Dirk Pons

Design for Uncertain geometry

Tolerances

Tolerances
Limits and fits in engineering design Linear tolerances Geometric tolerances

Tolerances are used in engineering design to make sure that the parts of an assembly go together with the correct amount of looseness or tightness. This is important because functionality of the system depends on the behaviour at the interface of the parts. Designers therefore convert the functional requirements into tolerances, which are then used in the manufacture of the part.

Dirk Pons has a PhD in mechanical engineering and several years industrial experience in design and manufacturing, with a special emphasis on new product development. He was a member of the team that designed the Fisher + Paykel DishDrawer, an innovative dishwasher. He has also taught engineering and is currently a senior lecturer at the University of Canterbury. This booklet on tolerances is an extract from his lecturing notes on engineering design. Please address correspondence to Dr Dirk Pons, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8020, New Zealand, Email: dirk.pons@canterbury.ac.nz. Copyright D Pons 1997-2012.

Document and Pons_MED03_Tolerances_E4.12.doc

revision:

General tolerances

This paper summarises the application of general tolerances and surface texture for engineering design and production engineering.

1.1

Tolerances - adding value to design

One of the most important parts of design is the selection of tolerances. Tolerances are shown in the example of the detailed shaft drawing a few pages back, by the terms in the dimensions. The tolerance tells the fabricator what range of size is acceptable. This sounds simple, and it is, but it has profound consequences. For a start, the tolerance affects function. A shaft that is too large is going to be too tight in the bearing: it might not go in at all, or it might go in but overheat the bearing during service. Therefore the designer generally has to keep part tolerances small, so that the required function is obtained. On the other hand, generous tolerances make fabrication easier, quicker and cheaper. When tolerances are close, then the work becomes precision engineering and the costs go up. All that lies between precision and plain engineering is a few symbols from the designer.

Balancing function and cost

Therefore there are two opposing forces on tolerances, and the balance has to be determined by the designer. The determination of suitable tolerances is probably the most important aspect of detailed design, because of their effect on production cost and function. Tolerances should be first be selected on the basis of product function, and next on the basis of lowering the cost. Generally it is possible to limit the tight tolerances to a few sensitive dimensions which contribute most to function of the product. Insensitive dimensions may be relaxed. The designer needs to take particular care with tolerances where parts or assemblies mate (e.g. a motor to a gearbox), especially if parts are to be interchangeable. Fits, such as loose running bearings through to tight interference fits, also need attention from the designer. There are three different types of tolerance that the designer can apply to a drawing, and these are Tolerances, Geometric Tolerances, and Fits. These are so important that they have been given their own sections following. Essentially a dimension is incomplete without a tolerance. Of all your design work, the tolerances are the part your competitors would want to get their hands on. Almost all the rest they can get from measuring up. The tolerances are the link between ease of fabrication and adequate function.

1.2

Linear Tolerances

One way of specifying tolerances on the drawing is to show the nominal dimension followed by the permitted deviation, e.g.: The alternative is to show the limits of the dimension, e.g.:

It is necessary to provide a tolerance to every dimension on a drawing. The tediousness of this can be overcome by tolerancing only the critical dimensions and then including a note like the following on the drawing: "ALL TOLERANCES TO BE +-0.5 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED". Alternatively the drawing can refer to general tolerances that are used throughout that company. General tolerances could be as given below. These assume that as dimensions increase, so tolerances can be relaxed. Note that for angles, the tolerance decreases as the arm lengthens, as measurement accuracy increases too. Tolerances may be selected to result in fits ranging from loose to tight. These are specified differently to normal tolerances. Fits are important in detailed design and are described later.

GEOMETRY LENGTHS DIAMETERS

AND

FILLETS CHAMFERS

AND

ANGLES NOTE: L refers to shorter arm of angle. Table 1: Typical general tolerances.

DIMENSION L [mm] 0,5 < L 6,0 6,0 < L 30 30 < L 120 120 < L 400 400 < L 1000 1000 < L 2000 0,5 < L 3,0 3,0 < L 6,0 6,0 < L 30 30 < L 120 120 < L 400 0 < L 10 10 < L 50 50 < L 120 120 < L 400

TOLERANCE 0,1 [mm] 0,2 0,3 0,5 0,8 1,2 0,2 [mm] 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 60 [min] 30 20 10

Fits (also called limits) are a type of tolerance that is standardised for a particular function. The advantage of using them is that it is quick and reliable to get the type of fit (loose, intermediate, or press) required for the function.

Surface texture

Surface texture refers to the (microscopic) roughness of the surface. The roughness is measured with a stylus, and commonly expressed as the verage height above the centre line (centre line average, or arithmetical mean deviation), and given the symbol Ra. Surface texture will need to be specified where the normal machining processes are unlikely to give an acceptable surface. The symbol used for surface texture s the shown in the figure below.

2.1

Surface texture symbol

This diagram summarises the main features of the surface texture symbol, and the accepted design practices.

Surface texture Ra [:m] Standard values 0,0125 0,025 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,8 1,6 3,2 6,3 12,5 25 50 Surface process --- removal of material allowed O no material may be removed, surface texture must be obtained by primary process (eg casting)

Machining process Leave out horizontal bar if no process specified.

GRIND 1,6 0,5 0,8

Sample length Standard values [mm] 0,08 0,25 0,8 2,5 8 25 Direction of lay 2 perpendicular to viewing direction 5 parallel to viewing direction X bidirectional M multidirectional

Machining allowance Depth of material that may be removed

When is a coarser surface texture required?

2.2 Approximate ranges of surface texture for various machining processes

The following table shows values of surface roughness that can usually be obtained with various fabricating processes. The value of 1.6 is highlighted somewhat arbitrarily. It is however a readily available texture for common turning and milling processes.
Surface texture, centre line average, [micrometres] 0.025 Turning rough finish fine diamond Boring rough finish fine diamond Grinding rough (cylindrical) finish fine Grinding (surface) Milling rough finish Chemical Milling Planing Shaping Drilling Reaming Broaching Slotting Gear hob & shave Gear Cutting Lapping Honing Polishing Super Finishing Scraping Flame Cutting Sawing Sand Casting Hot Rolling Forging Investment Cast Die Cast Extruding Cold Rolling, Drawing 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25

2.3 Applying texture symbols to specific features on the drawing

Identify the features that need certain surface texture. (1) Apply symbol directly onto surface, if necessary turning it on one side so that it's readable from the right margin.

(2)

Use an arrow and leader to indicate which surface(s) requires the texture.

Applying texture symbols to everything on the drawing

Apply surface texture to all surfaces with a note on the drawing such as: NOTE: SURFACE TEXTURE 1.6m EXCEPT WHERE OTHERWISE SHOWN Alternatively, draw the general symbol in the top right corner of the drawing, followed by a bracket containing the exceptions. This has the same effect as the NOTE method, but the further advantage of listing all the exceptional textures. These exceptions are frequently important factors in the most costly to produce, especially if they are in difficult locations. The detailed drawing below uses this method.

Surfaces that are vulnerable to fatigue failure will benefit from finer surface texture.

0,8

0,4

40 0,5

50 0,1

40 0,5 20 0,8
0,4

1x45E TWO OFF

20 0,8 0,4

5 0,8

5 0,8

M20

M20 j6

M22 h11 R5 TWO OFF

M20 j6 M20 R0,5 TWO OFF

Qty

ONE
Scale

Title: SHAFT Drg No. MCH-02 Biomechanics

Drawn by: Date:

AO

15-06-95
Sheet1 of 1

1:1
Projection

2.4

Design tips for surface texture

Determine surface texture based on the functional needs. Typically use finer texture where parts slide, or fit together closely. Surfaces which dont touch other surfaces can often be allowed to be rough. Finer surface texture costs money, since the part takes longer to machine. This is especially so when the specified texture is outside of the normal operating limits for the machines and operators (see table). It is worth checking the capabilities of the workshop beforehand. Surface texture symbols will be assumed to apply the full extent of the surface, up to the ends or any change in section. Then individual surfaces may be picked out for special treatment, using method 1 or 2 above. This system is quick to apply and works well. However it is necessary to be careful that surfaces are being given to fine a texture with the general value.

Limits and fits

Abstract Tolerances are used in engineering design to make sure that the parts of an assembly go together with the correct amount of looseness or tightness. The design intent is for a certain type of fit, and tolerances provide the designer with a mechanism to ensure that is obtained, even if the parts are made in large volumes. This paper describes the application of limits and fits for engineering design and production engineering.

3.1

Introduction

Fits (also called limits) are a type of tolerance that is standardised for a particular function. The advantage of using them is that it is quick and reliable to get the type of fit (loose, intermediate, or press) required for the function. The problem with manufacturing any assembly in volumes is that of variable dimensions. The parts cannot be produced exactly identical: there will always be some dimensional variability. Consequently, when parts are mated together, e.g. a shaft is assembled into a bearing, it is possible that the dimensions clash. If the assembly was expected to be an easy mating, then it is possible that the dimensions of the parts might make this difficult: either a shaft that is too large, or a hole that is too small, or combinations thereof. If only one assembly is being made, then it is a simple matter of craftsmanship to manually sandpaper the shaft down to the right size or do whatever else is necessary to fix the problem (fixing too loose a fit is a fiddly job often involving making up sleeve inserts). Such fixes are possible but they are uneconomical in volume production. We have to find a better way.

Fits may be applied to any mating parts, including shafthole, key-keyway, and any other features that mate.

The need for tolerances

The ideal is that any shaft that comes off the production line be able to be fitted with any hole part (e.g. bearing). That would give us maximum interchangeablility of parts. That is also important from a service and maintenance perspective. Therefore it is necessary to limit the variability of the mating features on both the shaft and the hole. We do this by setting a tolerance on the relevant dimensions. The tolerance is an instruction on the drawing, giving the maximum and minimum permissible deviations in size from the nominal dimension. For example, a hole may be permitted to range in size from 49.5 mm to 50.2

mm, in which case the dimension on the drawing would be expressed as 50+0.2 - 0.5

Cost of tight tolerances

The tighter the tolerance, the better the interchangeability of parts. However tight tolerances also cost a lot more to produce. So we also need to relax the tolerances as much as possible, to reduce manufacturing cost. How much is enough? Types of fit There is another problem too: we have a need for different types of fit, from loose to tight. When we want loose fits, they must all be loose, and when we want tight fits they must all be tight. Typical assembly functions range from loosely running plain bearings to tight press fits. Tolerances may be used for these assemblies, but it is more convenient to use standard tolerances, which are called fits (or limits). So we need a way to determine how much tolerances to set to give us the required functionality. This can be calculated based on structural mechanics, but it is a slow process that has to be repeated for every design, and over the years Engineers have developed a very much faster method, one that solves all the above problems, and is easy to use. It is called 'fits', and it uses a special code. The process starts with the Designer. Hole may also be applied to keyways, and any other geometry which has an internal dimension

3.2

Designing with fits

The choice of tolerances is the designer's decision, and usually takes into account: * the intended function of the part * the available manufacturing facilities * the cost implications Selecting the fit is easy: just find a combination from one of the knowngood fits (preferred) below, and note the two codes. Preferred fits There are some fit combinations that have been found work well, and these are called preferred fits. They are listed below.
Clearance fits Hole Shaft H11 c11

SLACK RUNNING FIT. Wide commercial tolerance, external members. Used on agricultural bearings. Shaft Alternative: C11-h11. Finer grades are also used, e.g. H7-c8. LOOSE RUNNING FIT. Suitable for large heavy journal bearing loads, high speeds, large temperature fluctuations. Axial location accuracy is poor. Also used for loose pulleys. Alternatively H7-d8, H8-d8, Shaft D9-h9. FREE RUNNING FIT. For moderate speeds and journal pressures. Provides better accuracy. Alternatively H8-f7, H7-e8, H6-e7. Finer

H9

d9

H9

e8

10

grades are used for bearings of internal combustion engine (main ~, camshaft ~, rocker arm ~). Shaft F8-h7 H8 f7 NORMAL RUNNING FIT. Commonly used fit for rotation, with good accuracy. Used on plain bearings for gear box and pump. Alternatives H8-f8, H7-f7, H6-f6 SLIDING FIT. Locates accurately, and turns freely, but not intended for continuous running (except under light loads). Used for spigots for location. Alternative fits H6-g5. Shaft G7-h6.

