use for this because of its fishy smell. Some companies have isolated the squalene from shark liver oil to use topically. 6.4.7 Cosmetic use Squalene's chemical similarity to human skin sebum has made it a popular component in natural cosmetic formulas designed to soften and protect the skin. The antioxidant properties of squalene have also been touted as being very beneficial for many skin conditions. In a study published in the International Journal of Cancer in July 2006, squalene was found to protect the skin of mice from developing tumors when exposed to carcinogenic substances. 6.4.8 Squalene as amplifier and adder of life spirit Squalene is the main material to build cholesterol and steroid. Cholesterol has many function in the body such as for metabolism and for building vitamin D. However, cholesterol is also used to make hormone similar with steroid which also functions as hormone builder. Hormone is very important for human life. Without hormone, human beings are useless in their everyday life, physically and mentally. Old persons has decrease their sexual spirit because their hormone (estrogen and testoteron) decrease. So if they consume squalene, their sexual enthusiasm can increase to normal level, even more maximal. 6.4.9 Squalene as a healer of liver disorder It has been reported from some hospitals in Japan such as Hospital of Tokyo University, Fakuoka Hospital and National Hospital, that they have underwent some experiments to cure hepatitis. Finally, they concluded that squalene is benefits to heal many liver disorder.

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6.4.10 Oxygenation Another benefit of squalene supplements is as an antioxidant. Ingestion of squalene supplements help to increase the amount of oxygen transported to the blood and cells in our bodies. Increased oxygenation can help to prevent damage in the body by environmental and chemical hazards. In addition, squalene supplements can oxygenate our skins cells and ultimately reduce the risk of premature aging. In fact, squalene oil is very similar to vitamin A, which also serves the same purpose for our skin. This can help our skin to look younger and healthier and lessen the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles. 6.5 Pharmacokinetics Serum squalene originates partly from endogenous cholesterol synthesis and partly from dietary sources, especially in populations consuming large amounts of olive oil or shark liver. Although its post-absorptive metabolism has not been studied in detail in humans, available evidence indicates somewhere between 60-85 percent of dietary squalene is absorbed from an oral dose. Up to 90 percent of the post-absorptive dose is transported in serum, generally in association with very low density lipoproteins, until it is distributed ubiquitously in human tissue. The greatest concentration of squalene occurs in the skin, where it is one of the major components of skin surface lipids. Based on animal evidence, prolonged oral administration might result in a significant accumulation of squalene in the liver (3-6 percent of an oral dose). Metabolic studies of squalene in human adipose tissue indicate fat tissue contains very high concentrations of squalene, about 80 percent of which is located in the central neutral lipid droplet, while 20 percent is bound to the microsomal membranes. Experimental evidence also suggests only microsomal membrane-bound squalene is metabolically active and that approximately 90 percent of the newly formed squalene is stored in the lipid droplet and only 10 percent is used in cholesterol synthesis.

6.6 How Squalene Produced in Body

Squalene is a 6-isoprenoid unit containing triterpenoid. It is produced in vivo by (1) the conversion of Acetyl-CoA into HMG-CoA, the (2) reduction of HMG-CoA into mevalonate via HMG-CoA reductase, the (3) phosphrylation and decarboxylation of mevalonate to form delta 3isopentenyl diphosphate, which is the donor molecule for polyprenyl compounds. D3IDP then (4) adds phenyl groups to form farnesyl diphosphate, and then (5) two farnesyl diphosphate
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molecules undergo a reactive coupling to form a single squalene molecule. Due to squalene synthesis being downstream of HMG-CoA, statins (HMG-CoA) can inhibit in vivo squalene production. After synthesis (in the skin and liver), it is either secreted by sebaceous glands in the skin or bound to LDL and vLDL for transport. If ingested, approximately 20% of squalene is cyclized into sterols and ejected back into the gut without being effectively taken up into systemic circulation. Despite this, approximately 60-85% of orally ingested squalene is distributed to body tissues.

