Project Title:

Photovoltaic panels to supply electricity for domestic consumers and storage battery system of 3kW.

Table of Contents:
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ CHAPTER I PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS (PV) GENERALITIES............................................. 1.1. Introduction.................................................................................................... 1.2. The PV cell..................................................................................................... 1.3. Equivalent circuit for a simple solar cell ....................................................... 1.4. Equivalent circuit for a more accurate model................................................. 1.5. Crystalline silicon solar cells.......................................................................... 1.6. Thin film solar cells........................................................................................ 1.7. Developing technologies................................................................................. 1.8. Module and Array........................................................................................... 1.9. Sun Tracking................................................................................................... 1.10. Maximum Power Point Tracker.................................................................... 1.11. MPPT Controller........................................................................................... 1.12. Stand-alone photovoltaic system.................................................................. 1.13. Grid connected photovoltaic system.............................................................

CHAPTER I - PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS (PV) GENERALITIES 1.1. Introduction The photovoltaic effect is the electrical potential developed between two dissimilar materials when their common junction is illuminated with radiation of photons. The photovoltaic cell, converts light directly into electricity. The PV effect was discovered in 1839 by French physicist Becquerel. The first silicon solar cell was produced by Bell Laboratories in 1954. Since then it has been an important source of power for satellites. Having developed maturity in the space applications, the PV technology is now spreading into the terrestrial applications. There are different sizes of PV module commercially available (typically sized from 60W to 170W). 1.2. The PV cell The physics of the PV cell is very similar to the classical p-n junction diode. When light is absorbed by the junction, the energy of the absorbed photons is transferred to the electron system of the material, resulting in the creation of charge carriers that are separated at the junction. The charge carriers in the junction region create a potential gradient, get accelerated under the electric field and circulate as the current through an external circuit. The current squared times the resistance of the circuit is the power converted into electricity. The remaining power of the photon elevates the temperature of the cell.

Fig. 1.1.Cell working principle

Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiples as arrays.

Fig. 1.2. Basic construction of PV cell Basic construction of PV cell with performance enhancing features (current collecting mesh, anti-reflective coating and cover glass protection). Three key elements in a solar cell form the basis of their manufacturing technology: The first is the semiconductor, which absorbs light and converts it into electron-hole pairs. The second is the semiconductor junction, which separates the photo-generated carriers (electrons and holes), The third is the contacts on the front and back of the cell that allow the current to flow to the external circuit.

The two main categories of technology are defined by the choice of the semiconductor: either crystalline silicon in a wafer form or thin films of other materials.

1.3. Equivalent circuit for a simple solar cell A simple solar cell is usually represented by an electrical equivalent one-diode model which is composed by: Current source A series resistance and a parallel one with the source A diode

Fig 1.3. Equivalent circuit (PV) The most important characteristics of this model are the I-V and P-V characteristics:

Fig 1.4. I-V and P-V Characteristics

1.4. Equivalent circuit for a more accurate model There are a few things that have not been taken into account in the simple model and that will affect the performance of a PV cell in practice. Series Resistance

In a practical PV cell, there is a series of resistance in a current path through the semiconductor material, the metal grid, contacts, and current collecting bus. These resistive losses are lumped together as a series resister (Rs). Its effect becomes very conspicuous in a PV module that consists of many series-connected cells, and the value of resistance is multiplied by the number of cells. Parallel Resistance

It is a loss associated with a small leakage of current through a resistive path in parallel with the intrinsic device. This can be 16 represented by a parallel resister ( Rp). Its effect is much less conspicuous in a PV module compared to the series resistance, and it will only become noticeable when a number of PV modules are connected in parallel for a larger system. Recombination

Recombination in the depletion region of PV cells provides non-ohmic current paths in parallel with the intrinsic PV cell. As shown in Figure 2.4, this can be represented by the second diode (D2) in the equivalent circuit.