H7

g6

Transition fits Hole Shaft H7 h6

LOCATION-CLEARANCE FIT. Close fit for stationary parts, suitable for easy assembly and disassembly. Unsuited to continuous running. A small clearance will usually, but not necessarily, be present. Alternatives H8-h7, H11-h11, H7-h5. Shaft H7-h6. LOCATION-TRANSITION FIT. Provides accurate, tight, stationary location. A small clearance will usually, but not necessarily, be present. Used for spigots, ring gears in hubs. Alternatives H8-js7,H6js5, H7-k6, Shaft K7-h6. TRANSITION FIT. Accurate fit, usually with no clearance, but small interference. Used where vibration is a problem. Alternatives H6-k5, H8-k7 INTERFERENCE-TRANSITION FIT. Accurate fit, usually with some interference. Used for tight key fits. Alternatives H8-m7, H6-m5. TIGHT ASSEMBLY FIT. Accurate fit, usually with interference. Alternatives H8-n7, shaft N7-h6.

H7

js6

H7

k6

H7

m6

H7

n6

Interference fits Hole Shaft H7 p6 INTERFERENCE FIT. Provides rigid and accurate location. Small interference. Provides a press fit suitable for repeated assembly and disassembly without damage. Alternatives H6-p5, shaft P7-h6. H7 r6 MEDIUM PRESS FIT. Used for tight location of parts, such as pressed in bearings and sleeves. Dismantling is still possible. Alternatives H6r5. HEAVY PRESS FIT. For assemblies that require (and can withstand) high interface forces. Used for semi-permanent assembly, bushes in housings. Chilling or heating may be necessary to help assembly. Alternatives H6-s5, H8-s7, shaft S7-h6. PERMANENT PRESS FIT. For permanent assemblies. Generates high interface forces. Alternatives H6-t5, H8-t7, H7-u6, shaft U7-h6.

Upper and lower deviations are measured over the diameter. This makes measuring easy with a micrometer

H7

s6

H7

t6

The above fits are based on the hole system, that is the HOLE fit is kept much the same (about H7), while the shaft varies. A less common arrangement is to give the shaft preference (e.g. h6). Tables for decoding fits into tolerances are given in the Appendix.
Note: The HOLE is always in uppercase, and the shaft in lowercase. Try and keep the HOLE near H7.

Conversion 1 micron =1/1000 mm = 1m = 0.001 mm = 10-6 m

11

Application
A hole of 50 mm might then be dimensioned as 50H7. Tables would need to be consulted in order to decode this into the tolerances, which are +0,025 -0,000. In other words, this hole may be 25 micrometres (microns) oversize, but may not be undersize. Tables of limits and fits are readily available for every possible combination of deviation (A-Z) and tolerance grade (typically 1-11) and dimension (0mm - +250mm). Fortunately it is often unnecessary to decode the fits when it comes to manufacture, because many tools are manufactured to cut certain fits. For example, most twist drill bits are made to cut a hole to H9. And again, standard reamers may be purchased to give a H6 hole etc.

Why is the HOLE given preference?

Holes are especially easy to cut with standard tools. However shafts are usually turned, and thus cannot practically benefit from standard dies. Thus the tolerance on the hole is usually chosen such that it is available with a standard reamer (etc), while the shaft tolerance is adjusted to obtain the desired fit.

Tolerance does not have to be distributed symmetrically about the nominal dimension: often it's better asymmetrical

3.3

Grades and deviations

Tolerance grade (or width) A typical fit for a shaft is g6. The number (6) is called the tolerance grade. It may be from 01, 0, 1, 2, ... to 16. It gives the width of the tolerance band. Bigger numbers give larger tolerance bands, and are therefore easier for fabrication. For example, a grade 9 on a 50 shaft always gives a total tolerance of 62m. Deviation The alphabetic character (g) is called the deviation. It refers to the location of the tolerance band, that is how far it deviates from the nominal dimension. The deviation is written in CAPITALS for HOLES, and lower case for shafts. Putting it together The diagram below shows a shaft with a nominal diameter of 50 mm. The circles show the tolerances for the fit (i.e. the range of acceptable diameters). Case (A) shows a situation where the dimension is allowed to be greater or less than the nominal diameter. These are called the upper and lower deviations. It might seem desirable to spread the total tolerance evenly about the nominal diameter. However this is not found to be very useful: it could result in either a tight fit or a loose fit. It is more useful to have something that varies between a tight to very tight, or else loose to very

12

loose. But not both. Therefore the total tolerance is not symmetrically arranged around the nominal diameter, it is deviated up or down, as represented by the deviation. Case (B) shows a shaft that will always be smaller than the nominal diameter. The deviation will be a....g for these cases. The dimension 50d7 (d means a shaft) will have an upper deviation of -80m and a lower deviation of -105 m. The total tolerance is 25m. The nominal diameter is just for reference, as a part with exactly the nominal diameter would be rejected as oversize!

Case (C) is a special case where the upper deviation is always zero. Thus the shaft may be less than or equal to the nominal size. This case is always shown by an h deviation, e.g. 50h7 will have an upper deviation of 0m and a lower deviation of -25 m.

Case (D) shows a shaft that will always be greater than the nominal diameter. The deviation will be js to z for these cases. A 50k7 will have an upper deviation of + 27 m and a lower deviation of +2 m. The range is 25 m.

13

Holes have a similar system, except that their deviation is always written with an UPPER CASE, e.g. 50K9. An extremely oversized hole will be A, while Z is for the extremely undersized range. The H deviation refers to a range where one end of the range is at the nominal dimension: the hole is greater or equal to the nominal dimension. In most cases holes are given one of the H fits, e.g. ... H6, H7, H8....

Upper deviation Lower deviation

Upper deviation Lower deviation

50

50

Zero upper deviation Lower deviation

Upper deviation Lower deviation

50

50

14

3.4

Capabilities of machining processes

Various machining processes are shown in the table, with the typical tolerance grades that they produce. For example, any 9 tolerance grade (such as h9, d9, k9, H9 etc) may be produced by say turning. Turning is also suitable for any tolerance grade from 7 to 11. These figures are guidelines, as much depends on the state of the machine, and the skill of the operator.

PROCESS Lapping and honing Grinding Diamond machining Broaching Reaming Turning Boring Milling Shaping Drilling Punching Die cast Sintered (powder metal)

10

11

Table: Tolerance grades typically produced by forming processes.

15

3.5

Interface Pressure

Heavy press fits are basically a permanent assembly. The parts are either forced together axially, or the outer part expanded by heating (or inner part shrunk by cooling). The tighter the fit, and the larger the shaft diameter, the greater the torque that can be taken. Plain press fit A common requirement is to determine the axial force required to make/loosen the press fit, and the maximum torque that may be transmitted. The following information is required: inner radius of shaft (zero for solid shaft) R1 R2 interface radius (or diameter D), eg nominal shaft diameter at hub or gear blank R3 outer radius R3. i.e. outer radius of gear hub. For solid blank use the pitch radius. Poisson's ratio for shaft (inner, i) and hub (outer, o) E modulus of elasticity for shaft (inner, i) and hub (outer, o) Select a fit based on the design intent (see standard recommendations), e.g. H7/r6 Selected fit: The inner diameter of the outer cylinder is slightly smaller than the outer diameter of the inner cylinder, the amount being the interference fit, (or shrinkage allowance):

This may be determined from the fits. In this case use the minimum interference (see tables for standard fits). After assembly the inside cylinder (subscript i) is in compression and the outside cylinder (subscript o) in tension. The interface pressure is:

16

The interface pressure will not usually be the greatest stress in the assembly, so dont use this for failure analysis. You will need to do more work if you want that information too: determine the circumferential stresses at the inside and outside of the inner and outer cylinders (four values, inside cylinder negative due to compression). Radial stresses may also be determined, and an appropriate failure mechanism used. Consult a reference in structural mechanics for the details. The axial force required for pressed assembly (both parts at the same temperature) is:

where coefficient of friction L axial length of contact surface (hub length) The torque that the joint can take before slip is:

Heated press fit For heavy fits, it is common to heat the outer part and possibly also cooling the shaft. For a uniform temperature rise (axially symmetric temperature distribution) in a thick walled elastic cylindrical part, the radial strain as a function of radius is:

where E T r R1 modulus of elasticity coefficient of thermal expansion change in temperature (relative to stress free condition) Poissons ratio radius (variable) inner radius of cylinder

The equation may be used to determine how much the inside of the hub expands. This may then be subtracted from the deviation due to the fit. In some cases there will even be a clearance fit where before there was interference. Determine the interface pressure Q with this

17

new fit (if it is still interference), and from that get the required axial assembly force.

Press fit example A hollow shaft has OD 50 mm and ID 30 mm. It is to carry a solid gear, with a pitch diameter of 100 mm and a hub length (face width) of 30 mm. Helix angle 15 deg. The shaft speed is 3000 rpm. Determine a suitable press fit to transmit 40 kW. Both gear and shaft of steel. Determine the assembly force required without heating, and heating the gear by 100oC. Determine gear loading Torque required on joint T = P/ = 40 x 103W/(3000 x2/60 rad/s) = 127.3 Nm Axial force = (2T/d) . Tan(H) Fa = (2 x 127.3/0.100) x tan(15) = 682 N Select fit H7 s6, heavy press fit. Deviations for Hole D50 H7: +25 -0 m Shaft D50 s6: +59 +43 m Heaviest fit (Max material condition MMC) 59 -0 = 59 m Lightest fit (Least material condition LMC) 43 -25 = 18 m It is highly unlikely that the assembly would be in either the MMC or LMC, rather the deviations would be closer to the mean. However, for conservative design purposes, we use the LMC for determining the permissible torque and axial force, and the MMC for determining the axial assembly force. This means that we have to determine the interface pressure for both conditions. Modulus of elasticity 209e9 Pa and Poissons ratio 0.3 for both components. Interface pressure, maximum:

18

Qmax = 65.04 MPa and similarly Qmin = 19.84 MPa. Remember to use radii where appropriate. Coefficient of friction, steel-steel with light oil (see bearings) = 0.19. Then the torque that the joint can take is Tmax = 2R22LQmin = 2 x 0,19 x x 0.0252 x 0.030 x 19.84 x 10-6 = 444 Nm which is very much greater than the required torque. The permissible axial force on the joint is Fallow = 2RLQmin = 2 x 0.19 x x 0.025 x 0.030 x 19.84 x 10-6 = 17.77 kN, which is very much greater than the required force. The maximum assembly force on the joint is Fassmb = 2RLQmax = 2 x 0.19 x x 0.025 x 0.030 x 65.04 x 10-6 = 58.2 kN. Coefficient of thermal expansion 13 m/(m.oC). If the gear is heated by 100 oC, then the radial strain due to heating is u2 = (1+).T.R2 = 13 x 10-6 .(1 + 0.3) x 100 x 0.025 = 42.25 x 10-6 m = 42.25 m. The most severe interference will occur at the MMC, and the resulting fit is 59 m - 42.25 m = 16.75 m. (At LMC there would be a clearance). The interface pressure is QT = 65.04 MPa x 16.75/59 = 18.47 MPa (This quick method works since everything except the fit is the same. Otherwise do it the long way if you dont trust it.) This permits the assembly force to be found. At 100oC the assembly force on the joint is = 2R2LQT FT = 2 x 0.19 x x 0.025 x 0.030 x 18.47 x 10-6 = 16.53 kN.

