Data Communications and Networks Signal Encoding Techniques

Ayaz Keerio, University of Sindh

Signal Encoding Techniques

Digital data, digital signal Analog data, digital signal

Digital data, analog signal

Analog data, analog signal

Ayaz Keerio, University of Sindh

Signal Encoding Techniques

Digital Data, Digital Signal Digital signal

Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a signal element Binary data encoded into signal elements

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Signal Encoding Techniques: Terms

Unipolar All signal elements have same sign Polar One logic state represented by positive voltage the other by negative voltage Data rate Rate of data transmission in bits per second

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Signal Encoding Techniques: Terms

Duration or length of a bit Time taken for transmitter to emit (produce) the bit Modulation rate

Rate at which the signal level changes Measured in baud = signal elements per second

Mark and Space

Binary 1 (one) and Binary 0 (zero) respectively

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Signal Encoding Techniques

Interpreting Signals

Need to know

Timing of bits - when they start and end Signal levels

Factors affecting successful interpretation of signals

Signal to noise ratio Data rate Bandwidth Synchronizing transmitter and receiver External clock Sync mechanism based on signal
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Clocking

Signal Encoding Techniques

Comparison of encoding schemes Error detection
Can be built in to signal encoding schemes

Signal interference and noise immunity Some codes are better than others Cost and complexity Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to higher costs Some codes require signal rate greater than data rate

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Encoding Schemes:
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

Bipolar
Manchester Differential Manchester B8ZS (Bipolar with 8-zeros substitution) HDB3 (High density bipolar 3-zeros)

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Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

Two different voltages for 0 (zero) and 1 (one) bits Voltage constant during bit interval no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive

voltage for one More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other
Zero (0) = high level One ( 1 ) = low level

This is NRZ-L
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Nonreturn to Zero Inverted

Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones (111) Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit

Data encoded as presence or absence of signal

transition at beginning of bit time Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1 (one) No transition denotes binary 0 (zero)
An example of differential encoding

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Differential Encoding
Data represented by changes rather than levels More reliable detection of transition rather than level

In complex transmission layouts it is easy to lose sense

of polarity (split)

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Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)

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Excercise
Assume digital data is: 0011010011110001 Encode digital data using NRZ-L and NRZI encoding schemes

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Answer
Assume digital data is: 00110100111101 By using NRZ-L encoding scheme
0 0

and NRZ-I encoding scheme

1
0 0

0
1

1
1

1 0
1

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NRZ pros and cons

Pros & cons Easy to engineer Make good use of bandwidth Lack of synchronization capability Used for magnetic recording Not often used for signal transmission

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Multilevel Binary encoding

Use more than two levels Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) zero represented by no line signal (lack of pulse) one represented by positive or negative pulse one pulses alternate in polarity Each 1 (bit) introduces a transition that can be used for synchronization. Error detection is possible for a single added or lost pulse. Bandwidth considerable smaller that in the NRZ encodings
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Multilevel Binary encoding

Use more than two levels Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

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Pseudoternary signal encoding

A multilevel binary encoding: that complements the bipolar-AMI encoding scheme

Binary 1 is represented by a lack of pulse (absence of line signal) Binary 0(zero) is represented by a positive or a negative pulse The binary 0(zero) pulses must alternate in polarity.

No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

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Pseudoternary signal encoding

A multilevel binary encoding scheme example.

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Biphase signal Encoding

Manchester
Transition in middle of each bit period

Transition serves as clock and data

Low to high Transition represents one High to low transition represents zero Used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet LAN)

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Biphase signal Encoding

Manchester
Allows clocking mechanism for both kinds of bits.

Modulation rate twice than that of NRZ.

Has been specified for the IEEE 802.3 standard for baseband coaxial

cable and twisted-pair CSMA/CD bus LAN's.

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Biphase signal Encoding

Differential Manchester
Midbit transition is clocking only Transition at the start of the bit period represents 0 (zero),

and a lack of transition at the start of the bit represents 1 (one)

Used by IEEE 802.5 (token ring LAN)

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Digital Data, Analog Signal

Public telephone system 300Hz to 3400Hz Use modem (modulator-demodulator) Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Binary Frequency shift keying (FSK) Binary Phase shift keying (PSK)

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Amplitude Shift Keying

Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier Usually, one amplitude is zero i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used Susceptible to sudden gain changes Inefficient Up to 1200bps

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Binary Frequency Shift Keying

Most common form is binary FSK (BFSK) Two binary values represented by two different

frequencies (near carrier) Less susceptible to error than ASK Up to 1200bps Even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable

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Multiple Frequency Shift Keying

More than two frequencies used More bandwidth efficient

More prone to error

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Phase Shift Keying

Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data Binary PSK Two phases represent two binary digits Differential PSK Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal

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Digital Data, Analog Signal:

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Differential PSK

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Encoding and Modulation Techniques

Signals transmitted chosen to optimize use of

transmission medium
E.g. conserve (save) bandwidth, & minimize errors

Digital signaling: digital or analog data, g(t), encoded into digital signal, x(t) Analog signaling: digital or analog data transmitted by analog carrier signal using modulation

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Encoding and Modulation Techniques

Modulation: process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with frequency fc Input signal, m(t), is called baseband signal Result of modulating carrier signal is called modulated

signal, s(t)

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Encoding and Modulation Techniques

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Receiver Interpreting Incoming Signal

Important factors for successful reception: SNR, data

rate, & bandwidth Increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER) Increase in SNR decreases BER Increase in bandwidth allows increase in data rate

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Receiver Interpreting Incoming Signal

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Technologies using Encoding Schemes

NRZ/NRZI: RS-232, HDLC, & USB Manchester: Ethernet, Token Ring Multilevel Binary: US T-carrier and European E-carrier telecommunication systems

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Technologies using Shift Keying

ASK: Optical fibre, & RFID FSK: HF/shortwave radio, UHF/VHF radio communications, & RFID PSK: mobile phones, Wi-Fi, & DSL

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Digitizing Analog Data

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Analog Data, Digital Signal

Digitization Conversion of analog data into digital data Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L Digital data can then be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L.

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Analog Data, Digital Signal

How to digitize analog data? Codec converts analog to digital data, and recovers

digital data from analog data two techniques used in codecs: Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) and Delta Modulation

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PCM Block Diagram

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Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

Divide the normalised input magnitude into 2n

different levels, with corresponding code numbers Sample analog input every Ts seconds --> pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) value Map PAM value to nearest code number Convert code number to n-bit binary PCM code

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Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate

higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal Voice data limited to below 4kHz, Require 8kHz samples per second Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM) Each sample assigned digital value

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Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

4 bit system gives 16 levels Quantized Quantizing error or noise Approximations mean it is impossible to recover original exactly 8 bit sample gives 256 levels

Quality comparable with analog transmission

8k samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64kbps

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Nyquist Theorem
The sampling rate (pam sampling) must be at least 2

times the highest requency.

Sampling rate twice the frequency of xHz means the

signal must be sampled every 1/2x seconds i.e for voice one sample every 1/8000s = 1 / 2(4000)s= 0.000125 s

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Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

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Sampling Theorem
If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular intervals of time

and at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, then the samples contain all the information of the original signal Example: voice is between 0 and 4000 Hz; sampling at 8000 samples per second is sufficient to reproduce analog voice at receiver Good voice reproduction can be achieved with 128 quantization levels (7-bit coding)

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Improving PCM with Nonlinear Coding

Linear spacing of quantization levels can result in poor

reproduction of weak signals Non-linear encoding: more steps for low amplitude, less steps at high amplitude Can lead to signicant improvement for voice

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Improving PCM with Nonlinear Coding

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Delta Modulation
Popular alternative to PCM Input analog data approximated by staircase function

Moves up/down by one quantization level () each

sampling interval (Ts ) If signal goes up, bit 1(one) is output; otherwise bit 0(zero).

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Example of Delta Modulation

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Modulating Signals
Combine input signal, m(t), and carrier at frequency fc

to produce signal s(t) whose bandwidth is centered on fc Why? If analog transmission systems:
Digital data must be convereted to analog form (e.g.

PSK, FSK) Analog signals may need to be transmitted at higher frequency than analog data Changing frequency of analog data allows for frequency division multiplexing (sending different ananlog data inone analog signal)
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Modulating Signals
Principal techniques are: amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) phase modulation (PM)

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Amplitude modulation (AM)

In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so

that its amplitude varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of carrier remain same. Only amplitude changes to follow the variations in the information.

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Frequency modulation (FM)

In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal

is modulated to follow the changing amplitude of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of carrier signal remain constant. As the amplitude of information signal changes the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly.

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Phase modulation (PM)

In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is

modulated to follow the changing amplitude of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of carrier signal remain constant. As the amplitude of information signal changes the phase of the carrier changes correspondingly.

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Thanks for your Patience and Interest

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