Fig 1.5. More accurate equivalent model (PV)

Summarizing these effects, the current-voltage relationship of PV cell is written as:

(1.1)

It is possible to combine the first diode (D1) and the second diode (D2) and rewrite the equation in the following form.

(1.2)

Where: - Isc is the short-circuit current; - Io is the reverse saturation current; - q is the electron charge (1.60210-19 C); - k is the Boltzmanns constant (1.38110-23 J/K); - n is known as the ideality factor (n is sometimes denoted as A) and takes the value between one and two; - T is the junction temperature in Kelvin (K).

1.5. Crystalline silicon solar cells The usage of this kind of solar cells are 78 - 80% in the world. Historically, crystalline silicon (c-Si) has been used as the light-absorbing semiconductor in most solar cells, even though it is a relatively poor absorber of light and requires a considerable thickness (several hundred microns) of material. Nevertheless, it has proved convenient because it yields stable solar cells with good efficiencies (11-16%, half to two-thirds of the theoretical maximum) and uses process technology developed from the huge knowledge base of the microelectronics industry.

Two types of crystalline silicon are used in the industry: monocrystalline, produced by slicing wafers (up to 150mm diameter and 350 microns thick) from a high-purity single crystal bole. multicrystalline silicon, made by sawing a cast block of silicon first into bars and then wafers. The main trend in crystalline silicon cell manufacture is toward multicrystalline technology. For both mono- and multicrystalline Si, a semiconductor homojunction is formed by diffusing phosphorus (an n-type dopant) into the top surface of the boron doped (p-type) Si wafer. Screen-printed contacts are applied to the front and rear of the cell, with the front contact pattern specially designed to allow maximum light exposure of the Si material with minimum electrical (resistive) losses in the cell. The most efficient production cells use monocrystalline cSi with laser grooved, buried grid contacts for maximum light absorption and current collection. Each c-Si cell generates about 0.5V, so 36 cells are usually soldered together in series to produce a module with an output to charge a 12V battery. The cells are hermetically sealed under high transmission glass to produce highly reliable, weather resistant modules that may be warranted for up to 25 years.

1.6. Thin film solar cells

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The usage of this kind of solar cells are :18 - 20% in the world. The high cost of crystalline silicon wafers (they make up 40-50% of the cost of a finished

module) has led the industry to look at cheaper materials to make solar cells. The selected materials are all strong light absorbers and only need to be about 1micron thick, so materials costs are significantly reduced. The most common materials are amorphous silicon (a-Si, still silicon, but in a different form), or the polycrystalline materials: cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium (gallium) diselenide (CIS or CIGS). The semiconductor junctions are formed in different ways, either as a p-i-n device in amorphous silicon, or as a hetero-junction (e.g. with a thin cadmium sulphide layer) for CdTe and CIS. A

transparent conducting oxide layer (such as tin oxide) forms the front electrical contact of the cell, and a metal layer forms the rear contact. Thin film technologies are all complex. They have taken at least twenty years, supported in some cases by major corporations, to get from the stage of promising research (about 8% efficiency at 1cm2 scale) to the first manufacturing plants producing early product. Amorphous silicon is the most well developed of the thin film technologies. In its simplest form, the cell structure has a single sequence of p-i-n layers. Such cells suffer from significant degradation in their power output (in the range 15-35%) when exposed to the sun. Better stability requires the use of a thinner layer in order to increase the electric field strength across the material. However, this reduces light absorption and hence cell efficiency. This has led the industry to develop tandem and even triple layer devices that contain p-i-n cells stacked one on top of the other. In the cell at the base of the structure, the a-Si is sometimes alloyed with germanium to reduce its band gap and further improve light absorption. As before, thin film cells are laminated to produce a weather resistant and environmentally robust module. Although they are less efficient (production modules range from 5 to 8%), thin films are potentially cheaper than c-Si because of their lower materials costs and larger substrate size. However, conventional c-Si manufacturing technology has continued its steady improvement year by year and its production costs are still falling too.
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The emerging thin film technologies are starting to make significant in-roads in to grid connect markets, particularly in Germany, but crystalline technologies still dominate the market.eveloping Technologies: Electrochemical PV cells