19

Appendix A: Data for common fits

The following tables give the tolerances for various fits. The tolerances depend on the tolerance grade and the diameter. The tables provide the tolerances in microns for the dimension, for example a shaft of D50c8 has tolerances given by the table as -130 and -169. The dimension would then be 50-0.130 to 50-169.

20

shaft c
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grade c8 -60 -74 -70 -88 -80 -102 -95 -122 -110 -143 -120 -159 -130 -169 -140 -186 -150 -196 -170 -224 c11 -60 -120 -70 -145 -80 -170 -95 -205 -110 -240 -120 -280 -130 -290 -140 -330 -150 -340 -170 -390

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 40

+40 to 50

+50 to 65

+65 to 80

+80 to 100

shafts d, e
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 d7 -20 -30 -30 -42 -40 -55 -50 -68 -65 -86 -80 -105 -100 -130 -120 -155 -145 -185 -170 -216

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft d d8 -20 -34 -30 -48 -40 -62 -50 -77 -65 -98 -80 -119 -100 -146 -120 -174 -145 -208 -170 -242 d9 -20 -45 -30 -60 -40 -76 -50 -93 -65 -117 -80 -142 -100 -174 -120 -207 -145 -245 -170 -285 shaft e e7 -14 -24 -20 -32 -25 -40 -32 -50 -40 -61 -50 -75 -60 -90 -72 -107 -85 -125 -100 -146 e8 -14 -28 -20 -38 -25 -47 -32 -59 -40 -73 -50 -89 -60 -106 -72 -126 -85 -148 -100 -172 e9 -14 -39 -20 -50 -25 -61 -32 -75 -40 -92 -50 -112 -60 -134 -72 -159 -85 -185 -100 -215

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

21

shafts f, g
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft f f6 -6 -12 -10 -18 -13 -22 -16 -27 -20 -33 -25 -41 -30 -49 -36 -58 -43 -68 -50 -79 f7 -6 -16 -10 -22 -13 -28 -16 -34 -20 -41 -25 -50 -30 -60 -36 -71 -43 -83 -50 -96 f8 -6 -20 -10 -28 -13 -35 -16 -43 -20 -53 -25 -64 -30 -76 -36 -90 -43 -106 -50 -122 shaft g g5 -2 -6 -4 -9 -5 -11 -6 -14 -7 -16 -9 -20 -10 -23 -10 -27 -14 -32 -15 -35 g6 -2 -8 -4 -12 -5 -14 -6 -17 -7 -20 -9 -25 -10 -29 -10 -34 -14 -39 -15 -44 g7 -2 -12 -4 -16 -5 -20 -6 -24 -7 -28 -9 -34 -10 -40 -10 -47 -14 -54 -15 -61

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

shaft h
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades h4 0 -3 0 -4 0 -4 0 -5 0 -6 0 -7 0 -8 0 -10 0 -12 0 -14 h5 0 -4 0 -5 0 -6 0 -8 0 -9 0 -11 0 -13 0 -15 0 -18 0 -20 h6 0 -6 0 -8 0 -9 0 -11 0 -13 0 -16 0 -19 0 -22 0 -25 0 -29 h7 0 -10 0 -12 0 -15 0 -18 0 -21 0 -25 0 -30 0 -35 0 -40 0 -46 h8 0 -14 0 -18 0 -22 0 -27 0 -33 0 -39 0 -46 0 -54 0 -63 0 -72 h9 0 -25 0 -30 0 -36 0 -43 0 -52 0 -62 0 -74 0 -87 0 -100 0 -115 h10 0 -40 0 -48 0 -58 0 -70 0 -84 0 -100 0 -120 0 -140 0 -160 0 -185 h11 0 -60 0 -75 0 -90 0 -110 0 -130 0 -160 0 -190 0 -220 0 -250 0 -290 h12 0 -100 0 -120 0 -150 0 -180 0 -210 0 -250 0 -300 0 -350 0 -400 0 -460

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

22

shafts js, k, m
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 js5 +2 -2 +2,5 -2,5 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10 -10

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft js js6 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +8 -8 +9,5 -9,5 +11 -11 +12,5 -12,5 +14,5 -14,5 js7 +5 -5 +6 -6 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10,5 -10,5 +12,5 -12,5 +15 -15 +17,5 -17,5 +20 -20 +23 -23 k5 +4 0 +6 +1 +7 +1 +9 +1 +11 +2 +13 +2 +15 +2 +18 +3 +21 +3 +24 +4 shaft k k6 +6 0 +9 +1 +10 +1 +12 +1 +15 +2 +18 +2 +21 +2 +25 +3 +28 +3 +33 +4 k7 +10 0 +13 +1 +16 +1 +19 +1 +23 +2 +27 +2 +32 +2 +38 +3 +43 +3 +50 +4 m5 +6 +2 +9 +4 +12 +6 +15 +7 +17 +8 +20 +9 +24 +11 +28 +13 +33 +15 +37 +17 shaft m m6 +8 +2 +12 +4 +15 +6 +18 +7 +21 +8 +25 +9 +30 +11 +35 +13 +40 +15 +46 +17 m7 +16 +4 +21 +6 +25 +7 +29 +8 +34 +9 +41 +11 +48 +13 +55 +15 +63 +17

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

shafts n, p Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m)

shaft n Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 n6 +10 +4 +16 +8 +19 +10 +23 +12 +28 +15 +33 +17 +39 +20 +45 +23 +52 +27 +60 +31 n7 +14 +4 +20 +8 +25 +10 +30 +12 +36 +15 +42 +17 +50 +20 +58 +23 +67 +27 +77 +31 p5 +10 +6 +17 +12 +21 +15 +26 +18 +31 +22 +37 +26 +45 +32 +52 +37 +61 +43 +70 +50 shaft p p6 +12 +6 +20 +12 +24 +15 +29 +18 +35 +22 +42 +26 +51 +32 +59 +37 +68 +43 +79 +50 p7 +16 +6 +24 +12 +30 +15 +36 +18 +43 +22 +51 +26 +62 +32 +72 +37 +83 +43 +96 +50

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

23

shafts r, s
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft r r5 +14 +10 +20 +15 +25 +19 +31 +23 +37 +28 +45 +34 +54 +41 +56 +43 +66 +51 +69 +54 r6 +16 +10 +23 +15 +28 +19 +34 +23 +41 +28 +50 +34 +60 +41 +62 +43 +73 +51 +76 +54 r7 +20 +10 +27 +15 +43 +19 +41 +23 +49 +28 +59 +34 +71 +41 +73 +43 +86 +51 +89 +54 s5 +18 +14 +24 +19 +29 +23 +36 +28 +44 +35 +54 +43 +66 +53 +72 +59 +86 +71 +94 +79 shaft s s6 +20 +14 +27 +19 +32 +23 +39 +28 +48 +35 +59 +43 +72 +53 +78 +59 +93 +71 +101 +79 s7 +24 +14 +31 +19 +38 +23 +46 +28 +56 +35 +68 +43 +83 +53 +89 +59 +106 +71 +114 +79

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 65

+65 to 80

+80 to 100

+100 to 120

shafts t, u
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft t t5 +22 +18 +28 +23 +34 +28 +41 +33 +50 +41 +50 +41 +59 +48 +65 +54 +79 +66 +88 +75 +106 +91 t6 +24 +18 +31 +23 +37 +28 +44 +33 +54 +44 +54 +41 +64 +48 +70 +54 +85 +66 +94 +75 +113 +91 t7 +28 +18 +35 +23 +43 +28 +51 +33 +62 +41 +62 +41 +73 +48 +79 +54 +96 +66 +105 +75 +126 +91 shaft u u6 +24 +18 +31 +23 +37 +28 +44 +33 +54 +41 +61 +48 +76 +60 +86 +70 +106 +87 +121 +102 +146 +124

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 24

+24 to 30

+30 to 40

+40 to 50

+50 to 65

+65 to 80

+80 to 100

24

HOLES C
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grade C8 +60 +74 +70 +88 +80 +102 +95 +122 +110 +143 +120 +159 +130 +169 +140 +186 +150 +196 +170 +224 C11 +60 +120 +70 +145 +80 +170 +95 +205 +110 +240 +120 +280 +130 +290 +140 +330 +150 +340 +170 +390

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 40

+40 to 50

+50 to 65

+65 to 80

+80 to 100

HOLES D F G
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 D9 +20 +45 +30 +60 +40 +76 +50 +93 +65 +117 +80 +142 +100 +174 +120 +207 +145 +245 +170 +285

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades F7 +6 +16 +10 +22 +13 +28 +16 +34 +20 +41 +25 +50 +30 +60 +36 +71 +43 +83 +50 +96 F8 +6 +20 +10 +28 +13 +35 +16 +43 +20 +53 +25 +64 +30 +76 +36 +90 +43 +106 +50 +122 G6 +8 +2 +12 +4 +14 +5 +17 +6 +20 +7 +25 +9 +29 +10 +34 +12 +39 +14 +44 +15 G7 +12 +2 +16 +4 +20 +5 +24 +6 +28 +7 +34 +9 +40 +10 +47 +12 +54 +14 +61 +15

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

25

HOLE H
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades H4 3 0 4 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 10 0 12 0 14 0 H5 4 0 5 0 6 0 8 0 9 0 11 0 13 0 15 0 18 0 20 0 H6 6 0 8 0 9 0 11 0 13 0 16 0 19 0 22 0 25 0 29 0 H7 10 0 12 0 15 0 18 0 21 0 25 0 30 0 35 0 40 0 46 0 H8 14 0 18 0 22 0 27 0 33 0 39 0 46 0 54 0 63 0 72 0 H9 25 0 30 0 36 0 43 0 52 0 62 0 74 0 87 0 100 0 115 0 H10 40 0 48 0 58 0 70 0 84 0 100 0 120 0 140 0 160 0 185 0 H11 60 0 75 0 90 0 110 0 130 0 160 0 190 0 220 0 250 0 290 0 H12 100 0 120 0 150 0 180 0 210 0 250 0 300 0 350 0 400 0 460 0

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

HOLES Js and K
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 Js5 +2 -2 +2,5 -2,5 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10 -10

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) HOLE Js Js6 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +8 -8 +9,5 -9,5 +11 -11 +12,5 -12,5 +14,5 -14,5 Js7 +5 -5 +6 -6 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10,5 -10,5 +12,5 -12,5 +15 -15 +17,5 -17,5 +20 -20 +23 -23 Js9 +12,5 -12,5 +15 -15 +18 -18 +21,5 -21,5 +26 -26 +31 -31 +37 -37 +43,5 -43,5 +50 -50 +57,5 -57,5 K5 0 -4 0 -5 +1 -5 +2 -6 +1 -8 +2 -9 +3 -10 +2 -13 +3 -15 +2 -18 HOLE K K6 0 -6 +2 -6 +2 -7 +2 -9 +2 -11 +3 -13 +4 -15 +4 -18 +4 -21 +5 -24 K7 0 -10 +3 -9 +5 -10 +6 -12 +6 -15 +7 -18 +9 -21 +10 -25 +12 -28 +13 -33

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

26

HOLES M N P
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 M7 -2 -12 0 -12 0 -15 0 -18 0 -21 0 -25 0 -30 0 -35 0 -40 0 -46

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m)

