1.0 INTRODUCTION To mange is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to control.

Management is therefore defined as working with people to determine, interpret and achieve organizational objectives by performing the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. The process of management begun with Frederick Taylor the founder of scientific management. From the short comings of scientific management, the critics were able to come up with another view that took care of the deficits of the former. In that manner more and more theories were submitted from which contemporary management is a by product. The earliest contributors to our understanding of management theory include practising managers as well as social scientists.. the early theorists can be divided into two main groups i.e. Practising managers and social scientist. 2.0 SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT 3.0 Scientific Management (1890-1916) The notion that management can be viewed as an exact science based on mathematical calculations is known as scientific management. Scientific managements development was for the purpose of encouraging managers to take a more systematic approach. It based largely on the work of Fredrick W. Taylor and his associates during the 1800s (William's etal.1978) The benefits arising from scientific management can be summarized as follows:

Its rational approach to the organization of work enabled tasks and processes to be measured with a considerable degree of accuracy. Measurement Organisational Behaviour,of tasks and processes provided useful information on which to base improvements in working methods, plant; design etc. By improving working methods it brought enormous increase in productivity It enabled employees to paid by results and to take advantage of incentive payments It stimulated managements into adopting a more positive role in leadership at the shop floor level. It contributed to major improvements in physical working conditions for employees. It provided the foundations on which modern work study and other quantitative techniques could be soundly based.(Cole,2004)

3.2 Fredrick Winslow Taylor Fredrick was one of the early practical manager-theorists. He achieved through his writing the principles of scientific management published in 1911. Taylor, who devoted most of his career to research, believed that both management and the employees should drift away from the notion of having the larger share of the surplus revenue and join forces so to increase production. Taylor believed that there was a need for a great mental revolution in the workmen engaged in any particular establishment or industry; he referred this to as scientific management. After his death his major works were collected together and published as scientific management in 1947. Taylor recognized that measures he was proposing would appear to be more than just a new method-they would be revolutionary. He stated at the outset that scientific management would require a complete mental revolution on the part of both management and workers. In its application to management, the scientific approach required the following steps;

Develop a science for each operation to replace opinion and rule of thumb. Determine accurately from the science the correct time and method for each job. Set up a suitable organization to take all responsibility from the workers except that of actual job performance. Select and train the workers. Accept that management itself be governed by the science developed for each operation and surrender its arbitrary power over worker i.e. cooperate with them. (Donnelly H. James 1971)

3.3 Henry Gantt Gantt introduced a payment system where performance below what is called for on the individuals instruction card still qualified the person for the day-rate, but performance of all the work allocated on the card qualified the individual for a handsome bonus.Gantt discovered that as soon as any one worker found that he could achieve the task, the rest quickly followed. Better use was made of the foremen, because they were sought after by individuals who needed further instruction or help with faulty machines. As a result, supervision, improved, breakdowns were minimized and delays avoided by all concerned.

His bonus system also followed for the men to challenge the time allocated for a particular task. This was permitted because Gantt, unlike the Gilbreths, did not believe that there was a one best way which seems to be best at the moment. Gantts approach to scientific management left some discretion and initiative to the workers, unlike those of his colleague, Taylor, and of his theorists, the Gilbreths Gantt is best remembered today for his charts. The Gantt chart was originally set up to indicate graphically the extent to which tasks had been achieved. It was divided horizontally into hours, days or weeks with the task marked out in a straight line across the appropriate numbers of hours or days etc.the amount of the task achieved was shown by another straight line parallel to the original. It was easy from such a chart to assess actual from planned performance.(Cole, 2004;) 4.0 ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT (1910-1936) 4.1 Henri Fayol Fayol is regarded as the first to question the nature of management and put forward a theory designed to apply in all managerial contexts. Fayol attempted to present his theory in such a way that the business procedures he had studied and developed as managing director of a mining and metallurgical company in France could be applied to any organization, regardless of size or nature. He proposed that managerial activity should involve five major elements: forecasting and planning; organizing; commanding; coordinating; and controlling. (Cole, 2004;).believing that the process of management could be applied universally, Fayol developed 14 principles that he could be used by managers to solve problems in a number of situations; 1. Division of work. The principle of specialization of labour in order to concentrate activities for more efficiency. . The objective is to produce more work with the same effort. The worker is always on the same part, the manager who is concerned always with the same matters; acquire an ability, sureness and accuracy which increases in the output.

2. Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. . The objective is to produce more work with the same effort. The worker is always on the same part, the manager who is concerned always with the same matters; acquire an ability, sureness and accuracy which increases in the output. 3. Discipline. Disciplne is absolutely essential for the smooth running of businesss, and without discipline no enterprise could prosper. 4. Unity of command .an employee should receive orders from one superior only. Imperfect demarcation of departments could lead to dual command which could be a perpetual source of conflicts 5. Unity of direction. One head and one plan for a group of activities having the same objective. It is the condition essential to unity of action, co-ordination of strength and focusing of effort. 6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest organizational conflict should be limited by the dominance of one objective 7. Remuneration .although Fayol provides no guidance on pay, the organization must recognize the economic value of employees and that their economic interests are important. 8. Centralisation. Whether an organization should be centralized or decentralized depends upon such factors as communications and the importance of who should make the decision. 9. Scalar chain authority in an organization moves in a continuous chain of command from top to bottom. 10. Order. A place for everyone and everyone in his place.' For Fayol, this presupposed the resolution of 'the two most difficult managerial activities: good organization and good selection.' He saw the basic problem as the balancing of an organization's requirements with its resources. 4

11. Equity. Fairness and kindness with justice combine is important in management-employee relations. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Turnover is disruptive; shared experience is important. Employees need to be given time to settle into their jobs. 13. Initiative. Within the limits of authority and discipline, all levels of staff should be encouraged to show discipline and Workers are exhorted to be productive and motivated. 14. Esprit de corps. There is a need for harmony and unity within the organization. (Fayol, H; 1949). 5.0 HUMAN RELATIONS In the 1930s attention started to focus on human relations and how people were treated at work. This Id to new emphasis on the role of people in how organization functioned and their goals. (Chaousis, 2000) 5.1 Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933) Mary Parker Follett is today known for her pioneering work on management - although her contribution was soon forgotten after her death in 1933 (especially in the USA). She looked to approach organizations as group networks rather than as hierarchical structures, and attended to the influence of human relations within the group. In terms of current debates around management such a perspective is hardly revolutionary - but then its radicalism and 'soft' orientation stood well outside mainstream. Organizations, like communities, could be approached as local social systems involving networks of groups. In this way Mary Parker Follett was able to advocate the fostering of a 'self-governing principle' that would facilitate 'the growth of individuals and of the groups to which they belonged'. She advocated the theory in which management and workers together cooperated to define not only productivity but situations of social justice'. Exploring 'the science of the situation' involved both management and workers studying the situation at hand together. (Follett 1941: 181)

One of the key aspects of Mary Parker Follett's approach was the 'circular' theory of power she initially developed in Creative Experience (1924) In terms of organizations the view of power involved managers, workers, and other stakeholders influencing each other. She distinguishes between power-over and powerwith. (Pugh, 1971) 5.2 Elton Mayo (1880 - 1949) The role that Mayo had in the development of management is usually associated with his discovery of social man and the need for this in the work place. Mayo found that workers acted according to sentiments and emotion. He felt that if you treated the worker with respect and tried to meet their needs than they would be a better worker for you and both management and the employee would benefit. Mayo's work contributed to management theory through research conducted at Western Electric's Hawthorn Works which took place from 1927 - 1932. Mayo was also able to provide concrete evidence to support Folletts theory that the lack of attention to human relationships was a major flaw in other management theories. (Reefer, 1995, p 1). He was able to prove that employees did react better when they had good relationships with the management that they worked with. If management would treat the employees with respect and give them the attention at the work place that they needed, then the workers would be more willing to work harder for the employer. The was not totally what the Hawthorn study was looking at for they were focusing on working conditions such as lighting that the workers worked in and other factors that could easily be changed without management having to do much. The real solution was to have management get more involved with the workers. He said that the worker actually requires more than just the money. Such as good working environment and it is managements responsibility to ensure that this is provided. (Howard 1979; p 36)

6.0 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 6.1 John L. Childs (1889 1985) John child surveyed business corporations in England. He measured their bureaucratic characteristics and controlled for size. Childs finding indicates that bureaucracy in an organisation is associated with high performance. Childs believed that bureaucracy has advantages for employees by applying and using the rules and regulations that reduce uncertainty and protect them from management whims and arbitrary decision. (Draft, 1983; P141-142) In his last major book, American Pragmatism and Education , He said thinking how to manage organizations is intrinsically connected with action; theories and doctrines are working hypotheses, potheses and are to be tested by the consequences they produce in actual life-situations; moral ideas are empty and sterile apart from attention to the means that are required to achieve them; reality is not a static, completed system, but a process of unending change and transformation; man is not a mere puppet of external forces, but through the use of intelligence can reshape the conditions that mold his own experience. (Childs, 1950) 6.2 Rensis Likert Likert contributed to the growth of management by considering what he referred to as the four Styles of Management which have been outline below. 1. The Consultative system. This is where leadership is by superiors who have substantial but not complete trust in their subordinates, where motivation is by rewards and some involvement, where a high proportion of personnel, especially those at the higher levels feel responsibility for achieving organization goals, where there is some communication (both vertical and horizontal) and a moderate amount of teamwork.