1.7. Developing Technologies Electrochemical PV Unlike the crystalline and thin film solar cells that have solid-state light absorbing layers, electrochemical solar cells have their active component in a liquid phase. They use a dye sensitizer to absorb the light and create electron-hole pairs in a nanocrystalline titanium dioxide semiconductor layer. This is sandwiched between a thin oxide coated glass sheet and a rear carbon contact layer, with a glass or foil backing sheet. Some consider that these cells will offer lower manufacturing costs in the future because of their simplicity and use of cheap materials. The challenges of scaling up manufacturing and demonstrating reliable field operation of products lie ahead. However, prototypes of small devices powered by dye-sensitized nanocrystalline electrochemical PV cells are now appearing (120cm 2 cells with an efficiency of 7%). Concentrators Solar cells usually operate more efficiently under concentrated light. This has led to the development of a range of approaches using mirrors or lenses to focus light on to specially designed cells and use heat sinks, or active cooling of the cells, to dissipate the large amount of heat that is generated. Unlike conventional flat plate PV arrays, concentrator systems require direct sunlight and will not operate under cloudy conditions. They generally follow the sun's path through the sky during the day using single-axis tracking. To adjust to the sun's varying height in the sky through the seasons, two-axis tracking is sometimes used. Concentrators have not yet achieved widespread application in photovoltaics, but solar concentration has been widely used
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in solar thermal electricity generation technology where the generated heat is used to power a turbine. 1.8. Module and Array The solar cell described above is the basic building block of the PV power system. Typically, it is a few square inches in size and produces about one watt of power. For obtaining high power, numerous such cells are connected in series and parallel circuits on a panel (module) area of several square feet. The solar array or panel is defined as a group of several modules electrically connected in series-parallel combinations to generate the required current and voltage.

Fig. 1.6 Cell configuration When the PV cells are wired together in series, the current output is the same as the single cell, but the voltage output is the sum of each cell voltage.

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Fig. 1.7. Series configuration

After the array is created the PV needs to be mounted so it can start production of energy.

Here are some mounting ways:

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Fig.1.8. Mounting ways for PV panels

1.9. Sun Tracking The sun tracking is necessary if you want the PV to produce more energy by the end of the day. The PV is installed on a sun tracker, with an actuator that follows the sun like a sunflower.
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There are two types of sun trackers: one-axis tracker, which follows the sun from east to west during the day. two-axis tracker tracks the sun from east to west during the day, and from north to south during the seasons of the year. Fig. 1.9. Sun tracking principle A sun tracking design can increase the energy yield up to 40 percent over the year compared to the fixed-array design. The dual-axis tracking is done by two linear actuator motors, which aim the sun within one degree of accuracy. During the day, it tracks the sun east to west. At night it turns east to position itself for the next morning sun. Old trackers did this after the sunset using a small nickel-cadmium battery. The new designs eliminate the battery requirement by doing it in the weak light of the dusk and/or dawn.

Fig.1.10. Dual-axis sun tracker using tracking actuator principle.

Sun tracking actuator principle: The two differentially connected sensors at 45 generate signal proportional to the pointing error. When the sun is obscured by a dark cloud, the tracker may aim at the next brightest object, which is generally the edge of the cloud. When the cloud is gone, the tracker aims at the sun once again. Such sun-hunting is eliminated in newer suntracker design.