Tolerance grades N7 -4 -14 -4 -16 -4 -19 -5 -23 -7 -28 -8 -33 -9 -39 -10 -45 -12 -52 -14 -60 N9 -4 -29 -4 -30 -4 -36 -5 -43 -7 -52 -8 -62 -9 -74 -10 -87 -12 -100 -14 -115 P7 -6 -16 -8 -20 -9 -24 -11 -29 -14 -35 -17 -42 -21 -51 -24 -59 -28 -68 -33 -79

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 80

+80 to 120

+120 to 180

+180 to 250

HOLES R S U
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 R7 -10 -20 -11 -23 -13 -28 -16 -34 -20 -41 -25 -50 -30 -60 -32 -62 -38 -73 -41 -76

Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades S7 -14 -24 -15 -27 -17 -32 -21 -39 -27 -48 -34 -59 -42 -72 -48 -78 -58 -93 -66 -101 U7 -18 -28 -19 -31 -22 -37 -26* -44 -33* -54 -51 -76 -76 -106 -91 -121 -111 -146 -131 -166

+3 to 6

+6 to 10

+10 to 18

+18 to 30

+30 to 50

+50 to 65

+65 to 80

+80 to 100

+100 to 120

27

4
4.1

Geometric tolerances
Introduction

The geometry produced by typical machining processes may be acceptable for many purposes. However where greater accuracy of flatness, concentricity or other form is required than conventional fabrication will provide, then geometric tolerances are used by the designer to communicate the requirements. This section will provide an overview, and fuller detail may be found in national standards. Two main standards are ISO 1101 (Europe) and ANSI Y14.5 (USA). The ISO standard has been adopted in various other countries under other names (e.g. BS308 Part 3, SABS 0111 part 2, AS1100 part 101). Although there are small differences, the principles are the same. Geometric tolerances are a special type of tolerance that is used to control the accuracy of the surface shape of a part. The tolerances are used in addition to the plain linear tolerances described above. Geometric tolerances are tolerances that are applied to characteristics of: C straightness C flatness C circularity C cylindricity C line profile C surface profile C parallelism C perpendicularity C angle C position C concentricity C symmetry C circular run out C total run out Each of these characteristics has its own symbol, and this is used on the drawing, together with the tolerance that the designer permits. A rectangular control frame is used around the geometric tolerance.

28

Figure: Geometric tolerance is an engineering language that specifies the accuracy required of a part, in a compact and universal form, that can be interpreted in any language: Position this part with surface A against a flat surface, then slide the part into contact with a flat surface at B. Then measure off the exact dimensions shown as basic dimensions (in rectangles), and at the point draw a circle of diameter 0.5 mm. Extend this into a cylinder if the part has any appreciable thickness. Put into the D40 hole an expanding chuck which grips the walls of the hole. The centre of this instrument must be inside the 0.5 mm tolerance circle at all depths of the hole.

29

Geometric tolerances provide the following advantages: C Communication: provides a universal language to communicate requirements about accuracy of shape C Better function: encourages dimensioning and tolerancing according to function, so there is less chance that the design turns out wrong C Fabrication: by concentrating accuracy on the important functional features of the part, geometric tolerancing permits tolerances on other features to be relaxed, and this eases manufacture. Figure: These pipe flanges will not seal properly. Use of a geometric tolerance at the design stage would prevent this. Perpendicularity or circular run-out need to be controlled.

Datums
A datum is a reference surface. Some of the geometric tolerances need datums, others may not use them. A datum is a theoretically exact point, line or plane, which is used for reference purposes. A datum plane is typically simulated by a flat granite surface, and a datum axis is simulated by holding the part in a chuck. Real life gauging equipment is thus used to make up datums. A datum serves two purposes: C Datums locate a part in a repeatable way, so that the part may be checked for geometric tolerance. C Datums show how parts are located together when they are assembled. The designer should select datums based on the functional requirements of the assembly, that is, based on how the parts fit together. The symbol for a datum (A, B, C etc) is the letter in a block. The standards differ in some drafting details, but the principles remain the same.

Basic dimension
A basic dimension is a theoretically true dimension. It is shown enclosed in a box, although sometimes the words BASIC are written next to the dimension instead. A basic dimension does not have its own tolerance. At first this seems to contradict the rule that every dimension on a drawing needs a tolerance. However the basic dimension is only ever used together with a geometric tolerance, and it takes its tolerance from the value of the geometric tolerance. In other words, the geometric tolerance is being used to control both the accuracy of the surface, as well as the tolerance on the dimension.

30

Where is the geometric tolerance applied?

The geometric tolerance is generally applied directly to a surface, with an arrow. Some geometric tolerances can instead be applied underneath a diameter. This means that the tolerance applies to the centre line of that hole, and therefore indirectly to the surface concerned. When a geometric tolerance is applied underneath a dimension, then it is still permissible for that dimension to have its own tolerance.

How big to make the geometric tolerance?

The value will depend on the function required. Determine the virtual condition of the parts (defined later), and see if they fit together. This will help you set the geometric tolerances. Remember that the geometric tolerances must generally be smaller than the linear (or plain) tolerances, in order to have any effect. The values given in the examples here are deliberately large.

Maximum material condition MMC

The MMC is the extreme tolerance state in which the part has maximum material (maximum mass). There are two benefits of MMC, first that a bonus tolerance is available to the fabricator, and second that fixed gauges may be used. This is really useful in production, and we return to this topic later.

Typical application
The figure shows an example of a geometric tolerance for Position. Underneath the N40 is the geometric tolerance in its frame. The tolerance reads like this: the centre of the N40 hole must be positioned within circle of diameter 0.5 of the true centre of the circle. The symbol of a cross and a circle is for position. The true centre of the circle is at exactly 50 and 30 mm. The datum planes are A and B, and this means that when checking this part, surface A must first be placed against a perfectly flat surface, and then surface B brought against another such surface at right angles to A. The measuring surfaces are usually granite blocks, granite being used since it distorts very little with change in temperature.

31

1
Interpret the geometry. This is a stepped block with a hole. The designer needs to control the position of this hole.

2
Identify the DATUMS. (See 7 below). Surface A of this part must first be placed on a flat surface (granite table). Then slide the part to contact another perpendicular block at B. Now it is positioned in a repeatable way and is ready to be measured.

3
Then look for any BASIC dimensions, in boxes. These never have a tolerance. Instead they take their tolerance from the value of the geometric tolerance. The (ideal) true centre of the circle is at exactly 50 and 30 mm.

80 60 30

Ignore these other dimensions for geomeric tolerancing purposes. These are interpreted in the normal way, i.e. linear tolerances may apply.

4
This is linear tolerance on the diameter of the hole.

N40 +1 .0
-0.5

N0.5

A B

7 5
The symbol of a cross and a circle is for position tolerance

6
Draw a small circle diameter 0.5 around the true centre. The hole must have its centre in this small circle. The workshop might check this by using a precise tapered pin.

This geometric tolerance is about equivalent to writing dimensions of 300.25 and 500.25. Actually that would have been easier in this case, but we are merely illustating the point.

The ordering of position of the part is the sequence shown here, which is A then B. It does not have to be alphabetical, so do not get caught out.

Figure: Position tolerance This geometric tolerance is about equivalent to writing dimensions of 300.25 and 500.25. In this simple case it might have been easier to write it just like that.

32

Applying geometric tolerances

The first step that the designer needs to take is to decide whether or not geometric tolerances are necessary. This decision is based on the required function of the part and especially the assembly of the parts. The function is known best to the designer, so this is where the responsibility of the decision lies. It is poor design to apply geometric tolerances to every dimension in sight: rather concentrate on those features that affect the function. Features that affect function are G Surfaces that touch other parts. As soon as parts are required to fit together, then the accuracy of the surfaces will affect the alignment of the assembly. The designer should check each surface that touches another surface, and determine how much misalignment can be tolerated. The example shows how misalignment of pipe flanges can impair function. Use of geometric tolerances at the design stage is the best way to ensure that the part can fulfil the intended function. Just how big a tolerance to allow is up to the discretion of the designer, since it depends on function. G In any design there will be surfaces that are only in contact with the air: no other part touches them. These surfaces do not generally need to be highly accurate in geometry. Therefore such surfaces would not generally need geometric tolerances. Optically active surfaces (e.g. telescope mirrors) are an exception here. A key needs ...and the to fit into a slot would be Figure: Apply dimensions and tolerances slot... dimensioned according to part function. Functional like this. features form the basis for geometric tolerances. With geometric tolerances, it is essential that the designer dimensions features according This would to the function of the part. Also, remember be the wrong the difference between the dimensions of way SIZE and those of POSITION. For example, a drilled hole has diameter (size) and the coordinates (position) of the centre. The American terminology uses the term feature to describe a surface, feature-of-size for size, and location dimension for position.

33

4.2

Runout controls

Runout is measured by touching a dial indicator (clock) gauge on the surface of a part, and rotating the part through one revolution. The part surface moves towards and away from the gauge during the revolution, and the gauge measures this (e.g. in microns). The total displacement range recorded is the runout. Runout cannot work if there are sharp edges, so it is only applicable to shafts, hubs and flanges. Figure: Runout is one of the most common and practical geometric tolerances for rotating parts. It only needs a dial indicator. In this case the brake rotor of a car is being checked for runout. The indicator, which has a magnetic base, has been position to lightly touch the disc. Then the disc is gently rotated. We are not interested in the absolute value on the indicator, only the range, This range is the runout. It is that simple. If the runout is excessive on the brake disc, then there will be a variable gap between the disc and brake pads, and the wheel will judder or squeal during braking. Image from http://www.aa1car.com/library/brake_rotors.htm

Figure: Runout on a circular saw blade, showing the indicator with its magnetic base, and the blade. The blade may have excessive runout if its bearings are failing, or the mounting collar is misaligned, or the blade is damaged. Do not attempt to make this measurement with the motor energised. Image from http://www.cabinetmakerfdm.c om/1578.html. As that author also wisely states, please be careful with a saw. It does not know the difference between wood and fingers. Use all safety devices. Avoid kickback hazards.

34

Figure: Another example of runout, this time for measuring a part in a lathe. Image from http://www.practicalmachinist.c om/vb/south-bendlathes/making-new-cross-slideacme-screw150571/index2.html

Runout picks up a number of errors in the part. Errors in concentricity, circularity and profile are all manifest as runout. However it is not generally possible from a given reading of runout to work back to what combination of these errors was responsible. Nonetheless runout is a valuable geometric tolerance since it is easy to measure, and gives a check on a whole group of errors even if it cant distinguish them from each other. There are two types of runout tolerance, circular and total. The runout tolerance given on the drawing is the total permissible indicator reading. Eccentricity is not the only cause of runout, but when it is, a given eccentricity causes double the displacement at the indicator. For example, an eccentricity of 0.5 mm causes a runout of 1.0 mm. This is because the part is rotated to expose the high region as well as the low region.

Datums for runout

In order to do the runout test, it is necessary to turn the part, and in order to turn it, it has to be held. Quite how it is held will determine the position of the part and therefore affect the tolerance. Therefore it is necessary to specify datums with runout tolerances. There are several ways in which the part may be held, and these are shown in the diagram.

35

Figure: Runout needs datums. Top: Single datum if there is sufficient shaft length. Middle: Co_datums for longer shafts. Bottom: Locate on diameter and plane

0.2 A

0.2 A-B

0.2 A-B

4.2.1 Circular runout

Circular runout is measured like any other runout, as the total displacement on an indicator when the surface that it touches is rotated through one full revolution. The indicator must be normal to the surface (not the axis), unless the drawing instructs otherwise. It may be applied either to a surface with axial symmetry (cylinder, cone, etc), or to a planar flange.