6.7 Statins Inhibit Squalene Synthesis

Statins do not only inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol. Since squalene is a precursor to cholesterol, and statins cut off cholesterol synthesis prior to the formation of squalene, statins therefore inhibit the synthesis of squalene. As is true for coenzyme Q10, this cannot be considered a "side effect." Inhibiting squalene, a cholesterol precursor, is the direct purpose of the statin drugs. Yet squalene is much more than a precursor to cholesterol. In fact, only 10% of synthesized squalene is used for cholesterol synthesis. The other 90% is stored or used as an antioxidant. 6.8 Squalene and Cholesterol Metabolism Squalene is absorbed and converted to cholesterol in humans; however, this increase in synthesis is not associated with consistent increases of serum cholesterol levels, possibly as a result of a concomitant increase in fecal elimination. 1g/day for 9 weeks: increase cholesterol concentration. 0.5g/day for 6 weeks: normalized serum sterols. Squalene feeding produced a significant increase in fecal excretion of cholesterol, its nonpolar derivatives, and bile acids, suggesting that, although cholesterol synthesis probably increased by as much as 50 percent, fecal elimination was also upregulated, resulting in no net effect on serum cholesterol concentrations.

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6.9 Sources of Squalene Squalene is commercially extracted from fish oil, and in particular shark liver oil. Shark liver oil contains large quantities and is considered the richest source of squalene. Squalene used in pharmaceutical products and vaccines is purified from this source. Other than shark liver oil, olive oil, palm oil, wheat-germ oil, amaranth oil, and rice bran oil also contain squalene. 6.10 Analysis of Squalene Acid Hydrolysis For Squalene Sample was finely ground (1.0 mm mesh size) using a Moulinex Optiblend 2000 and 1 g of sample was weighed into a 20x150mm Pyrex culture tube with Teflon- lined screw cap. Sample was hydrolysed under acidic conditions. Briefly, 1 ml of absolute ethanol and 5 ml of 6 M HCl were added to tube and sample was shaken vigorously. Tube was kept at 80C for 1 hour in a water bath, during which tube was shaken every 10 minutes. The tube then cooled on ice and 5 ml ethanol, 10 l hexane/diethyl-ether. The combined extracts was dried under nitrogen and stored in a refrigerator until saponified. Saponification for Squalene Analysis Sample was saponified. Briefly, the dried extract was mixed thoroughly with 300l of 50% KOH (w/v) and 2 ml of 1% ethanolic pyrogallol (w/v) in screw-top tubes fitted with Teflonlined screw caps. The tubes were kept for 30 minutes at 70C in a water bath. The tubes were cooled on ice and 1 ml water and 4 ml hexane were added. The tubes were shaken vigorously and then centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes. The hexane layer was removed and the extraction repeated with a further 2 ml hexane. The combined extracts were dried under nitrogen. The extract was redissolved in 200 l ethanol, transferred to a plastic insert in a HPLC vial and stored at -20C until further analysis by HPLC. HPLC Analysis of Squalene Among several reported techniques of squalene analysis by HPLC, selected efficient method had valuable as well for oil mixtures than for cell extracts. Materials and reagents
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HPLC system, C18 column(150x3.9 mm Symmetry from Watres), UV or diode array detector, acetone, acetonitrile, ethanol, chloroform, methanol, squalene standard.

A squalene stock solution is prepared in dissolving an appropriate amount in ethanol and stored at -20C. Working solutions are prepared by dilution with acetonitrile (from 0.1 to 40 mg/l). Extraction procedure Vegetal lipids are extracted or dissolved in methanol/acetone (7/3, v/v) or chloroform/methanol (1/2, v/v), after filtration and evaporation, the residue is dissolved in mobile phase. A fractional crystallization may be used to avoid the interference of high amounts of cholesterol or phytosterols. Lipid solutions are kept at -20C for 30 h and interferences are eliminated by filtration. Chromatographic separation The column is maintained at 30C and acetonitrile is pumped at a flow rate of 1.5 ml/min. Squalene is detected at 195 nm and is eluted at around 15 min. Even for complex lipid samples, there is no interference of other sompounds at the elution time of squalene. Linearity is excellent from 0.1 to 40 mg/l and the detection limit is about 0.04 mg/l. The recovery (from 90 to 95%) may be determined by addition of a known amount of standard in the sample.