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Small pole-mounted panels can use one pole-mounted suntracker. Large array, on the other hand, is divided into small modules, each mounted on its own single-axis or dual-axis tracker. This simplifies the structure and eliminates the problems related with large motion. 1.10. Maximum Power Point Tracker The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is now prevalent in grid-tied PV power systems and is becoming more popular in stand-alone systems. It should not be confused with sun trackers, mechanical devices that rotate and/or tilt PV modules in the direction if sun. MPPT is a power electronic device interconnecting a PV power source and a load, maximizes the power output from a PV module or array with varying operating conditions, and therefore maximizes the system efficiency. MPPT is made up with a switch-mode DCDC converter and a controller. For grid-tied systems, a switch-mode inverter sometimes fills the role of MPPT. Otherwise, it is combined with a DC-DC converter that performs the MPPT function. 1.11. MPPT Controller Analog controllers have traditionally performed control of MPPT. However, the use of digital controllers is rapidly increasing because they offer several advantages over analog controllers. First, digital controllers are programmable thus capable of implementing advanced algorithm with relative ease. It is far easier to code the equation, x = y z, than to design an analog circuit to do the same. For the same reason, modification of the design is much easier with digital controllers. They are immune to time and temperature drifts because they work in discrete, outside the linear operation. As a result, they offer long-term stability. They allow reduction of parts count since they can handle various tasks in a single chip. Many of them are also equipped with multiple A/D converters and PWM generators, thus they can control multiple devices with a single controller.

1.12. Stand-alone photovoltaic system

AC loads
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Pv generator (arrays,modu les,cells)

Power Conditioning (Regulator, Converter, Blocking Diodes,)

DC loads

Battery

Fig.1.11. Standalone model

Many photovoltaic systems operate in a stand-alone mode. Per definition, a stand-alone system involves no interaction with a utility grid. Such systems consist of: PV generator; energy storage (for example a battery); AC and DC consumers ; elements for power conditioning.

A PV generator can contain several arrays. Each array is composed of several modules, while each module is composed of several solar cells.

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The battery bank stores energy when the power supplied by the PV modules exceeds load demand and releases it back when the PV supply is insufficient. The load for a stand-alone PV system can be of many types, both DC (television, lighting) and AC (electric motors, heaters, etc.). The power conditioning system provides an interface between all the elements of the PV system, giving protection and control. The most frequently encountered elements of the power conditioning system are blocking diodes, charge regulators and DC-AC converters. 1.13. Grid connected photovoltaic system The system design has the following components:

Fig. 1.12. Grid connected model PV array or Generator. A number of PV panels connected in series and/or in parallel giving a DC output out of the incident irradiance. Orientation and tilt of these panels are important design parameters, as well as shading from surrounding obstructions. Inverter. A power converter that transforms the DC power from the panels into AC power. The characteristics of the output signal should match the voltage, frequency and power quality limits in the supply network.

Load. Stands for the network connected appliances in the building that are fed from the inverter, or, alternatively, from the grid.
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Meters. They account for the energy being drawn from or fed into the local supply network. Local supply network. A single or three-phase network managed by a public electricity supplier. The supply network acts both as a sink for energy surplus in the building or as a backup for low local generation periods.

REFERENCES

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Universitii Transilvania din Braov, 2008; [2] C. Marinescu, M. Georgescu, L. Cloea, C.P. Ion, I. erban, L. Barote, D.M. Vlcan,

Surse regenerabile de energie. Abordri actuale, Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov, 2009; [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] C. Marinescu, Energy Sources, lecture notes; C.P. Ion, Electronic Circuit Simulation, lecture notes; M. Georgescu, Power Plants, lecture notes; L. Iulian, Electrical Equipment, lecture notes; D. Ilea, Static Converters, lecture notes; J. H. R. Enslin, Integrated photovoltaic maximum power point tracking converter,

IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics,vol 49, 1997; [9] A. Brambilla, New approach to photovoltaic arrays maximum power point tracking,

IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1999; [10] Masters, Gilbert M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems , ISBN 0-471-28060-7, 2004; [11]
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M. Faizal, Grid-connected photovoltaic system, University of Queensland, 2003;

V. Quaschning

and R. Hanitsch, Influence of shading on electrical parameters of solar

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http://www.mpoweruk.com/life.htm;
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[14]

Battery Life (and Death) http://www.mpoweruk.com/life.htm;

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