Circular runout on cylindrical surface

A common case of axial symmetry is the cylindrical surfaces shown alongside. The N35 region is the datum, and is gripped in a collet or chuck or movable geometry (no MMC is provided in this example). An indicator is placed on the cylindrical surface of N70. The indicator must be perpendicular to the surface. The part is then rotated through one revolution. To meet the tolerance, the indicator may not display a range greater than the provided tolerance of 0.2. Afterwards the indicator is moved to another point on the surface, and the process repeated. Figure: Circular Runout on a cylindrical surface.

N35 +0.0 -0.3

N70 +0.0 -0.3 0.2

36

Any errors in circularity or concentricity will be picked up. While each section needs to be within the tolerance, successive sections are independent and do not need to line up with each other. Therefore a limitation of circular runout is that it will not control the straightness of the surface.

Circular Runout controls runout at individual points.

Another example is the conical shape, and the figure shows a sample cross section for one point. The tolerance applies not just under the arrow but over the whole surface. While each section needs to be within the tolerance, successive sections do not need to line up. Circular runout can be applied to an axially symmetric surface of complex shape and curves.
A 0.2 A

Figure: Circular runout on conical surface. The tolerance zones illustrated here are by way of explanation, but would not be required on a final drawing.
0.2

0.2

Circular Runout applied to flange

Circular runout may also be applied to a flange, that is a surface at right angles to the axis. Again it only applies at individual radii, and gives no control over the flatness of the surface. At any one diameter, say N60, the total range recorded on the indicator may not exceed the runout tolerance. The tolerance zone is illustrated by way of explanation, but would not be required on a final drawing. Figure: Circular runout on flange
A

N35 +0.0 -0.3

N70 +0.0 -0.3

0.2

4.2.2 Total runout

Total runout is very similar to circular runout, except that it controls the straightness of the surface too. This is achieved by moving the gauge indicator over the whole surface while the part is turned. The whole surface must then be within the tolerance zone. To satisfy the tolerance the indicator may not show a displacement range greater than the tolerance, in all its travels over the surface. Therefore total runout provides a flatness control over and above circular runout. Total runout may be applied to cylinder, cone, or to a planar flange. Figure: Total runout on cylindrical surface
A

N35 +0.0 -0.3

N70 +0.0 -0.3 0.2 A

37

Total Runout on a cylindrical surface.

A common case of axial symmetry is the cylindrical surface shown below. The N35 region is the datum, and is gripped in a collet or chuck or movable geometry (no MMC is provided in this example). An indicator is placed on the cylindrical surface of N70. The indicator must be A perpendicular to the surface. The part is then rotated through several revolutions, while the gauge is moved axially over the whole of the N70 surface. To meet the +0.0 tolerance, the indicator may not display a range N35 -0.3 greater than the provided tolerance of 0.2, over the whole surface. Any errors in circularity or concentricity will be picked up. While each section needs to be within the tolerance, successive sections also need to line up with each other, and this imposes a straightness control on the surface. Figure: Total Runout controls both the cross section and the straightness

0.2 A

N70 +0.0 -0.3

0.2

0.2 A

Total runout on conical surface

Another example is the conical shape, and the figure shows a sample cross section for one point. The tolerance applies not just under the arrow but over the whole surface. Each section needs to be within the tolerance, and successive sections need to line up.

0.2

0.2

Total runout may only be applied to surfaces generated by revolving a straight line.

Total runout on flange

Total runout may also be applied to a flange, that is a surface at right angles to the axis. It applies at all radii, and gives a flatness control of the surface. Over the whole surface the total range recorded on the indicator may not exceed the runout tolerance.

38

4.3

Geometric tolerances of form

The geometric tolerances that describe the form (shape) of a surface are flatness, straightness, circularity, and cylindricity. These geometric tolerances apply to single features, and they never use datums.

4.3.1 Straightness tolerance on surface

The straightness tolerance controls how much the feature is allowed to differ from a straight line. The symbol is a horizontal line as shown in the illustration. The surface must be between two parallel lines, the spacing of which is given by the tolerance (0.2 mm in the example). Figure: Straightness tolerance. Note that the tolerance only controls the line in the view concerned, and there is no control in the side view. Note that straightness does not use datums. Also it cannot use MMC or LMC (these terms are discussed below). Straightness of surface is applied to a line on the drawing. Importantly, straightness only applies to the view where it appears in the drawing. There is no control in the side view. This means that every line in the view (where the tolerance is applied) must be sufficiently straight, but the lines do not have to make up a flat plane. This can be troublesome, especially if the part has appreciable thickness, but there is another tolerance called flatness that will solve this problem. In the example shown here, the linear tolerance means that the surface can lie anywhere within 10.5 and 9.8. Imagine that a vernier caliper is put onto the part and it measures 10.1. This measurement is of the high points of a line on the surface. The geometric tolerance of straightness requires that the low points must be within 0.2 of the high points. In our example, this would require that all points be between 10.1 and 9.9. Figure: Straightness tolerance: the surface must be straight to within 0.2 mm, and must be positioned somewhere in the envelope between 9.8 and 10.5 mm. Some degree of straightness control is automatically applied by using plain linear tolerances. In the example, the
0.2

0.2

39

surface would have to be flat within 9.8 to 10.5 mm anyway, because these are the linear tolerances. When this control is insufficient, then add a straightness tolerance. This is what has been done in the example. The geometric tolerance is always smaller than the linear tolerance, so that the geometric tolerance zone floats within the linear tolerance zone. Straightness does not affect virtual condition, since the tolerance is measured into the material.

4.3.2 Straightness tolerance on dimension of size

Straightness may also be applied under a dimension, but in which case the meaning changes slightly: it applies to the centre line of the feature, and a N is used to specify the diameter of the cylinder in which the line must lie. The tolerance may also be used to apply to the centre plane of a object. Unlike in the previous case of straightness of feature, straightness of size DOES affect the virtual condition, the MMC modifier may be used, and the straightness tolerance may be larger than the size tolerance. Altogether, this tolerance is quite unlike a straightness tolerance on surface. Note that the tolerance zone is now a cylinder, and the centre line of the part has to be inside this cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder is given by the tolerance value (N0.2 in this example). On a drawing the centre line protrudes outside the object, but for geometric tolerance it is only that part of the +0.2 centre line that is inside the object that needs to meet N40 -0.1 the geometric tolerance.
N0.2

Figure: Straightness tolerance applied to a dimension. In this case the control applies to the centre line, which must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm.

40

4.3.3 Flatness tolerance

A flatness tolerance specifies how much the surface is allowed to differ from a perfectly flat plane. The tolerance is the distance between the two planes. A first plane is established by putting the surface onto a flat plane. Then the second plane is parallel to this by the value of the tolerance, and into the material. All points on the entire surface in question must lie between these two planes. As the tolerance is into the material, therefore a flatness tolerance does not affect the virtual condition. Figure: Flatness tolerance: controls the flatness of the entire surface. Flatness is a more powerful control than straightness, since it controls the entire surface, not just one view of it. The flatness tolerance is therefore equivalent to straightness tolerances in each of two views. Some degree of flatness control is automatically applied by using a plain tolerance on the dimension. In this case, as the part tends towards MMC, so the surface is automatically constrained to be increasingly flat. The additional control provided by a flatness tolerance is used when this basic control is inadequate. Flatness tolerance should be less than the size tolerance. Flatness tolerance must NOT use a datum surface. This is because flatness is only measured relative to itself; the three highest points on the surface define the plane. Also note that for the same reasons flatness does not control whether the surface is parallel to any another. Flatness is applied to a surface, not to a dimension. It cannot be used on curved surfaces. Furthermore, a flatness tolerance may not use the MMC or LMC modifier. Flatness does not affect virtual condition, since the tolerance is measured into the material. Figure: Flatness tolerance is equivalent to straightness tolerances in each of two views, but is easier to apply.

0.2

0.2

0.2

41

4.3.4 Circularity tolerance

The circularity tolerance controls how much a section may deviate from a perfect circle. The tolerance can be applied to discs, cylinders, spheres, cones. The important thing to note is that the circularity tolerance only controls one section at a time. Any section along the axis must be sufficiently circular, but the sections do not need to line up with each other. Therefore even a long bent piece of wire can be given a circularity tolerance. The tolerance consists of two circles, separated by the tolerance value. Figure: Circularity tolerance controls deviation from a perfect circular section. The tolerance zone applies to the radius separation as shown above. Note that the dashed circles and their spacing would not normally be shown on the drawing, as the information is contained in the geometric tolerance. The circularity tolerance may only be applied to a feature, that is a surface, and therefore it may not have any MMC modifier. It also does not have any datum plane. It will not affect virtual condition. The circularity tolerance refers to the radial spacing of perfect circles, not the difference in diameter. Therefore the circularity tolerance should be less than half the tolerance on the size of the diameter.

0.2 0.2

42

4.3.5 Cylindricity tolerance

The cylindricity tolerance controls how much the surface of a cylinder may deviate from a perfect cylinder. The tolerance can be applied only to straight cylinders. It provides more control than circularity tolerance, since it makes sure that all the sections are adequately circular, as well as being lined up into a cylinder. Therefore cylindricity controls not just circularity, but also straightness and taper. Figure: Cylindricity tolerance controls deviation from a perfect cylinder. The tolerance consists of two cylinders, separated by the tolerance value. Note that the value refers to the radial spacing of perfect cylinders, not the difference in diameter. Therefore the tolerance should be less than half the tolerance on the size of the diameter. The circularity tolerance may only be applied to a feature, that is a surface, and therefore it may not have any MMC modifier. It also does not have any datum plane. It will not affect virtual condition.
0.2

Datums
A datum is a theoretically exact point, line or plane, which is used for reference purposes. To make the concept more substantial in your mind, it can be explained that a datum plane is simulated by a flat granite surface, and a datum axis is simulated by a pin or by holding the part in a chuck. Real life gauging equipment is thus used to make up datums. A datum serves two purposes: Datums locate a part in a repeatable way, so that the part may be checked for geometric tolerance. Datums show how parts are located together when they are assembled. The symbol for a datum (A, B, C etc) is the letter in a block. The standards differ in small details about the drafting conventions, but the principles remain the same.

43

4.4

Geometric tolerances of orientation

There are three orientation (or attitude) geometric tolerances: these are perpendicularity (squareness), angularity, and parallelism. They control the orientation of part features relative to other features. They are used when more control is required than can be given by the general tolerances on the dimensions of a part. All the orientation geometric tolerances must have a datum in the control frame.

4.4.1 Perpendicularity tolerance

This geometric tolerance forces a surface, axis or plane to be close to 90o to a datum plane. Although this tolerance controls the angle, the tolerance is not written as an angular range like 90o 0.1o, as might be thought. Instead the geometric tolerance is the size of a rectangular (or cylindrical zone) inside which the axis must fall.

Perpendicularity of a surface
The first illustration shows a perpendicularity tolerance that is applied to a surface. A datum surface has to be given as a reference for the perpendicularity. A plane is made, perpendicular to the datum, and touching the highest point on the controlled surface. A second plane is parallel to this and offset into the material by the amount of the tolerance. All points on the surface have to lie between these two planes in order to satisfy the geometric tolerance. The diagram includes the two planes and a close-up of the region, but these are only for illustrative purposes and would not be shown on a drawing. Figure: Perpendicularity tolerance, applied to surface, and using two parallel planes. The whole of the indicated surface must be within two parallel planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. These planes are at right angles to datum A, the bottom surface.
A

0.2

The perpendicularity tolerance on a surface will also automatically apply some control to the flatness of the surface. If this control is not enough, then a separate flatness tolerance may be applied. A perpendicularity tolerance on a surface may NOT have any modifiers such as MMC, RFS, LMC.

