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Industrial water management

Impact of industry in water resources

Richard Hill & Maarten A. Siebel

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CONTENT
5. INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT 1

5.1 IMPACT OF INDUSTRY IN WATER RESOURCES .................................. 1

5.1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
5.1.2 ABSTRACTION FOR INDUSTRIAL USE................................................. 1
5.1.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSUMPTION .................................................. 4
5.1.4 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER ............................................................... 6
5.1.5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS ............................................................. 7

5.2 INDUSTRIAL WATER QUALITY................................................................ 9

5.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 9
5.2.2 DEFINITION OF WATER QUALITY ........................................................ 9
5.2.2.1 Statutory Requirements ................................................. 9
5.2.2.2 Non-statutory Requirements.......................................... 9
5.2.2.3 Generalised Water Quality ............................................ 9
5.2.3 UTILITIES WATER ........................................................................... 12
5.2.3.1 Water Use.................................................................... 12
5.2.3.2 Problems ..................................................................... 12
5.2.3.3 Water Quality Standards ............................................. 13
5.2.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS WATER ................................................ 14
5.2.5 WATER FOR FOOD AND DRINK ........................................................ 16
5.2.6 PHARMACEUTICALS AND HEALTHCARE ............................................ 18
5.2.7 SUMMARY ..................................................................................... 20

5.3. INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER ................................................................. 21

5.3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 21
5.3.2 ORIGINS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATERS ......................................... 21
5.3.2.1 Manufacturing wastewaters ......................................... 22
5.3.3 WASTEWATERS FROM UTILITIES ..................................................... 22
5.3.4 DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES ......................................................... 24

5.4. THE WATER AUDIT ................................................................................ 28

5.4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 28
5.4.2 MASS BALANCE PRINCIPLES ........................................................... 28
5.4.3 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS ..................................................... 28
5.4.4 EVAPORATION AND BLOWDOWN ..................................................... 29
5.4.5 RESULTS OF THE AUDIT ................................................................. 31

5.5. WASTE MINIMISATION........................................................................... 33

5.5.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 33
5.5.2 REDUCING WATER USE .................................................................. 33
5.5.3 REDUCING CONTAMINATION OF WATER ........................................... 33
5.5.4 WATER REUSE............................................................................... 34
5.5.5 RECYCLING WATER ........................................................................ 35

5.6. TREATMENT OPTIONS .......................................................................... 38

5.6.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 38
5.6.2 TREATMENT PROCESSES ............................................................... 38
5.6.2.1 Treatment Technologies.............................................. 38
5.6.2.2 Physical Processes ..................................................... 39
5.6.2.3 Chemical Processes.................................................... 39
5.6.2.4 Biological Processes ................................................... 40

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 5.6.2.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes................................... 40
5.6.2.6 Zero Liquid Discharge ................................................. 41
5.6.3 END OF PIPE TREATMENT ............................................................... 42
5.6.4 AT SOURCE TREATMENT ................................................................ 43

5.7. APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY.............................................................. 44

5.7.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 44
5.7.2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS .................................................. 44
5.7.3 QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................ 45
5.7.4 LOCAL RESOURCES ....................................................................... 45
5.7.5 SOCIO POLITICAL ASPECTS ............................................................ 46

5.8. IMPLEMENTATION OF WATER MANAGEMENT ................................... 48

5.8.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 48
5.8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ............................................................... 48
5.8.3 EDUCATION ................................................................................... 49
5.8.4 ECONOMICS .................................................................................. 49
5.8.5 READING LIST ................................................................................ 50
5.8.5.1 General........................................................................ 50
5.8.5.2 Specific Industries ....................................................... 51