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7.0 LEPTIN 7.1 Introduction Leptin is a hormone produced by our fat cells. The human body is comprised of literally trillions of cells which do different things but must interact and communicate with each other effectively in order for the body to function optimally and therefore to maintain our good health. Our cells communicate with each other by way of our hormones which act as chemical messengers. Leptin is one of the most important chemical messengers. Leptin influences a diverse range of metabolic activities in the body. How effectively our cells listen to leptin's messages plays a critical role in maintaining, among other things, healthy weight management. This is done through influencing appetite, satiety (feeling full), metabolism and mood. The protein hormone called leptin is activated through adipocytes and secreted in your stomach lining and in the placenta, according to Colorado State University. Leptin helps to regulate metabolism and body weight, as well as the reproductive system. The leptin levels in your body tend to fluctuate when you lose weight, notes the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. That's part of the reason for the initial success of low-carb diets. By severely reducing the carbohydrates (and the leptin that comes along with them) you can get the brain to start recognizing leptin again and signal when it's full.

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7.2 SYNTHESIS It's produced primarily by the adipocytes of white adipose tissue, but it's also manufactured by your bone marrow, brown adipose tissue, liver, mammary epithelial cells, ovaries, pituitary, placenta, skeletal muscle and the stomach. The amount of leptin in the body is proportional to the amount of fat in the body. LEPTIN RESISTANCE Leptin resistance simply means that even at high levels, leptin is no longer able to properly signal fat burning to your body, dramatically decreasing it's fat loss effects. That's a pretty disheartening truth for the fat loss enthusiast. 7.3 HISTORY The effects of leptin were first clinically observed on a colony of mice in 1950. The mice ate all the time and became morbidly obese. It took until 1994 before researchers discovered it was the hormone leptin that was causing the problem. After receiving injections of leptin, obese mice dropped their fat and returned to a normal body weight. That clinical result led to supplement companies manufacturing leptin and promoting it for weight loss. There was just one little problem. Obese people didn't have a deficiency. 7.4 LEPTIN SUPPLEMENTS As important as lifestyle changes are, there are some nutritional supplements that may be able to lower leptin levels and re-sensitize the brain. Those include melatonin, L-carnitine, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and omega-3 fatty acids. Leptin supplements are concoctions that may help the body with leptin levels; they may help improve the body's use of a protein hormone called leptin, increase the bodys production of it, or actually add leptin into a persons diet. Supplements commonly are available as pills, capsules or powders. Many people go in search of leptin supplements, expecting them to contain leptin. Most of them do not, however, as

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the substance is a hormone and may be subject to government prescription-drug regulation in many places. It may be possible, though, to obtain it by prescription if a doctor believes its use is necessary.Leptin is a protein hormone that many people seek in supplement form because it has been associated with weight loss. In fact, leptin has been referred to as the obesity or starvation hormone. The protein is made in a persons fat cells and travels through the bloodstream to the brain. It is said to let the brain know whether or not there is enough energy in a persons fat cells. When leptin levels are high enough, the brain is said to believe there is enough stored energy to allow the body to burn calories as it normally would. If leptin levels are too low, however, the body may go into starvation mode, believing it does not have enough energy, slowing metabolism, increasing appetite, and making it harder to lose weight. When a person buys leptin supplements, he may do so expecting to get leptin and real help losing weight. In most cases, however, he will get a supplement that contains substances said to boost leptin levels or help balance hormones in the body. Some of these supplements may help maintain overall good health or keep hormones balanced, but there is often little proof that they actually do so. Additionally, a persons body may not even absorb and use leptin taken in supplement form. The body may simply digest it without producing any noticeable change in leptin levels. An individual interested in taking leptin supplements may be disappointed to learn that the hormone may not significantly encourage weight loss. Some studies of this hormone have produced disappointing results. Many people have failed to lose weight, even with higher leptin levels. In fact, some people may have leptin resistance, which means their brains do not signal them to stop eating when leptin levels rise. Instead, they may continue to be hungry, overeat, and gain weight because the brain misses the cues that leptin usually provides.