0.2

44

Perpendicularity of a centre line

The second application for perpendicularity tolerance is on the centre line of a feature. This could be a shaft, hole, slot etc. In such cases the geometric tolerance is applied to the dimension of the feature making up the centre line. The diagram shows a hole, the centreline of which must be contained within a region the size of the tolerance. If nothing else is shown, the shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes. When a centreline is involved, then the zone can alternatively be a cylinder (use the symbol with the tolerance). This is used in the example. Figure: Perpendicularity tolerance, applied to a centre line, and using a cylindrical tolerance zone. The centre line must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm. If a centre line has a perpendicularity tolerance without the N, then the tolerance zone will be two planes. This will give control of perpendicularity in the viewing direction only.
20 N 400.5
N0.2 A

The centre line only has to fit in the tolerance zone where the centre line is in the part. Standard design practice shows a centre line extending outside the part, but these tips do not have to be in the tolerance zone. The perpendicularity tolerance on the centre line will automatically imply some control over the straightness of the centreline. If this is not enough, then an extra straightness tolerance may be added.

45

Maximum material condition applied to perpendicularity

Maximum material condition may be specified for perpendicularity of an axis, e.g. N0.2 g. This means that the amount by which the N40 hole deviates from the MMC (39.5) may be added to the geometric tolerance as a bonus. For example, a hole of actual size N40.0 means that the perpendicularity tolerance is 0.2 + 0.5 = 0.7. This probably sounds complicated and may seem to imply extra work determining how much bonus to allow, but in practice the MMC condition permits the use of a fixed gauge, and the gauge automatically performs the calculation. If the gauge goes into the hole then the part passes. Figure: MMC applied to perpendicularity tolerance. This permits a bonus tolerance for the fabricator. The amount of the bonus depends on how big the hole is made: the larger the hole the bigger the bonus.
20 N 400.5
N0.2 M
A

The gauge for this part (if MMC is used) would be a flat surface out of which protruded a pin of N39.300 mm and length 20.000 mm. If the gauge goes all the way in, then the perpendicularity tolerance is met. The gauge diameter is determined by taking the minimum size of the hole (MMC=N39.5) and subtracting the perpendicularity tolerance. (If the part had been a shaft, then the gauge would have a hole of 40.5+0.2 = 40.7mm, i.e MMC + perpendicularity tolerance). Therefore, if the fabricator makes the smallest acceptable hole (MMC=N39.5), then it has only 0.2mm tolerance on straightness. This hole will be a close fit on the gauge pin. Conversely, the largest acceptable hole (LMC=N40.5) will have an easy time of slipping over the gauge pin: it will have a tolerance of 1.2mm. It is clever use of tolerances like this that permit manufacturers like Toyota to produce parts that always fit together, and provide the required function, yet are cheap to produce. The alternative is to tighten up the tolerances and therefore throw away more defect parts, but this is more expensive.

46

Maximum material condition with zero perpendicularity tolerance

Strange but true: It is possible to put in a perpendicularity tolerance of 0.0mm, but only when MMC is also used. The only tolerance in this case is the bonus tolerance. Figure: Zero perpendicularity tolerance, but bonus tolerance from MMC becomes available. Therefore, if the fabricator makes the smallest acceptable hole (MMC=N39.5), then it has to be perfectly perpendicular: 0.0 mm tolerance. The logic is straightforward: If you are going to make a small hole, then it must be perfectly perpendicular to mate with the rest of the assembly. Unfortunately perfect perpendicularity is impossible in practice.
20 N 400.5
N0.0 M
A

The fabricator will find it MUCH easier to make this hole on the bigger side. For the largest acceptable hole (LMC=N40.5) the perpendicularity tolerance is 1.0mm. In most cases it is not practical to set production machines at the limits (too many rejects), so a more realistic example might be a hole of say N40.1 mm, in which case the tolerance would be (40.1 - 39.5) + 0.0 = 0.6. The reason for making the perpendicularity tolerance zero is to make the hole perfectly perpendicular when the hole is at maximum material condition (MMC=N39.5), while still getting the fabrication advantages of MMC.

MMC
The above comments on MMC have been illustrated by application to perpendicularity tolerance. However they apply generally to all tolerances where MMC is permissible.

47

4.4.2 Angularity tolerance

This geometric tolerance forces a surface, axis or plane to be close to a specified angle from a datum plane. Although this tolerance controls the angle, the tolerance is not written as an angular range like 60o 0.1o, as might be thought. Instead the geometric tolerance is the size of a rectangular (or cylindrical) zone inside which the axis must fall.

Angularity of a surface
The first illustration shows a angularity tolerance applied to a surface. A datum surface has to be given as a reference for the angle. The angle of the surface has to be given on the drawing. This is a basic dimension and is enclosed in a box to show its status. (A basic dimension is a theoretically perfect one that is used to establish tolerances. It itself does not have a tolerance). Figure: Angularity tolerance, applied to surface. The indicated surface must be within two parallel planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. 0.2 A A plane is made at this angle to the datum, and touching the highest point on the controlled surface. A second plane is parallel to this and offset into the material by the amount of the tolerance. All points on the surface have to lie between these two planes in order to satisfy the geometric tolerance. The diagram includes the two planes and a close-up of the region, but these are only for illustrative purposes and would not be shown on a drawing.

60E A

The angularity tolerance on a surface will also automatically apply some control to the flatness of the surface. If this control is not enough, then a separate flatness tolerance may be applied. Angularity tolerance on a surface may NOT have any modifiers such as MMC, RFS, LMC.

0.2

48

Angularity of a centre line

The second application for angularity tolerance is on the centre line of a feature. This could be a shaft, hole, slot etc. In such cases the geometric tolerance is applied to the dimension of the feature making up the centre line. The diagram shows a hole, the centreline of which must be contained within a region the size of the tolerance. The shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes. This will give control of angularity in the viewing direction only. Unlike the case for perpendicularity, the zone may NOT be a cylinder (N symbol with the tolerance). Of course the centre line is not a feature that can be seen on its own. It is found at the centre of the circle (or other feature). Therefore the tolerance controls the side walls of the hole or shaft. This is illustrated in the figure. Figure: Angularity tolerance, applied to a centre line. The centre line must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm.
0.2
0.2 A

N 25

45E

The centre line only has to fit in the tolerance zone where the centre line is in the part. Standard design practice shows a centre line extending outside the part, but these tips do not have to be in the tolerance zone. The perpendicularity tolerance on the centre line will automatically imply some control over the straightness of the centreline, in the viewing direction only. If this is not enough, then an extra straightness tolerance may be added. Maximum material condition and other modifiers may not be used with angularity. So there is no bonus tolerance possible.

49

4.4.3 Parallelism tolerance

This geometric tolerance forces a surface, axis or plane to be close to parallel to a datum plane. It is like an angularity 0.2 control of 180o. The tolerance is the size of a rectangular (or cylindrical) zone inside which the surface must fall.

Parallelism of a surface
The first illustration shows parallelism applied to a surface. A datum surface has to be given as a reference. Figure: Parallelism tolerance, applied to surface. The indicated surface must be within two parallel planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. A plane is made parallel to the datum and touching the highest point on the controlled surface. A second plane is parallel to this and offset into the material by the amount of the tolerance. All points on the surface have to lie between these two planes in order to satisfy the geometric tolerance. The diagram includes the two planes and a close-up of the region, but these are only for illustrative purposes and would not be shown on a drawing. The parallelism tolerance on a surface will also automatically apply some control to the flatness of the surface. Parallelism tolerance on a surface may NOT have any modifiers such as MMC, RFS, LMC.

0.2

50

Parallelism of a centre line

The second application for parallelism tolerance is on the centre line of a feature. This could be a shaft, hole, slot etc. In such cases the geometric tolerance is applied to the dimension of the feature making up the centre line. The diagram shows a hole, the centreline of which must be contained within a region the size of the tolerance. Effectively the tolerance controls the side walls of the hole or shaft, since these are used to establish the centreline. If nothing else is shown, the shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes. When a centreline is involved, then the zone can alternatively be a cylinder (use the N symbol with the tolerance). This is shown in the diagram. Figure: Parallelism tolerance, applied to a centre line, with a cylindrical tolerance zone. The centre line must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm.

N400.3 N0.2 A

N120.1

If a centre line has a perpendicularity tolerance without the N, then the tolerance zone will be two planes. This will give control of perpendicularity in the viewing direction only.The centre line only has to fit in the tolerance zone where the centre line is in the part. Standard design practice shows a centre line extending outside the part, but these tips do not have to be in the tolerance zone. The parallelism tolerance on the centre line will automatically control the straightness of the centreline in the viewing direction only (parallel planes) or in both directions (cylindrical zone). Maximum material condition and other modifiers may be used with angularity when a cylindrical tolerance zone is used. This gives a bonus tolerance, and also permits the use of fixed geometry gauges.

51

4.5

Geometric tolerances on location

The geometric tolerances that control the location of a feature are position, symmetry, and concentricity. They control the location of part features relative to datums. They may be used with modifiers such as MMC, FRS, and LMC. Important points about location tolerances: M only applied to size dimensions, not to single surfaces M datums are required M as many datums are required as are necessary to get the part into a position for repeatable measurements M basic dimensions show the theoretically exact location M MMC or RFS are used, ANSI Y14.5 requires that the choice be specified, but ISO 1101 assumes RFS unless specified otherwise as MMC Position tolerance also provides control of orientation and straightness.

4.5.1 Position tolerance

This geometric tolerance controls the position of a feature. A typical example is its use on bolt holes, so that parts in an assembly will line up adequately.
30

Position tolerance of a hole

Basic dimensions are used to establish the theoretically exact position of the feature, and the tolerance applies around this exact position. In the example alongside, the basic dimensions are 30 and 50. Since both the x and y position of this hole are being controlled, it is necessary to have two basic dimensions.

N40 N0.2
A B

Figure: Position tolerance, applied to an axis. The centre line must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm. It is also necessary to have at least two datum surfaces, in this case A and B. The order (precedence) is given in the control frame as A and then B. This puts the part into a certain repeatable position for measurement. Using a datum order of B and then A would result in a different position of the part. Therefore the datums are an essential component of the position tolerance. Ignorance of this leads to many drawings that are incompletely specified. The centre line of the feature (hole in this case), must be inside a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm. The position tolerance is commonly applied to the centre line of a hole, as in this example. Remember that this centre line is based on the walls of the hole, so the tolerance is still effectively controlling the walls of the hole.

52

40

+0 .5 -0.3

Position tolerance using parallel planes

By leaving out the N in front of the tolerance value, the tolerance zone becomes planar. The tolerance provided in the control frame is the spacing of the two planes. The centre line of the feature must be within these two planes. Figure: Position tolerance, planar. The centre line of the feature must be within two planes 0.2 mm apart. The position of the centre line of the feature is 40 shown with a basic dimension. The example shows that the feature, a slot in this case (but could also be a tongue), can have its own linear tolerance as well as the geometric tolerance. The MMC condition may be specified, and indeed should be used if possible, since otherwise the drawing will be interpreted as RFS. With this geometric tolerance it is also possible to apply a position tolerance to a series of holes that all lie on one centre line. Planar position tolerance may also be used in more than one direction. The next example shows how this defines a square tolerance zone. In practice the cylindrical tolerance zone would be more common. Figure: Position tolerance, applied to an axis. The centre line must be within a square of 0.2 mm across sides. This method of tolerancing the position of a hole is uncommon: use a cylindrical tolerance instead.