5.9 WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY .......................... 52

5.9.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 52
5.9.2 TEXTILE PROCESSES ..................................................................... 53
5.9.2.1 Sizing........................................................................... 53
5.9.2.2 Desizing....................................................................... 53
5.9.2.3 Scouring ...................................................................... 54
5.9.2.4 Bleaching..................................................................... 54
5.9.2.5 Mercerising .................................................................. 54
5.9.2.6 Carbonising ................................................................. 55
5.9.2.7 Fulling .......................................................................... 55
5.9.2.8 Dyeing ......................................................................... 55
5.9.2.9 Chemical Finishing ...................................................... 56
5.9.3 WASTE MINIMIZATION..................................................................... 61
5.9.3.1 Housekeeping.............................................................. 61
5.9.3.2 Water Re-Use.............................................................. 61
5.9.4 WATER RECYCLING........................................................................ 62
5.9.4.1 Recycling ..................................................................... 62
5.9.4.2 Sorption Processes ..................................................... 63
5.9.4.3 Chemical Treatment .................................................... 63
5.9.4.4 Advanced Oxidation .................................................... 64
5.9.4.5 Membrane Separation ................................................. 66
5.9.4.6 End of pipe treatment .................................................. 68
5.9.5 REFERENCES ................................................................................ 70

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5. INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT

5.1 IMPACT OF INDUSTRY IN WATER RESOURCES

5.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Water management is a philosophy whose principal aims are to:

• Reduce water consumption

• Re-use water where possible

• Recycle water where practicable

• Reduce waste of all types

• Recover raw materials

• Recover energy

The benefits are clearly measured in terms of cost reduction. Water is an expensive
resource. Within Asian region the average cost of water supply and disposal to sewer
are around 0.5 US$/m3. (WHO/UNICEF, 2000) The reduction of water consumption
therefore has a very real effect on factory operating costs. The cost of tertiary treatment
of raw water by deionisation for special process use will probably add a further cost.
Moreover, the cost of effluent treatment by chemical or biological processing will add
further to the costs, 1.5-2 US$/m3 (WHO/UNEP, 1997) All these aspects means that
management of water offers cost benefits.

When an industrial facility is set up it competes for the same water resources that are
used for public health and agriculture. This Unit will examine the impact of industry on
water resources in particular:

• Abstraction for industrial use

• Industrial water consumption

• Industrial wastewater

• Socio-economic aspects

5.1.2 ABSTRACTION FOR INDUSTRIAL USE

Industry of every type uses water for:

• As a heat transfer medium either as hot water or steam

• For cooling and heat rejection

• In manufacturing processes particularly in the chemicals and pharmaceutical

industries

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 • For product washing

• As a part of the product

A 1998 study by the Johns Hopkins University’s School of Public Health noted that nearly
half a billion people do not have enough fresh drinking water, and that this number is
expected to increase to 2.8 billion by 2025.

Figure 5.1: Worldwide fresh water availability in 1998

The map in Figure 5.1 gives an indication of fresh water resource availability in the world
in 1998 and Figure 5.2 shows the projected situation in 2020 taking into account
projected population growth.

Figure 5.2: Projected worldwide fresh water availability in 2020

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It is interesting, although not surprising, to note that the areas which are the poorest in
water resources are those where industrial activity is either fully developed or is
developing. This must focus our attention on the need for industry to use water sparingly.

Global annual water use by industry is expected to rise from an estimated 725 km3 in
1995 to about 1,170 km3 by 2025, by which time industrial water usage will represent 24
percent of all water abstractions. Much of this increase will be in developing countries
now experiencing rapid industrial development. Figure 5.3 shows industrial water usage
per region, compared with other main uses.

Figure 5.3: Competing water uses for main income groups of countries. (World Bank 2001)

Over the last decade mains water supplies in the UK have risen considerably in price,
largely due to the requirement to meet current drinking water quality standards.
Consequently many factories are changing to alternative sources of water, abstracting
directly from boreholes and rivers because, even after treatment to industrial water quality
standards, the cost is lower than that of mains water which, frequently, needs some
treatment for industrial use. Table 5.1 shows the pattern of water abstraction in England
and Wales for 1997/8. Taking into account the fact that much of the water which is
designated as “public water supply” is, in fact, used by industry, we can see that industry
actually consumes considerably more than half of the total water abstraction.