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7.5 BENEFITS Do nothing more than take leptin pills or supplements can decrease your appetite and lose weight. Most leptin promoters claim the weight loss happens without a change in diet or exercise habits. The amount of leptin in your body is directly proportional to the amount of fat. As fat cells become enlarged in obesity, they release more leptin. Obese people have plenty of leptin, one of the reasons they're fat is because of leptin resistance in the brain. When your leptin levels drop after you lose weight, you develop a type of leptin deficiency that can cause you to regain the weight, says the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Therefore, taking a leptin supplement could help you to keep off the weight you've lost by reducing your hunger and food intake while increasing the amount of calories you burn, notes Colorado State University. Supplementation of leptin after weight loss can help bring the hormone levels back up to the circulating levels in your body before the weight loss and i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Helps control appetite Supports healthy metabolism Promotes a feeling of fullness Promotes healthy weight loss Helps support blood sugar levels already within the normal range Helps to promote cellular and tissue health Promotes positive mind and mood

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7.6 MECHANISM Since leptin is an appetite suppressant, your brain needs it as a signal that it's full. When a normal size person eats a meal, leptin levels continue to climb until your brain eventually says "enough" and you recognize the feeling of fullness. Obese people are resistant to leptin, so they don't get that "full" signal and they continue to eat. Unfortunately the modern diet seems to be a huge contributor to the problem. Simple carbohydrates (like sugar) contain higher levels of leptin than our bodies are designed to handle. If you constantly bombard the brain with carb rich foods that have excessive levels of leptin, eventually your system will shut down and you won't recognize when you're full. That means taking leptin as a supplement isn't the answer. What you need to do is resensitize the brain. One of the best ways of doing that is to reduce the amount of leptin in the body. When your leptin levels decrease after you lose weight, this signals your body to reduce the rate at which you burn calories, says the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Leptin's effects on burning calories may explain why many people tend to regain the lost weight. Leptin communicates with your body through your hypothalamus to regulate your body weight and provide an overall view of your body's nutritional status, says Colorado State University. The hormone accomplishes these tasks by influencing your hunger, energy use and body temperature to either increase or decrease your body weight, WARNING Don't use leptin to lose weight or maintain weight loss without first talking with your doctor. Leptin has some promise for overweight or obese individuals, but the effects of supplementation are as yet unknown, warns Colorado State University.

Further, the potential side effects, health dangers and drug interactions of leptin supplements or injections are unknown as well.If you do take leptin supplements, you must avoid

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taking too much, or you risk de-sensitizing your brain to its effects and you'll end up feeling even hungrier.

7.7 PRODUCTS 1.LeptiCore LeptiCore is a nutraceutical ingredient containing several types of plant polysaccharides, esterified fatty acids, pomegranate extract and beta-carotene antioxidants and blue-green algae. This proprietary nutraceutical supports a healthy lifestyle by helping to promote healthy weight management. What makes LeptiCore different from other dietary supplements is that it also uniquely provides benefits in several other synergistic ways to the body. LeptiCore does this by promoting healthy metabolic balance and wellness. LeptiCore is clinically studied and has been found to help balance healthy metabolic function and to support healthy weight management. LeptiCore has also been found to have a positive influence on biomarkers of cardiovascular health, blood sugar health, and the body's natural antioxidant defense system. Reaching your healthy weight is an important way to support overall well-being and metabolic balance. Supplementation with LeptiCore has been shown to help support a healthy weight management program by promoting satiety, stimulating thermogenesis and supporting emotional well-being. LeptiCore is particularly effective when combined with changes in lifestyle and diet that scientific research has found can contribute to improved overall health and well-being. This includes regular exercise, reducing stress and maintaining a positive mental outlook, consuming lean protein and fish rather than red meat, whole grains instead of refined grains, unsaturated fats rather than saturated or hydrogenated fats and fresh fruits and vegetables while minimizing sweets and heavily processed or fried foods.
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2. LEPTIBURN Leptiburn truly is a breakthrough formula whose key ingredients have been scientifically shown to assist with your body's biggest fat-loss problem, your body's production of, and sensitivity to, the one solitary hormone that literally controls everything with regards to fat loss. FORMULATION (INGREDIENTS) IN LEPTIBURN LeptiBurn's first ingredient is IrvingiaGabonensis, a compound that has been shown to support leptin sensitivity by inhibiting the production of C-reactive protein (CRP), a chemical in the body that has been linked with the development of leptin resistance, by up to 52%. To further support its dramatic effect on weight loss, in one double-blind study, 102 otherwise-healthy overweight volunteers received either 150 mg of Irvingia extract or a placebo, twice daily prior to meals, for a period of 10 weeks. At the end of 10 weeks, the Irvingia group lost an average of 28 pounds (13.1% decrease in body weight), shed 6.7 inches from their waistline, and had reduced their total body fat by an average of 18.4%! Next up is Oleanolic Acid, a compound extracted from olive tree leaves that has a stimulatory effect on a specific gut peptide called Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1). Research shows that an oral dose of this extract can increase GLP-1 by 48%, which has in turn been closely linked to increased leptin production. The third ingredient, Modifilan, a potent seaweed extract harvested from pristine Arctic waters, has been shown to stimulate increased leptin production in fat cells by up to 18% through its ability to stimulate Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) in the adrenals. Stimulation of TSH in turn stimulates the production of leptin in fat cells. LeptiBurn's fourth ingredient is PanaxNotoginseng, a well-known and commonly used traditional Chinese herb called "Shan Qi" by master herbalists that was recently shown to also have unique metabolic properties, including naturally suppressing appetite and increasing leptin sensitivity.
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And finally, to further enhance the fat-burning effects of LeptiBurn, we've included potent natural extracts of Yerbe Mate and Green Tea, which have been shown to increase resting metabolic rate and mobilize fatty acids from fat cells to be burned, all while suppressing appetite and increasing energy and alertness.

