A b s t r a c t o f t h e s i s by A.J.

Davies: Brahmanas and U p a n i s a d s Submitted

(

"Cosmogony i n t h e Ve_das,

with

r e f e r e n c e t o E a r l y Buddhism." 1930.

f o r t h e d e g r e e o f M.A., Durham U n i v e r s i t y ,

The rather

a p p r o a c h I have t a k e n h e r e than a n a l y t i c a l .

i s basically

descriptive

I h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d a l o t on t h e

Vedas, p o s s i b l y a t t h e expense o f t h e o t h e r m a t e r i a l , l e d p a r t l y by p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e n e g l e c t b y many w r i t e r s introduction studied, in its India and p a r t l y by awareness o f p a s t The

on I n d i a n t h o u g h t and r e l i g i o n . of the l i t e r a t u r e to attitudes being

c o n t a i n s an o u t l i n e some a t t e n t i o n

drawing

taken towards i t

a n d t h e West. F u r t h e r comments a r e made r e g a r d i n g a n d t h e theme o f cosmogony i s t h e n The f i r s t four

interpretation

introduced chapters

i n the context of the l i t e r a t u r e . aspects o f Vedic

look a t d i f f e r e n t

(essentially

R g v e d i c ) cosmogony: some i m p o r t a n t u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s ; t h e creative process itself; a n d some p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d t h e source of r e a l i t y , Chapter f i v e with

d e s c r i b i n g or e x p l a i n i n g philosophically

whether turns

or m y t h o l o g i c a l l y . t o the Atharva

attention briefly

Veda. The n e x t t w o c h a p t e r s o n s a c r i f i c e - and o t h e r o f Brahmanic

c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e Brahmanas: f i r s t l y principles mythology. and s e c o n d l y on c e r t a i n

aspects

Next t h e r e are four different

chapters

on t h e U p a n i s a d s , fundamental on

looking at their

language b u t s i m i l a r

c o n c e r n s t o t h e Vedas. F i n a l l y , in

E a r l y Buddhism i s t o u c h e d c o m p a r e s some

t h e n e x t two c h a p t e r s , and t h e l a s t

Buddhist

i d e a s w i t h U p a n i s a d i c ones. A s h o r t appendix further the notes on cosmogony i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s ,

i n c l u d e s some helping t op u t

I n d i a n ideas i n a wider context.'

COSMOGONY I N THE VEDAS, BRAHMANAS AND UPANISADS, WITH REFERENCE TO EARLY BUDDHISM.

Thesis

submitted

by A l a n

James D a v i e s f o r t h e d e g r e e

o f M.A.

University

o f Durham, S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l

S t u d i e s , 1990.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged.

h J U L 1390

CONTENTS

PAGE

List

of abbreviations.

Introduction: i . An o u t l i n e o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . i i . N o t e s on i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . i i i . The theme o f cosmogony. . 1 . The c r e a t o r a n d o t h e r 2. The c r e a t i v e 3. D u a l i t y process, principles i n t h e Vedas. 3 5 7 9 13 16 20 24 27 32 i n t h e Upanlsads. 35 39 43 46 50 53

c o s m i c a n d human.

and oneness.

4. The D i v i n e M o t h e r . 5. Cosmogony i n t h e A t h a r v a Veda. 6. S a c r i f i c e and o t h e r themes i n t h e B r a h m a n a s .

7. Some m y t h s o f t h e B r a h m a n a s . 8. C h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s a n d e x p r e s s i o n 9. The l i m i t a t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e . 10. The p r o c e s s o f m a n i f e s t a t i o n . and t h e i n d i v i d u a l . "cosrrtological agnosticism". c o s m o l o g y a n d cosmogony.

1 1 . The u n i v e r s e 12. 13. 14. The Buddha's

Some e l e m e n t s o f B u d d h i s t

Some c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n B u d d h i s t Some n o t e s

a n d U p a n i s a d i c i d e a s . 56 59 62 68

Appendix: Notes.

on cosmogony i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s .

Bibliography.