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 Table 5.1: Water abstraction England & Wales 1997/8

USE SURFACE GROUND TOTAL

Ml/d Ml/d Ml/d

Public water supply 12,038 5,416 17,454

Private water supply 85 87 172
Industry 2,451 793 3,244
Mineral washing 40 209 249
Spray irrigation 203 167 370
Agriculture 38 97 135
Fish farming 4,005 333 4,338
Electricity supply 9,422 14 9,436
Other 414 113 527
TOTAL 28,696 7,229 35,925

5.1.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSUMPTION

There is hardly any industry that does not use large volumes of water. Some typical
“benchmark” water consumptions for industrial processes are given in Table 5.2.

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 Table 5.2: Industrial water consumption

Product Unit Consumption

3
coal m /te product 0.25
3
bread m /te product 1.3
meat products m3/te product 16
milk bottling m3/m3 product 3
brewing m3/te product 5
soft drinks m3/te product 7
chemicals m3/te product 5
steel rolling m3/te product 1.9
3
iron casting m /te product 4
3
aluminium casting m /te product 8.5
3
electroplating m /te product 15.3
tanning m3/te hide processed 60
soap m3/te product 2
sugar refining m3/te product 4
textile dyeing m3/te fabric processed 40-300
concrete m3/te product 0.2
paper m3/te product 54
3
power generation m /MWh steam 3
cooling 60
3
automobile manufacture m /vehicle 5
dairy farming litre/head/day 150
pig farming litre/head/day 15
poultry farming litre/head/day 0.3
schools litre/head/day 75
hospitals litre/head/day 175
hotels litre/head/day 750
shops litre/head/day 135
offices litre/head/day 60
The values given above are very approximate and will vary with the process used, but
they do serve to indicate just how much water industry uses. They also show that many
industries which are growing in developing countries – particularly those associated with
food processing, tanning and textiles – are those which use most water. These industries
place most stress on what is likely to be a barely adequate water supply infrastructure.

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Although some industries abstract water from rivers and boreholes, much of the water
used by industry is taken from public water supplies, so it is water which has been treated
to potable quality standards. As we shall see, this means that it is usually of rather better
microbiological quality than industry requires but the mineral content, in particular the
hardness and total dissolved solids (TDS) often means that further treatment is
necessary.

5.1.4 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER

In certain industries some of the water used in manufacturing is exported as product –
brewing, soft drinks and liquid pharmaceuticals are obvious examples, but textile, paper,
and sugar also contain significant levels of residual water. In some instances water is lost
as steam from heating systems and from cooling towers. But in most cases the greater
proportion of the water used by industry is discharged as effluent either to sewer or to the
environment.

Industrial wastewaters, unlike domestic wastewater, are highly variable in quality

depending on the nature of the manufacturing processes in use. Many have high COD
concentrations and many of these - like textile industry, food industry and papermaking
wastes - are of animal or vegetable origin. These have a high BOD:COD ratio indicating
that they are readily biodegradable and can often be treated by the same processes as
are used for domestic sewage in sewage treatment works. However, when such an
industry is set up, the existing sewerage and sewage treatment infrastructure is unlikely
to be capable of meeting the large increase in BOD load and the sewage treatment works
may be overloaded.

On the other hand there are many industrial wastes that contain “hard COD” by which we
mean organic chemicals which are not biodegradable. Typically the BOD:COD ratio will
be greater than 3. The pharmaceutical industries, plastics industries and within specifics
process in the textile industries produce wastewaters of this type. Many of these
wastewaters are toxic to activated sludge bacteria, making them unsuitable for treatment
in domestic sewage treatment works, and are likely to be damaging to the environment.
Volatile solvents may also pose explosion risks in sewers and pumping stations.

Many industrial wastewaters are of high salinity as a result of evaporation. A synthetic

fuels factory in South Africa was abstracting about 200Ml/d of river water with TDS
120mg/l. Most of the water is used to raise steam which is passed over coal to generate
producer gas which then becomes part of the product. Much of the remaining water is
used for condenser cooling and this is then passed into cooling towers with high
evaporation. The total wastewater which was returned to the river was about 20Ml/d but,
because this contained the TDS left behind by the various evaporation processes, it had
a TDS almost tent times that of the original river water. Not unreasonably, the
Environmental Protection Agency was unhappy about this.