BIOLOGICAL OR CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Leptin is synthesized in adipocytes as a 16 kD molecule. The circulating level is directly proportional to the total amount of fat in the body, but it is primarily associated with the subcutaneous fat depot. It binds to its receptors in the hypothalamus and plays an active role in regulation of food intake, energy expenditure and reproductive function. Serum leptin levels show a moderate circadian variation, with a peak at about 2 AM. The values at this time may be 30-100% higher than later in the morning or early afternoon. This variation and the influence of food intake need to be taken into account when collecting blood samples for leptin analysis.

LEPTIN ANALYSIS Analyte: Leptin Specimen Type: Serum or EDTA Plasma Optimum Volume: 0.5 mL Method: ELISA Principle of Test Method: The Leptin assay is a solid-phase ELISA designed to measure human Leptin in serum and plasma. It employs the quantitative sandwich enzyme immunoassay principle.

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8.0 Krill oil 8.1 An introduction Krill are small shrimp or prawn-like creatures that feed the world's most mammoth animals the great whales. Toothless great whales gulp down huge quantities of krill to provide the energy they need to fuel their massive bulk. A blue whale eats up to 8,000 pounds of krill each day during feeding season.

These highly intelligent great whales aren't the only animals that depend on krill for their nutritional needs. So do seals, penguins, sea birds, squid and fish. The hardy krill harvested from harsh Antarctic waters the ones that comprise our Pure Krill Oil are so important they are considered a "keystone species," an organism upon which many Antarctic predators depend. These semi-translucent crustaceans congregate in dense masses or swarms that can turn the ocean's surface pink or red. Together with plankton, krill make up the largest biomass on earth... one of the most easily renewable food resources available, an excellent nutritional source from an environmental perspective. Krill aren't a new source of nutrition either. They've been harvested as a food source for both humans and domesticated animals since the 1800s. Possibly even earlier in Japan where they're considered a delicacy.

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In Japan, this is real food.Actually, let's take that a giant step further. It's considered a luscious delicacy known as okiami. Okiami has been harvested by the Japanese as a food source since the 19th century and possibly even earlier. Krill is also a traditional food of South Korea and Taiwan. And the Soviet Union (now Russia and Ukraine) were also large markets for krill. It is processed by freezing, to go to Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese markets. Asians also enjoy dried krill. In fact, the Japanese prefer dried krill to frozen. The only edible part is its tail known for its rich omega-3 fatty acids. It is used for soups, seafood salads, and restaurant entrees and also as a seasoning (when used dried). Large krill with eggs are highly regarded as delicacies. They're stronger tasting than shrimp, and somewhat salty. In Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany and South Korea there's been high interest in krill as a coagulated paste and as mince (a precooked dense pink paste). At the end of the 1970s, 2,000 tons per year were being produced for the Soviet market. But specialists from many countries declare that the real delicacy is the intact shell-free tail meat which as you might guess, is also the most difficult to obtain. Perhaps it should come as no surprise that these countries consumed krill as food, since krill inhabits the oceans off the West coast of Vancouver Island, Russia, Ukraine and Japan (besides Antarctica).

