Ecology- Is an enormously complex and exciting area of biology, reveals the richness of the biosphere.

Greek Word oikos household a place to live organisms and their environment. Study of the factors that affect the distribution and abundance of organisms in their natural habitat. Scientific study of the relationship (interactions) between organism & their environment (Environment: Physical & biological components) which determine both the distribution and abundance of organism. Species- organisms that can interbreed and produce viable offsprings Population- group of individuals of same species in a given/occupy area Community- populations of different species living/interacting together within an ecosystem Ecosystem- the flow of energy and the recycling of nutrients between the biotic and the abiotic component Biosphere- All ecosystems combine Environmental Science- a study to address the ecological issues and to mitigate(meringankan) their impacts requires an interdisciplinary approach history, social, legal, political and ethical Statistical models- mathematical description of data Nonstatistical models- the description of the relationship between dependent and independent variables and assign a mechanism to the parameters Analytical models- Are part of the nonstatistical model. Can be solved mathematically and it is deterministic Simulation models- Cannot be solved analytically

Evolution- Changes in any attribute of a population over time (not individuals) Adaptation- changes in genes/alleles in population over generations. Natural selection- differential success (survival and reproduction) of individuals in a population within a given environment (adaptation). Fitness- A measure of the contribution to the gene pool and to future generation. Eury- wide tolerance - euryhaline, eurythermal Steno- narrow tolerance - stenohaline, stenothermal Ecotype- A subspecies or race that is especially adapted to a particular set of environmental conditions. Coevolution/Arms Race- Mutual evolutionary influence between two species (the evolution of two species totally dependent on each other). Each species involved puts selective pressure on the other, so they evolved together Gametic Selection-eggs and sperm (n) have genetic composition that differs from the diploid (2n) organisms that produce them. Kin Selection-Natural selection favors alleles that benefit an individual but also alleles that benefit close relatives of that individual that share alleles. Group Selection- When populations of a species are broken up into discrete groups more or less isolated from one another Pre-mating/Prezygotic- prevents mating between diff sp. habitat selection (frogs), temporal isolation (timing of breeding and flowering seasons), behavioural barriers (courtship and mating) visual, auditory, (chemical), mechanical & structural compatibility (prevents copulation and pollination)

Post-mating/Post zygotic- reduces the survival or success of offspring that results from mating between 2 diff sp. (hybrids generally do not survive and if survive are infertile mule (baghal)= horse + donkey). Mule cannot reproduce, unable to transmit its genetic information to future generations Speciation- the divergence of existing species through natural selection (natural event) Allopatric speciation- A population forms a new species while geographically isolated Sympatric speciation- A small population becomes a new species without geographic separation. Dispersal- an ecological process that affects distribution, a genetic (reproduction) process affecting geographic differentiation (distribution), disperse and colonize new area -gene flow-affect the genetic structure of a population Diffusion- gradual/slow spread or movement of populations across hospitable terrains for a period of several generations Jump Dispersal- quick movement of individual organisms across large distances and followed by successful establishment of a population in the new area, occurs in a short time during the life span, usually across unsuitable terrain Secular Dispersal -during dispersal the organisms undergo evolutionary changes, dispersing species expands over geologic times ,natural selection causes migrants to diverge from ancestral populations varieties, subspecies or new species occurs in evolutionary time. Fugitive Species- extreme dispersers Habitat- any part of the biosphere where a particular species can live either temporarily or permanently Proximal approach- behavioral mechanism of how animals choose habitat

Ultimate approach evolutionary approach adaptive reasons for habitat choice and evolutionary significance of the behavior conferring survival value and high fitness Allelopathy- The inhibition of growth and development in one species of plants by chemicals produced from another species, plant vs plant Distribution spatial arrangement of a population members Abundance- relative representatives of a species in a particular ecosystem Geometric growth- Non overlapping generation Exponentially growth- Overlapping generation Deme- Groups of interbreeding organisms, the smallest collective unit of a plant or animal population Individual that have possible chances to mate with each other Quadrats- Any of a group of small, usually rectangular plots of land arranged for close study of the distribution of plants or animals in an area. Demographic technique- A technique to summarize how mortality occurs in a population Fecundity- physiological concept that refers to an organisms potential reproductive capacity Fertility-ecological concept based on the no of viable offspring produced during a period time Resource/exploitative competition -occurs when a number of organisms utilize/exploit common resources that are in short supply and results in reduced growth of both

Interference competition- occurs when organisms seeking resources harm one another / interfere other species even if resources are not in short supply aggressive behavior aggression. Diffuse competition more than one competitor, can exclude a species or greatly reduce its numbers through competitive interactions with a specific combination of other species, rather than just one strong competitor Species Coexistence- org. using identical but limited resources, because of diff response to a fluctuating environment and diff life history traits Resource Partitioning (Diet & Habitat) Observation of a number of sp sharing the same habitat suggest that they coexist by utilizing different resources (size and kind of food) Spatial & temporal aspect feed at different times (temporal) or in different area (spatial). r/K selection- relates to the selection of traits which promote success in particular environments Cannibalism predator & prey same sp. Keystone species-fundamental sp that maintain the structure of the community if they are lost then the existing community is lost with them. -A sp that has a disproportionate impact on the community relative to its abundance:e.g. large trees in forest. -Sp that function in a unique and significant manner through their activities, and their aeffect on the community is disproportionate to their numerical abundance :e.g. Coral, Oculina arbuscula. -Removal-starts the changes in the community, results in significant loss of diversity: e.g. sea otter. -Role- create or modify habitats or to influence interactions among other sp e.g. elephants.

Umbrella sp sp with large area requirement these can be used in conservation to bring many other sp under protection elephants, tigers, seladang, grizzly bears. Flagship sp are popular, charismatic sp that serve as conservation symbols panda, orang utan, tapir. Basal sp- feed on no other sp, but are fed upon others. Intermediate sp- feed on other sp, they themselves are prey of other sp. Defoliation destruction of plant tissue (leaf, bark, stem, sap, roots). Top predators- prey on intermediate and basal sp. Primary succession Takes place on land where there are no living organisms (lakes, volcanic islands, exposed land after glaciers retreat). Secondary succession recovery of disturbed existing sites or community. Biodiversity- the species (variety) of plants, animals and microorganisms (life forms), the genes that they contain (genotypes) and the ecosystems that they form with the biotic interactions between them Local extinction not found in local area but elsewhere still found Ecological extinction few members are left & no longer play ecological roles Biological extinction when species no longer found anywhere on earth