Introduction Volcano is a place where ash, gases, and molten rock from deep underground erupt onto the

surface. The word volcano also refers to the mountain of erupted rock and ash that often accumulates at such a place. Volcano Volcanic eruptions result from magma (molten rock below the ground). Magma usually forms 30 to 120 miles (50 to 200 kilometers) beneath Earths surface. It rises because it is less dense than the surrounding rock. Rising magma can collect below or inside a volcano in a region called a magma chamber. As the magma accumulates, the pressure inside the chamber increases. When the pressure becomes too great, the chamber breaks open, and magma rises in the volcano. If magma reaches the surface, an eruption occurs. The hole through which the magma erupts is called a vent. If magma accumulates at a high enough rate, the volcano erupts almost continuously. With magma that accumulates more slowly, the eruption may halt for periods while new magma replaces that which has erupted. The violence of an eruption depends largely on the amount of gas dissolved in the magma and the magmas viscosity (resistance to flow). Magmas with little gas produce relatively calm eruptions in which lava flows quietly onto the surface. Magmas with much gas can shoot violent jets of gas and ash high into the air. Viscous (thick and sticky) magmas tend to erupt more violently than runnier, more fluid magmas. Water mixing with the erupting magma can make any eruption more explosive. Volcanoes can create many dangers. Hot ash, gas, lava, and mud can bury or burn people and buildings near an erupting volcano. The most violent eruptions launch large clouds of ash and gas high into the atmosphere, causing problems far from the volcano itself. Volcanoes also provide benefits. Erupted materials contain many nutrients and can break down to form fertile soils. Volcanic activity provides an important source of geothermal energy, energy from Earths interior heat. Geothermal energy can power electric generators and heat water and buildings. Undersea volcanoes have built up over time to form islands on

which millions of people live. Volcanoes also have inspired myths and legends in many cultures. The word volcano comes from Vulcan, the Roman god of fire. Scientists who study volcanoes are called volcanologists. Table This article discusses volcanic eruptions, the dangers of volcanoes, where volcanoes form, the types of volcanoes, and how scientists study volcanoes. Most of the article deals with volcanoes on Earth. For information on volcanoes elsewhere, see the section Volcanoes in the solar system at the end of this article. Volcanic eruptions Volcanic eruptions differ in their violence and in the materials they produce. Some eruptions involve calm outpourings of lava. Other eruptions produce powerful explosions and large volumes of rock, ash, and gas. Products of eruption. During an eruption, a variety of materials can come from a volcanic vent. These include lava, pyroclasts (rock fragments), and gases. Lava is magma that flows onto Earths surface. As lava spreads from a vent, parts of it begin to cool and harden. The resulting stream of lava and rock is called alava flow. Lava flows vary greatly in appearance depending on their viscosity, temperature, and rate of advance. Fluid lava flows spread easily from the vent. Two common types of fluid lava flows are pahoehoe PAH hoy hoy or pah HOY hoy and aa ah AH or ah ah. Pahoehoe flows have smooth, glassy surfaces and wavy, ropelike ridges. They form when hot, fluid lava advances relatively slowly. Aa flows have rough, broken surfaces. They form when less fluid lava advances rapidly. Pahoehoe and aa are Hawaiian terms adopted by most volcanologists. Highly viscous lavas cannot flow easily. They pile up around the vent to form thick mounds called lava domes or short, stubby flows with rugged surfaces. These domes and flows advance extremely slowly. Pyroclasts, also called pyroclastics, form when fragments of magma are thrown into the air by

expanding gas. More explosive eruptions tend to produce finer pyroclasts. Pyroclasts that settle to the ground can cement together to form a rock called tuff. Volcanologists often classify pyroclasts by their size. The finest pyroclasts, dust-sized and sand-sized grains, make up volcanic ash.Volcanologists call pebble-sized pyroclasts lapilli. Rock-sized and boulder-sized fragments are known as volcanic bombs. Volcanologists also classify pyroclasts by texture. Pumice, a lightweight pyroclast, contains many tiny cavities left behind by gas bubbles in the magma. The cavities trap air, enabling some pumice to float on water. Scoria (cinder), another pyroclast, also has many tiny cavities, but it does not float on water. Pumice and scoria come from vigorous eruptions that hurl magma fragments high into the air. They solidify before landing, often forming a loose pile around the vent called a scoria cone or pumice cone. Spatter, a fluid pyroclast, comes from less vigorous eruptions. Blobs of spatter do not fly high and they land while still molten. Spatter collects around vents in steep structures calledspatter cones and spatter ramparts. Gases from volcanic eruptions include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Deep underground, the gases are dissolved in the magma. As magma rises, the pressure it is under decreases. The gases come out of solution to form bubbles and may eventually escape. The violence of an eruption depends on the amount of gas dissolved in the magma and the magmas viscosity. Magmas rich in gas develop many bubbles as they rise to the vent. The bubbles increase the pressure in the vent, causing a more explosive eruption. Viscous magmas resist the expansion of bubbles, leading to a buildup of pressure in the magma. When the pressure of the bubbles finally overcomes the magmas viscosity, an explosive eruption occurs. In more fluid magmas, the bubbles expand without building up excess pressure. The resulting eruptions are relatively mild. When external water, such as groundwater or sea water, mixes