It is usually central or local government that is responsible for the protection of the
environment and the introduction of legislation to prevent contamination of surface water
by industrial discharges has significantly reduced contamination incidents. However, in
1999 the UK Environment Agency published a list of the top ten polluters of 1998
assessed by fines imposed. This is shown in Table 5.3.

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 Table 5.3: Top 10 U.K. polluters 1998

COMPANY TOTAL FINES US$

ICI Chemicals 734,400
Tyseley Waste Disposal 183,400
London Waste 74,000
Wessex Water 70,000
Alco Waste Management 57,600
Anglian Water Services 46,500
EOM Construction 40,300
Shell (UK) 38,400
BNFL 38,400
Celtic Energy 34,500
European Vinyls 34,500

Three of these, Tysely Waste Disposal, London Waste and Alco Waste Management, are
merchant waste disposal companies who are paid by industry to dispose of hazardous
wastes. Wessex Water and Anglian Water Services are water supply and sewerage
operators and their prosecutions were for exceeding discharge standards from sewage
treatment works. The others are manufacturing companies, some with an international
profile.

The average fine for each prosecution was about 5400US$. Ed Gallagher the Chief
Executive of the UK Environment Agency said: “Clearly this is not sending out a strong
enough message to deter large businesses that have the potential to seriously damage
the environment.” Clearly paying 5400US$ fines is, for a large multinational like Shell,
cheaper than the capital and operating costs of an effluent treatment plant.

5.1.5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Industrial development is seen as essential for developing countries. Much of the food on
sale in European supermarkets is produced in Asia and Africa and this has been a major
source of foreign exchange for countries like Zimbabwe, Tazania and Ghana. Increasing
costs and pollution legislation in Europe and the USA means that many international
companies are moving production of high tech products to developing countries where
labour costs are lower and legislation is less likely to be applied. But whether industrial
growth is generated internally or by external investment, it brings problems as well as
benefits.

As we have seen, industry may abstract water from the environment, depleting natural
resources which are already stressed. It may add to the demand from the public water
supply system which is likely to be inadequate. Discharging industrial wastewater to
sewer will add to the load on sewage treatment works whilst discharges to surface waters
may contaminate not only the surface water but also groundwater resources.

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A new industrial complex attracts workers and this can cause a large increase in local
population which poses water infrastructure problems. The camps around many chemical
works in India and Pakistan are typical examples of this type of problem.

So industry brings questions about priorities. If a tannery that is the only source of
employment in a village is causing pollution of the river, should it be closed to protect the
environment or should the pollution problem be ignored to preserve employment?

Another way of looking at this problem is asking the question “Who should pay for
pollution remediation?” The Environmentalist would say that the polluter (industry) should
pay for remediation, but imposing heavy fines on the tannery will probably mean that it
will go out of business. The Sociologist would probably suggest that the government (the
taxpayer) should pay in order to preserve jobs, but this implies that it is acceptable for
industry to continue polluting.

If this small scale example is difficult, then consider the situation of a larger employer. In
Table 5.3 the worst polluter was ICI Chemicals, a company employing several thousand
people. The Environment Agency’s ultimate sanction of closing the factory would have
such social and, more important, political results that government would not allow it to
happen. So the Environment Agency’s powers are limited.

Where industry is supplied with water from public mains, reductions in water consumption
means a reduction in the revenue of the water supply company. Similarly industrial
discharges are a source of revenue to municipal sewer operators and the loss of the
industrial biological and hydraulic load from a sewage treatment works designed to
accept it can cause operational problems.

How, then, should we address the problem of pollution prevention? Legislation has
proved to be ineffective because of the problems of implementation. In the long term,
education will ensure that the people running industries will understand the need for
environmental protection, but this will take a generation. There is, however, one driving
force which will persuade industry to invest in water conservation and effluent treatment
in the short term, and that is overall profitability. If an investment has a short payback
period industry will generally spend the necessary money so, when we consider industrial
water use, the most important characteristic of the water and wastewater streams is cost.

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