2. The Participative. This is a group system where leadership is by superiors who have who have complete confidence in their subordinates and motivation is by economic rewards based on goals which have been set in participation and personnel at all levels feel real responsibility for the organizational goals. There is much communication and a substantial amount of cooperative teamwork. (Likert, 1976 P89). 3. Exploitive. These are where authoritative system. Likert discovered that these are systems where decisions are imposed on subordinates; motivation is characterized by threats, high levels of management have great responsibilities but lower levels have virtually none and where there is very little communication and no joint teamwork. 4. The Benevolent. This is an authoritative system where leadership is by a condescending form of master-servant trust, where motivation is mainly by rewards, where managerial personnel feel responsibility but lower levels do not, where there is little communication and relatively little teamwork. 6.3 Joan Woodward Woodward investigates specific features in varying levels of authority in the hierarchy, the number of employees reporting to which supervisor, how defined the duties of each individual are, means of communication and how often. She discovers that there are significant differences in these factors dependent upon the goals of the firm, its size, kind of technology that it employs and the market in which it is operating. She also unveils that change in technology result in a need for changes in the organization structure. Other discoveries that she made include the following: i. ii. The greater the complexity involved in production or more the advanced the process is, the greater the chains of command required for effective production. A technical level of production will call for a greater control span from the chief executives.

6.4 James March James March was among the early pioneers who felt it essential that theories on organization forms be made. These theories were to analyse the internal structuring of an organization, how this affects the processes of economic decision-making and the effects of these decisions on the structure itself. The decisions of keen interest are those concerning the prices, output, and budgets. March believed that an organization or institution will inevitably face problems and that it must be able to solve its problems. He conceived that it, like a human being, should be able to plan and obtain feedback. March was of the view that intra-conflict is normally unrealised which he believed should not the case. He also came to the conclusion that the decisions a firm should take as concerns shares, product pricing and other factors were normally predetermined by the organizations goals and aims.(Carlisle M. Howard 1979) 7.0 MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 7.1 George Bernard Dantzig George was a pioneer innovatoer of theoretical and applied mathematical methods that were the key to the development and efficacy of then new field of operations research was the pesident of the institute of management sciences. He is a founder member of the institute of management sciences.his work in consulting and education has involved more than 350 corporations and 75 government agencies in the united states and management grandee,he was ranked 26 in the most recent list of the worlds most influential thinkers.(Calvert R. E. 1995)

8.0 CONCLUSION Management Development is best described as the process from which managers learn and improve their skills not only to benefit themselves but also their employing organisations. Early ideas about management were propounded at a time when organisations were thought of as machines requiring efficient use of resources,especially human resources. Their emphasis was as much on employee satisfaction as on organisational effectiveness. The development of management was characterised by efforts to synthesise and integrate the needs of people with the completion of management tasks. The evolution of management science and the behavioural sciences has influenced the way that management behaviour is viewed.

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9.0 REFERENCES 1) Bedeian G. Arthur (1986). Management. CBS College Publishers. USA. 2) Calvert R. E. (1995), Introduction to Building Management, 6th Edition, British library cataloguing in publication data, England. 3) Carlisle M. Howard (1979). Management Essentials, Concepts and Applications. Science Research Associates Inc. USA. 4) Chaousis.L (2000) Organisational Behaviour, Pearson Education Australia. 5) Childs John (1950) Education and Morals; An Experimentalist phlolosophy of Education,Newyork 6) Cole Gerald (2004), Management Theory and Practice, 6th Edition TJ international,Padstow,Cornwall 7) Dixon Rob (1997). The Task Management. 2nd Edition, Butter worth. Great Britain. 8) Donnelly H. James (1971). Fundamentals of Management. Business Publications Inc. USA. 9) Gannon J. Martin (1988). Management. Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Toronto. Canada. 10) Fayol, H. (1949) General and industrial management, Constance Storrs company limited, United Kingdom. USA. 11) Pugu.D (1971) Organisational theory,cox and wyman,Ltd,London

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