with magma, the water rapidly turns to steam, expanding in the process. This increases the violence of an eruption. Some volcanologists call eruptions involving external water hydromagmatic eruptions. As gases and pyroclasts erupt from a volcano, they draw in and heat some of the surrounding air. The heated air, gases, and pyroclasts form an eruption column. If an eruption draws in enough air and heats it sufficiently, the eruption column becomes lighter than the surrounding air. As a result, the column floats upward in a process calledconvective rise. Convective rise can carry erupted gas and ash high into the atmosphere. Some eruptions do not draw in enough air or heat it sufficiently to produce convective rise. In these eruptions, erupted materials remain closer to the ground. The dangers of volcanoes Volcanoes can endanger people, wildlife, and property. Volcanic disasters are much more difficult to avoid once an eruption begins. Instead, volcanologists and disaster planners strive to identify and evacuate dangerous areas before eruptions occur. Most damage results from (1) lava flows, (2) pyroclastic hazards, (3) lahars, (4) dangerous gases, (5) avalanches and landslides, and (6) tsunamis. Lava flows. Many people fear being buried by lava, but lava flows rank as the least dangerous volcanic hazard. Lava usually advances at less than 6 miles (10 kilometers) per hour, slow enough for people and animals to escape. Unusually fluid lavas can flow fast enough to be dangerous, but this rarely occurs. However, lava flows can burn and bury buildings, roads, and other structures. Because lava hardens into solid rock, repairing buried areas can prove slow and costly. Pyroclastic hazards. Flying bombs pose relatively little danger because they usually fall near the vent. Ash and lapilli, however, can travel on the wind for tens or even hundreds of miles or kilometers. Falling ash and lapilli can contaminate water supplies, damage crops, and collect in great masses on roofs, causing them to

collapse. Falling ash also blocks sunlight and reduces visibility, complicating evacuations. Ash can clog the engines of jet aircraft and parts of other machines, causing them to fail. Dispersed ash can remain in the stratosphere for years, where it can cool the atmosphere by blocking some sunlight. Volcanoes in the solar system In addition to Earth, planetary scientists have identified evidence of volcanic activity on the moon and on Mars, Venus, and Io, a large satellite of Jupiter. Much of the activity on these bodies resembles volcanic activity on Earth. Scientists have identified basalt, a rock commonly erupted on Earth, in samples retrieved from the moon and in space probe observations of Mars. Many volcanoes on Mars and Venus resemble giant versions of shield volcanoes found on Earth. The shield volcano Olympus Mons on Mars ranks as the largest volcano in the solar system. It measures more than 370 miles (600 kilometers) in diameter and rises about 16 miles (25 kilometers) above the surrounding plain. Io ranks as by far the most volcanically active body in the solar system. Space probes and telescopes have identified hundreds of volcanoes on Io, many of them active. Some eruptions on Io measure at least 350 Fahrenheit degrees (175 Celsius degrees) higher than the hottest eruptions on Earth. Other eruptions on Io involve sulfur rather than molten rock. Probes have recorded eruptions shooting sulfur as high as 310 miles (500 kilometers) above Ios surface. Conclusion Scientists studying Neptunes moon Triton have found evidence of a process called cryovolcanism. Cryovolcanism resembles volcanic activity but is driven by melted ice rather than magma. Volcanolike vents on Triton erupt liquid nitrogen far above the moons frigid surface. Scientists think cryovolcanism may occur on other cold bodies in the outer solar system. References http://worldbookonline.com/student/ article?id=ar587920&st=volcano

United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi Education Council

Volcano

Omar Khamis Salem Amer Al Essae

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Grade : 11 / 2