8.2 Krill oil properties and benefits to human Unlike fish oils, pure krill oil carries omega-3s in the form of phospholipids liposomes or little packages that deliver the fatty acids directly to your body's cells.
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Scientific evidence to date has shown that the safest and most effective carriers of EPA and DHA are these phospholipids. Unfortunately, standard fish oils (and inferior krill oil brands) lack this phospholipid complex. Instead they contain omega-3 fatty acids in the less-beneficial form of free triglycerides.

Why are phospholipids important? They are the building blocks for your cell membranes, regulating cellular transport by functioning as 'gate-keepers.'* In this role, they protect cell membranes from free radical attack.* This unique relationship between the phospholipids and omega-3 fatty acids greatly facilitates the passage of the fatty acid molecules through your intestinal wall.* This helps you in two ways...

Makes the omega-3 fats in Pure Krill Oil significantly more bioavailable than those in fish oil by allowing EPA and DHA to directly enter your cells.

Improves your omega-3 to omega-6 ratio. Another important fact: The most predominant phospholipid in pure krill oil is phosphatidyl choline, which is partially composed of choline. Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of choline in brain development, learning and memory.* In fact, choline is particularly important for fetal and infant brain development in pregnant and nursing women.* Choline is the precursor for the vital neurotransmitter acetylcholine (which sends nerve signals to the brain) and for trimethylglycine, a recognized liver protector.* Further, it also boasts a full complement of necessary antioxidants not seen in fish or cod liver oil...

There is no question that you can benefit from taking a high-quality fish oil. However, Pure Krill Oil offers clear advantages to fish oil in a number of important ways.

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You get all the same multi-system health benefits of omega-3-rich fish oil,* including crucial EPA and DHA ... But Pure Krill Oil also offers:

Your brain is a huge "consumer" of DHA. Antarctic Pure Krill Oil is made from krill with health-promoting DHA and choline, which are absolutely essential not only for adults, but also for normal fetal and infant brain development!*

MUCH Better Absorption Than Fish Oil* This means you can take 1/5 the dose two small capsules rather than 10 large ones. The phospholipid binding increases the bioavailability of the omega-3s, improves the omega-3 to omega-6 ratio and supports healthy cell membrane functioning.

Superb Antioxidant Protection Unique antioxidants including astaxanthin and a novel marine flavonoid may protect you from damaging free radicals.*

Pollution-Free Krill are at the bottom of the food chain and collected far from pollution in the pristine seas surrounding Antarctica. So you don't have to worry about unsafe accumulations of mercury, PCBs, heavy metals or other toxins that low-quality fish oil products may contain.

Ongoing Supply Krill are a highly renewable source. They are the largest biomass in the ocean and there is simply no risk of causing them to perish from over-harvesting.

Stability Antarctic Pure Krill Oil is more stable and more resistant to rancidity than conventional fish oils.* This means it will last longer. It will last for TWO years at room temperature. (do not refrigerate.)
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No Fishy Aftertaste, Reflux Or Other Side Effects Although fish oil consumption commonly leads to side effects of fishy aftertaste, reflux or belching of fish flavors, this has not occurred with Antarctic Pure Krill Oil. No adverse effects have been noted even at high dosages.

Renewable Food Source Krill represent a renewable, sustainable and environmentally positive nutrition source.

8.3 Why Do People Use Krill Oil People use krill oil for the same reasons they use fish oil, flax oil or other omega-3 fatty acids. Unlike fish oil, krill oil doesn't cause fishy burps or an aftertaste, a common side effect of fish oil. Also, krill oil contains higher amounts of astaxanthin than fish oil. Here are some specific conditions for which it's used. 1) High Cholesterol Krill oil is being studied as a natural remedy for high cholesterol. In one study, 120 people were given krill oil, fish oil or a placebo. Krill oil reduced LDL (commonly referred to as "bad") cholesterol by 34% and increased HDL ("good") cholesterol by 43.5% compared to the placebo. In comparison, fish oil reduced LDL cholesterol by 4.6% and increased HDL cholesterol by 4.2%. Krill also lowered triglycerides. 2) Premenstrual Syndrome Preliminary research suggests krill oil may help reduce symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), however, more research is needed. 3)Arthritis