0.2

30

N40 0.2 A B

53

Position tolerance on co-axial features

A shaft commonly has different diameters along its length, and a position tolerance may be used to ensure that these diameters are sufficiently coaxial. There are actually other ways of achieving this goal, namely by means of a concentricity tolerance or else a runout tolerance. However the position tolerance is perhaps the easiest and least costly. The centreline of the one feature becomes a datum. The centreline of the other feature must be within the tolerance zone around the first centreline. Figure: Position tolerance, applied to an axis. The centre line must be within a cylinder of 0.2 mm diameter. The example shows a stepped shaft with N80 as datum A. The N40 region must have its centreline inside a cylinder of N0.2. (Since this is a shaft, it makes sense to use N0.2 as the tolerance instead of plain 0.2).
N80 A
+0 .5 -0.3

N40

+0 .5 -0.3 M

N0.2

Use of MMC provides function and eases fabrication

This example has also used MMC on the datum A. This means that the gauge for datum A can simply be a hole of fixed diameter N80.5. If the A did not have the MMC symbol after it, then the N80 would have to be gripped by a chuck instead.
N40.7

The geometric tolerance value also has MMC applied. This permits the gauge to be of fixed diameter here too (40.0 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 40.7). Since MMC is used for both datum and tolerance, the gauge for this part is simply a stepped hub, as shown in the figure. If the part goes in, then it meets the geometric tolerance. If it cant go in, then it fails. Therefore the use of MMC simplifies part testing. A grossly undersized part would fit into this gauge, so it is necessary to conduct a separate check with a micrometer to ensure that the diameters were not less than the plain tolerances (N39.7 and N79.7 in this example.) Figure: Gauge may be fixed geometry if MMC is used for both datum and tolerance.
N80.5

54

4.5.2 Symmetry tolerance

This geometric tolerance controls the position of a feature so that it is symmetric about a defined centre line. A typical application is to ensure that a part fits either way into an assembly. In the ISO system there is a symbol for symmetry, but in the ANSI system a position tolerance is used instead. Figure: Symmetry tolerance. On the left is the ISO method, and on the right is the ANSI. In either case the centre line of the top part must be within two planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. One region of the part, in this case the 80 wide area, has its centre line defined as the datum. The other part (40 width) has a centre line which must be within the tolerance zone. In the example MMC has been applied to both the symmetry tolerance and the datum. These are generally good design practice in that they reduce the complexity of the gauges and provide a bonus tolerance for the fabricator. However both the tolerance and the datum could be RFS instead.
40
+0 .5 -0.3 M

40 A
M

+0 .5 -0.3

0.2

0.2

ISO ME THOD

ANSI METHOD

80 A

+0 .5 -0.3

.5 80 +0 -0.3

-A-

4.5.3 Concentricity tolerance

The concentricity geometric tolerance ensures that the centre lines of cylindrical features are sufficiently concentric (well aligned). The centreline of the one feature becomes a datum. The centreline of the other feature must be within the tolerance zone around the first centreline. The tolerance zone is always cylindrical in shape. Figure: Concentricity tolerance. The centre line must be within a cylinder of N0.2 mm. The example shows a stepped shaft with N80 as datum A. The N40 region must have its centreline inside a cylinder of N0.2. Concentricity is RFS by default, and may NOT use the MMC modifier. Concentricity can be a difficult and costly tolerance to measure, and the designer should consider using position or runout instead.
+0 .5 -0.3

N40

N0.2 A

N80 A

+0 .5 -0.3

55

4.6

Profile controls

Profile refers to the shape of a surface or line. Examples include the aerodynamic profile of an aeroplane wing, and the contours of a boat hull. Surfaces like these are complex, but their accuracy can still be specified by means of profile controls. There are two profile tolerances, one that controls the profile of a line (e.g. a thin cam), and the other controls the profile of a surface. In both cases it is necessary to use basic dimensions (in rectangles) to specify the true profile. In the case of regular shapes like hexagons (e.g. bolt heads) this is not difficult. However it is more difficult to specify true dimensions on complex profiles like an aero wing, and this is often done by specifying individual points.

4.6.1 Surface profile

Surface profile shows what deviation from perfect shape is acceptable. The control only applies to the surface in the view shown. A surface is indicated, and a tolerance value given. The tolerance value is assumed to apply bilaterally (equally spread on both sides of the perfect profile), unless the drawing shows otherwise. The surface profile tolerance must also include datums, since these show the order in which the part must be placed onto the measuring table, and the surfaces that must be used. Figure: Surface profile tolerance.
0.5 0.5 C B A

R50 A

10 40 B C

Unilateral specified

tolerance

zone

can

be
0.5 0.5 C B A

In the example shown here, the control frame instructs that the part must first be placed with surface C against a flat plane, then slid along so that surface B contacts a perpendicular upright plane (at two points), and finally slid across to locate surface A against the last plane (one point will contact here).
10

R50 A

Figure: Unilateral Surface profile tolerance.

40 B

The surface profile tolerance applies over the whole of the indicated surface. In other words, the tolerance applies flatness control over the surface too. The balloon enlargement in the figures is for illustrative purposes and would not normally appear.

56

Profile tolerances are used on the hexagon shape of a bolt or nut. They are also used to ensure flatness of two coplanar surfaces. No modifier such as MMC or N may be used with the tolerance value, although these modifiers are permissible in the datums.

4.6.2 Line profile

Line profile is identical to surface tolerance in that it shows what deviation from perfect shape is acceptable. However the geometric tolerance applies only to single line elements. A typical use would be controlling the profile of a thin sheet cutout. If the part has significant depth, then the line profile only controls individual line elements, i.e. there is no control of flatness. The control only applies to the surface in the view shown. The comments above regarding surface profile also apply to line profile.
0.5 0.5 C B A

Figure: Line profile tolerance.

R50 A

10

4.7

Datums

40 B

A datum is a reference surface. Some of the geometric tolerances need datums, others may not use them. A datum is a theoretically exact point, line or plane, which is used for reference purposes. A datum plane is typically simulated by a flat granite surface, and a datum axis is simulated by holding the part in a chuck. Real life gauging equipment is thus used to make up datums. A datum serves two purposes: Datums locate a part in a repeatable way, so that the part may be checked for geometric tolerance. Datums show how parts are located together when they are assembled. The designer should select datums based on the functional requirements of the assembly, that is, based on how the parts fit together. The symbol for a datum (A, B, C etc) is the letter in a block. The standards differ in some drafting details, but the principles remain the same.

Number of datum planes

Some geometric tolerances must have at least one datum plane (they can have more), whereas other geometric tolerances are not allowed to have any datums. See the description for each geometric tolerance for details. Geometric tolerances often have perhaps three datums in the control frame. This tends to confuse people, since it appears that only one datum is needed for the x coordinate of the feature, and another one datum if there is a y coordinate. The reason for more datums, is that it must be possible to put the part into a repeatable position in order for

57

measurement. This repeatable position requires up to three datums. Remember that the data order A, B ,C will not put the part into the same position as A, C, B or B, A, C (there are six possible positions).

Datum reference frame

Take three planes and put them together at right angles, to make a corner of a box. This is a datum reference frame, and it is used to provide a repeatable way to check geometric tolerances. Datum plane If a part is put down on a flat granite table, then it will contact the table at three microscopic high points. These three points then make up the datum plane. In other words, the datum is established not by the average surface, but by the extreme high points 0.5 of the surface. Figure: Datums are used to position a part reliably so that it can be checked. This example shows the use of three planar datums.

0.5 C B A

R50 A

An important concept is the sequence in which the part is brought into contact with the three 10 planes of the datum reference frame. Consider 40 a datum reference frame as made up by a flat granite table as the base, on which are two other blocks of granite, all at right angles to each other. When a part is brought for checking, it will most likely be put down on the table first, and therefore this becomes datum A. Next it will be slid into contact with one of the upright blocks, and this surface then becomes datum B. Finally it will be slid across to contact the last block, and this is datum C. It is generally impossible for the part to contact all three planes at three high points on each plane. The part therefore contacts datum A at three high points, datum B at two high points, and datum C at only one point. Consequently, if the part was brought into contact in a different sequence, say A-C-B, then it would end up in a slightly different position in the datum reference frame. Therefore the sequence in which the part is brought into contact with the three planes is important. The sequence is shown in the control frame. The first datum given is the primary datum, next is the secondary datum, and last is the tertiary datum. Datum planes cannot use MMC.

Datum targets
On some parts it can be difficult to establish a datum. For example castings have rough surfaces, and it would be expensive to machine off the whole surface just to get a datum. Curved parts like motor vehicle body panels are also a problem, since it would be destructive to flatten these to make a datum. The solution is to use datum targets. These are localised contact points that can be used to make up a datum. In the case of a curved part, three round nosed pins at a given spacing from each other can be used to locate the part. On the drawing will be shown the position of pins A1, A2 and A3. Together these make up datum A. The same method can be used

58

for castings. Castings are almost always machined somewhat after being cast, and the fresh machining surfaces may be used as datums for the next set of cuts. Datum targets are made up with pins (round nosed), or line contact (cylindrical pins). Small flat ended pins may also be used, but then the drawing needs to show what the end areas in contact with the part look like. For flexible parts, it is usually necessary to use datum targets, and also to specify the magnitude of the restraining force.

Datums from features of size

A common type of datum is the flat plane already described. However a size on a part can also be a datum. For example, on a stepped shaft the diameter of one cylindrical surface may be a datum against which other surfaces are measured. Whenever a size is used to make a datum, then it is necessary to specify whether it applies at LMC, MMC or RFS. Figures: Features of size may also be used for datums. Here are some typical shaft datums, with Circular Runout illustrated. Top: Single datum is there is sufficient shaft length. Middle: Co-datums for longer shafts. Bottom: Locate on diameter and plane

0.2 A

0.2 A-B

0.2 A-B

When RFS is used on a datum, then it means that the datum axis or plane has to be found on the B basis of existing geometry. This means that variable geometry devices will be necessary: for example a chuck or collet will be tightened down onto a cylindrical part in order to establish the datum centre line axis. The requirement of variable geometry inspection devices is extra effort for the fabricator compared to MMC. When MMC is used on a datum, then fixed gauges may be used to find the datum. For example, on stepped shaft, the centre line of the gauge (not the part) defines the datum centre line axis. The gauge itself will be loose fitting on the shaft, so the datum axis will not necessarily coincide with the part axis. Therefore by using MMC on the drawings, the designer sacrifices some control over the part tolerances, but still has a functional part, and the fabricator has a slightly easier time. Normally there is an order or precedence in the datums, which is shown by the order in which they appear in the control frame. In some cases two datums are of equal importance. For example the two bearing seats of a stepped shaft could be co-datums. The co-datum would be written A-B.

59

4.8

Modifiers

Basic dimension
A basic dimension is a theoretically true dimension. It is shown enclosed in a box, although sometimes the words BASIC are written next to the dimension instead. A basic dimension does not have its own tolerance. At first this seems to contradict the rule that every dimension on a drawing needs a tolerance. However the basic dimension is only ever used together with a geometric tolerance, and it takes its tolerance from the value of the geometric tolerance. In other words, the geometric tolerance is being used to control both the accuracy of the surface, as well as the tolerance on the dimension.

Maximum material condition MMC

The MMC is the extreme tolerance state in which the part has maximum material. For a shaft or other external feature, MMC is when the diameter is at the maximum permitted by the tolerance. However for a hole, keyway or other internal feature, the MMC condition is at the minimum value permitted by the tolerance: this gives that maximum amount of material left on the part. The symbol for MMC is an M in a circle. If this still confuses you, think of MMC as being the maximum mass of the part. How could you make the part as heavy as possible within given tolerances? .... By making the outside dimensions as big as possible, and the holes as small as possible.