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A study in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition examined krill oil (300 mg daily) compared to a placebo and found that krill oil was effective at reducing arthritis symptoms and inflammation. 8.4 Side Effects People with allergies to seafood shouldn't use krill oil. People with bleeding disorders shouldn't use krill oil unless under the supervision of a qualified health professional. Side effects of krill oil may include loose stools, diarrhea or indigestion. Possible Drug Interactions People taking blood thinners (anticoagulant or anti-platelet medication), such as aspirin, warfarin (Coumadin), heparin, clopidogrel (Plavix), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDS) such as ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil), naproxen (Naprosyn, Aleve) should only use krill oil under a physician's supervision. Krill oil should also be used with caution by people taking herbs and supplements that are thought to increase the risk of bleeding, such as ginkgo biloba and garlic.

8.5 Nutrasetical analysis of krill oil

ANTARCTIC KRILL OIL PRODUCED AT SEA AS BY-PRODUCT FROM DRIED MEAL PROCESS

PRODUCT

COMPOSITION OUR STANDARD

STANDARD RANGE*

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PROXIMATE & OTHERS

Lipids, % min.

99.5

99.5 - 99.9

Moisture, % max. 0.5 Vitamin E (tocopherals), ppm min. Cholesterol, % max. Polyunsaturated, % min. Monounsaturated, % max. Saturated Fat, % max. Acid Value (oleic acid), % max. PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS

0.1 - 0.5

550

550 - 950

2.5

1 - 2.5

OIL QUALITY **

8 - 15

42

37 - 42

45

43 - 45

0.4

Colour

Red to strong red

Odor/Taste PIGMENT LEVELS

Fresh, typical marine oil

CLASS 1, ppm as min. 1,000 Astaxanthin at

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shipment CLASS 2, ppm as min. 700 Astaxanthin at shipment CLASS 3, ppm as <700 Astaxanthin at shipment STORAGE Store in a cool dark place

RECOMMENDATIONS net weight, storage minimum requirements SHELF LIFE Minimum 2 years under above storage conditions.

**FATTY ACIDS COMPOSITION (AS % OF FATTY ACIDS)

POLYUNSATURATED

MONOUNSATURATED

20:5W3 (EPA) 22:6W3 (DHA) 18:3W6 TOTAL POLYUNSATURATED

5.7 1.2 1.6

16:1W7 18:1W9 + 18:1W7 20:1W9 TOTAL MONOUNSATURATED

13.1 24.3 1.3

9.7%

38.7%

SATURATED

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14:0 16:0 17:0 18:0

18.4 22.0 1.9 1.3

TOTAL SATURATED 43.6%

Source:

Product in review

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9.0 References http://krilldoctor.com/krill-oil-information/ http://krilloil.mercola.com/krill-oil.html http://www.blackmores.com.au/products/eco-krill-oil http://www.gnc.com/product/index.jsp?productId=4021749 http://www.krill.ca/analysis.html

Sinha, MK, Ohannesian, JP, Heiman, ML, Kriauciunas, A, Stephens, TW, Magosin, S, Marco, C, and Caro, JF. Nocturnal rise of leptin in lean, obese, and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus subjects. J Clin Invest. 1996; 97:1344-1347.

Flower, L, Ahuja, RH, Humphries, SE, and Mohamed-Ali, V. Effects of sample handling on the stability of interleukin 6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha and leptin.Cytokine. 2000; 12:1712-1716 Meier U and Gressner AM. Endocrine regulation of energy metabolism: review of pathobiochemical and clinical chemical aspects of leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin and resistin. Clin.Chem. 2004; 50:1511-1525. Evans, MJ, Livesey, JH, Ellis, MJ, and Yandle, TG. Effect of anticoagulants and storage temperatures on stability of plasma and serum hormones.ClinBiochem. 2001; 34:107112. http://www.swansonvitamins.com/health-library/products/lepticore-leptin-focusedweight-loss-formula.html http://www.pacbio.com/biomarker/assay_detail_pdf.php?id=132 http://www.webmd.boots.com/diet/the-facts-on-leptin-faq http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-leptin-supplements.htm http://www.livestrong.com/article/292706-do-leptin-supplements-work-for-weight-loss/ http://bootcampexercises.biotrust.com/shop.asp?p=LeptiBurn http://www.webefit.com/supplements/Sup_Leptin.html

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