Least material condition LMC

This is the opposite of MMC, as it is the extreme tolerance state in which the part has minimum material. For a shaft or other external feature, LMC is when the diameter is at the minimum permitted by the tolerance. However for a hole, keyway or other internal feature, the LMC condition is at the maximum value permitted by the tolerance: this gives that maximum amount of material left on the part. If this still confuses you, think of LMC as being the least mass of the part. How could you make the part as light as possible within given tolerances? .... By making the outside dimensions as small as possible, and the holes as big as possible. The symbol for LMC is a L in a circle. Figure: Geometric tolerance applied regardless of feature size (RFS).
0.2

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Regardless of Feature Size RFS

Sometimes there is a reason for a part being in either maximum or least material condition. However very often the designer doesnt care, and there is no advantage to having the part at either extreme of size. In such cases the default is RFS. The symbol for RFS is an S in a circle. If nothing is stated in the control frame, then it will be generally be assumed that RFS applies.

Shape of tolerance zone

The tolerance zone is usually rectangular in shape. However with some geometric tolerances it is possible to specify a circular tolerance zone, by using the symbol N in front of the tolerance. The effect is shown in the figure below.

N4 A 0.5 A B A

N4 N0.5 A B

Figure: With a tolerance of 0.5 (left) the tolerance zone is a square of 0.5 mm across sides. The N modifier in front of the tolerance (right) means that the tolerance zone becomes a circle of diameter 0.5 mm.

Projected tolerance zone

Sometimes it is necessary to measure the tolerance some distance off into space and not at the feature concerned. This is then called a projected tolerance zone, and the symbol of a P in a circle is used. A typical use is to ensure that bolts dont interfere with other parts.

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Virtual condition
Virtual condition is the maximum size that a part may be, if it is in the MMC condition of the linear tolerance plus the extreme of any geometric tolerance. The virtual condition often needs to be determined when checking the worst case fit of parts. It is also used to determine the sizes of inspection gauges. The first example alongside shows the virtual condition of a part that does not have any geometric tolerance. The virtual condition is simply the MMC dimensions. Figure: Virtual condition for the N40 cylinder is 40.0 + 0.5 = 40.5 mm, and for the N80 cylinder is 80.0 + 0.5 = 80.5 mm When a geometric tolerance exists, then the virtual condition MAY be affected, depending on the type of geometric tolerance. Those geometric tolerances that are measured into a surface have no effect on virtual condition. Virtual condition IS NOT affected by geometric tolerances of straightness of surface, flatness, orientation of surface, circularity, cylindricity or any geometric tolerance applied to a surface. Figure: Virtual condition for the N40 cylinder is 40.0 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 40.7 mm Virtual condition IS affected by any geometric tolerance applied to a size dimension, such as A straightness of size dimension, orientation of axis, position or any geometric tolerance applied to a axis. If the value of geometric tolerance is permitted to have MMC, then it affects the virtual condition. The virtual condition is the MMC size of the part, plus the geometric tolerance.

N40

+0 .5 -0.3

N80

+0 .5 -0.3

N40

+0 .5 -0.3 M

N0.2

N80

+0 .5 -0.3

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30

Figure: Geometric tolerance applied maximum material condition (MMC)

with

4.9

Benefits of MMC

There are two benefits of MMC, first that a bonus tolerance is available to the fabricator, and second that fixed gauges may be used.

N40

+0 .5 -0.3 M

N0.2

A B

4.9.1 Bonus tolerance

Bonus tolerance is a means of giving the fabricator an extra tolerance to make work easier, while still ensuring that the part functions adequately. The bonus tolerance is provided when the tolerance value (not the datum) is followed by the symbol for MMC. The magnitude of the bonus tolerance is the amount by which the feature size departs from the MMC. The example alongside would be interpreted as follows: # put the part with surface A on a flat plane (note that no MMC is permissible on planar datum) # slide part so that surface B touches the other plane # the theoretical centre of the hole is at 50 and 30 # the diameter of the hole may be between 40.5 and 39.7 # the actual centre of the hole must be inside a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm at the theoretical centre # the MMC for the hole is N39.7 # any deviation from MMC can be added to the position tolerance For example: F If the hole were to be N40.000, then the deviation from the MMC would be 0.3, and therefore the position tolerance becomes 0.2+0.3 = 0.5. F If the hole were to be N40.5, then the deviation from the MMC would be 0.8, and therefore the position tolerance becomes 0.2+0.8 = 1.0. F If the hole were to be N39.7, then the deviation from the MMC would be 0.0, and therefore the position tolerance becomes 0.2+0.0 = 0.2.

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Thus the amount by which the dimension departs from the MMC may be added to the geometric tolerance. This only applies when the MMC condition is allowed by the designer. In effect it gives the fabricator a larger (bonus) tolerance within to work, and this makes the job easier and cheaper. From the designers perspective, the use of MMC means that the surface will still be accurate enough when the part is at its largest, and when the part is smaller the accuracy will decrease. If this situation can be tolerated for function (and the type of geometric tolerance allows it), then it is good practice to permit the MMC bonus tolerance in the design. The MMC condition may be applied either to the tolerance, or to the datum plane, or both. M If the tolerance is MMC, then it means that a bonus tolerance is available and a fixed gauge may be used to determine the acceptability of the feature. Not all tolerances can be made MMC, please see the descriptions under each geometric tolerance. M If the datum is MMC, then it means that the datum may be found by means of a fixed instrument, rather than one with movable geometry. Consequently the bonus tolerance permits a datum shift to occur. Not all datums may be specified as MMC. Planar datums may not, only features of size.

RFS
If nothing else is stated, the situation will be RFS by default. Therefore, if the MMC had NOT been specified in the tolerance, then the meaning would be as follows: # put the part with surface A on a flat plane # slide part so that surface B touches the other plane # the theoretical centre of the hole is at 50 and 30 # the diameter of the hole may be between 40.5 and 39.7 # the actual centre of the hole must be inside a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm at the theoretical centre, regardless of the size of the hole

4.9.2 Fixed gauges

In order to check a tolerance, it is necessary to use some equipment. Datum planes are usually created by using smooth flat granite blocks. Centre lines are usually picked up by means of a chuck. And in certain applications fixed gauges may be used. When a geometric tolerance contains the MMC modifier (note that not all geometric tolerances are allowed to use MMC), then there is a significant benefit in that any MMC tolerance may be checked with a fixed gauge such as a pre-machined precision hole. A fixed gauge has no moving parts. This makes checking much easier and quicker. If MMC is not used (or may not be used), then the surface is RFS. This has the consequence that a movable gauge (e.g. a chuck for cylindrical parts) will have to be used in order to pick up where the size tolerance is.

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Maximum material condition (MMC)

The MMC modifier may be used with for example a position tolerance, and it frees up an additional bonus tolerance. The bonus is the amount by which the feature size departs from MMC, and this is added to the given position tolerance to determine the total tolerance allowed. If the feature is at MMC, then there is no bonus tolerance, and only the given position tolerance will apply. The bigger the hole (or smaller the shaft) the greater the bonus tolerance. For the example shown alongside, the MMC for the hole is 39.7. If the diameter of the hole is say 40.000, then the bonus is 40.0 - 39.7 = 0.3, and this is added to the position tolerance to give a total tolerance on position of 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.5. Figure: Position tolerance with MMC applied to tolerance value.

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N40

+0 .5 -0.3 M

N0.2

A B

This calculation does not have to be done at the time of measuring, since the gauge automatically takes it into account. The gauge for this part would have two datum surfaces, and a pin, as shown in the diagram. The centre of the pin would be positioned at the basic dimensions, and the diameter of the pin would be determined as follows: O hole is allowed to be as small as 40.0 0.3 = 39.7 O hole has a position tolerance of N 0.2 O MMC is permitted O therefore pin diameter is 39.7 - 0.2 = 39.5 Figure: Gauge for position tolerance with MMC If the part fits onto this gauge then it passes the geometric tolerance. There would need to be a separate check that the hole diameter was within its limits. The advantage of MMC is that it permits the use of fixed geometry gauges such as these. This reduces the cost of measurement. It is good design practice to use MMC where ever it is permitted and the design will tolerate it.

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Datum shift with Maximum material condition

It is also possible to apply MMC to the datum (if it is a feature of size, not a planar datum). This also gives a bonus, in that it permits the datum to shift. As with any MMC condition, the gauge that is used for the datum is then of fixed geometry. The illustration alongside shows a part with two holes. The face marked A is the primary datum, and it is used to establish the perpendicularity of the lower hole. This lower hole has a geometric tolerance with MMC applied, so there is some bonus tolerance if the hole is not at MMC. In fact, this hole has zero perpendicularity tolerance, so only the bonus tolerance is available. This means that if the hole is at LMC of .N 12.1 then the available tolerance on perpendicularity is 0.1. If the hole is at LMC of N 11.9, then there is no perpendicularity tolerance, i.e. the hole must be perfectly perpendicular.

N400.3 N0.2
M

A B

N120.1 N0.0 B
M

Figure: Position tolerance with MMC applied to tolerance value. Whatever size the lower hole is, it becomes datum B. The top hole also has a geometric tolerance, this time one of position. It requires that the part be positioned up first against datum A, and then that a pin be put through the lower hole (datum B). This locates the part so that measurements of tolerance may be made in a repeatable fashion. The position tolerance permits datum B to be MMC, which means that a pin of fixed diameter may be used at the small hole. The pin diameter at B would be 12.0 - 0.1 - 0.0 = 11.9. If hole B is larger than this, say 12.0, then the extra 0.1 becomes a bonus which is added to the position tolerance of the top hole. In other words, the datum B is permitted to shift.

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The larger hole has a position tolerance that is given as MMC, so this permits a bonus as well. Again a fixed diameter pin is therefore allowed. The pin diameter would be 40.0 - 0.3 - 0.2 = 39.5. The datum shift is not added in here. But the two pins would be mounted on a plate that kept them rigidly fixed at 60.0 apart, and the datum shift means that any bonus obtained on datum B would allow this gauge to move up or down, and this would ease the position tolerance of the upper hole.

Regardless of feature size

All the above only applies if the tolerance is given as MMC on the drawing. If it is not, then the hole is RFS. The ANSI system requires that either MMC or RFS or LMC MUST be specified with a positional tolerance, but ISO assumes that RFS applies unless specifically stated otherwise. Some geometric tolerances cannot have any modifier at all. When a geometric tolerance or a datum is given as RFS, then it requires a movable jaw type gauge that can accommodate the actual size of the feature (hence the term regardless of feature size). However the movableness of the jaws takes up any free play, and therefore there is no bonus tolerance available. Not only is the gauge more expensive, but the part has smaller tolerances and is therefore usually more expensive. The MMC and LMC modifiers may only be applied to size dimensions (also called features-of-size). They may not be applied to surfaces. Therefore datums may only be referenced MMC when the datum is a centreline.

Least material condition

It is not common to use LMC on tolerances. One application is to control minimum wall thickness on castings. The LMC condition gives a bonus tolerance of the amount by which the size of the feature departs from LMC. This is just the opposite of MMC. LMC generally requires movable gauges.

4.10

Conclusions

Geometric tolerances achieve something important: they ensure that parts assemble together well. Consequently there are less defects at production, and the assembly process itself is easier. That makes for a less expensive product, and also one that is better quality. Also, maintenance is easier to perform, partly because parts are interchangeable, but also because things fit together easier. All of this is achieved by the special codes we call geometric tolerances. They capture the intent of the Design Engineers for product functionality, and represent it in a way that can be put into action by the Production Engineers. Specifically, the Production Engineers use the information to determine which part-features need careful attention, and how much. The tolerances quantify quality. They also describe how the part will be measured, and what will constitute a pass (defect).

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Though the symbols and the concepts of geometric tolerances are complex, they are well-worth understanding by Design-, Production-, and Metrology-Engineers. The symbols may look like squiggles to the ignorant, but they are more important than the geometry itself: given the finished assembly a competitor can always measure the geometry by inspection, but information on how to make the parts efficiently is locked away in the geometric tolerances which can only be seen on the drawing.

Recommended reading: KRUILIKOWSKI A, 1991, Delmar, New York ISBN 0827346948

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