L I S T OF ABBREVIATIONS

AB AN AV BU ChU DN

Aitareya Afiguttara

Bfahmaria Nik"aya Sarhhita Upanisad

A t h a r v a Veda Brhadaranyaka Chandogya Digha Tia

Upanisad

Nikaya

Tu
JaimB KathU KauU MaiU MunU PU RV SB SN SU

Upanisad Brahmana

JaiminTya Katha

Upanisad Upanisad (Maitrl) Upanisad

KausTtaki

Maitrayanlya Mundaka Pralna Rg Veda

Upanisad Upanisad Samhita

S a t a p a t h a Brahman.3 Samyutta Nikaya Upanisad

^vetasvatara Sama Veda TaittirTya TaittirTya TaittirTya

sv
TB TS TU TMB YV

Samhita Brahmana Samhita" Upanisad

Tandya Maha Brahmaria Y a j u r Veda (Vajasaneyi Sarhhita)

Introduction.

i.

An o u t l i n e

of the l i t e r a t u r e .

In the

discussing

t h e Vedas, r e f e r e n c e

i s g e n e r a l l y made t o Veda

Rg Veda

(V) a n d , t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , t o t h e A t h a r v a

(AV). is

Of t h e f o u r Vedas, t h e RV i s t h e f i r s t records time

and f o r e m o s t . I t

one o f t h e o l d e s t c u l t u r a l preserved f o r a long

o f any I n d o - E u r o p e a n oral

people,

by means o f an a n c i e n t form around

tradition

and f i x e d

i n i t s present

1000 BC. I t

c o n s i s t s o f 1028 poems and hymns, m o s t l y nature.

;

of a r e l i g i o u s derived from The

The Sama Veda

(SV) i s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y

the R _ V _ as a c o l l e c t i o n Y a j u r Veda collection material religious

o f v e r s e s f o r use i n t h e r i t u a l .

(YV), w h i c h e x i s t s i n two m a j o r r e d a c t i o n s , i s a of mainly sacrificial lore. I talso derives some

from

t h e RV. The AV, poetry

a further

c o l l e c t i o n of

and m a g i c a l

representing the h e r i t a g e of the was c o d i f i e d some t h r e e o r

easternmost Indo-Aryan t r i b e s , four hundred years a f t e r Rgvedic priests.

the R _ V under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e

The p o e t s o f t h e Vedas, h o n o u r e d w i t h t h e t i t l e to this day i n I n d i a r e g a r d e d teachers.

rsi,

are

as i n s p i r e d v i s i o n a r i e s and means l i t e r a l l y 'knowledge'

enlightened and of

Veda i t s e l f tradition

Indian religious divine revelation.

puts

t h e hymns i n t h e c a t e g o r y on t h e

The W e s t e r n a c a d e m i c t r a d i t i o n , time ignored the high

other paid

hand, has f o r a l o n g

reverence

t o t h e m a n d h a s i n t e r p r e t e d them m e r e l y of a p r i m i t i v e religious

as t h e overawed

outpourings by

consciousness

the vast mystery

of nature.

Only q u i t e r e c e n t l y have views which take into account

Western w r i t e r s been e x p r e s s i n g the possibility

o f d e e p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o f t h e Vedas a n d

g i v e more c r e d i t

to the t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n viewpoint.<1>

The grew up

Brahmanas

(the e a r l i e s t

d a t i n g from of

a b o u t 300

BC)

a r o u n d t h e Vedas as and

collections relating The

commentaries, the

speculative

interpretative, rites.

above a l l t o clearly

performance of r e l i g i o u s considered were m a i n l y far is as

authors

themselves the guardians concerned w i t h

of a sacred

heritage, so

but

t h e hymns t h e m s e l v e s o n l y i n and justify the r i t u a l The

they help

to i l l u s t r a t e

(which

described

i n m i n u t e and

complex d e t a i l ) . spontaneity be that

Brahmanas

h a v e none o f t h e c o l o u r and t h e V e d i c p o e t r y and of religious and

characterises a period of their are

t h e y can

said to represent By

d e c l i n e and their

fossilisation<2>.

virtue

antiquity yet and

closeness

t o t h e Vedas, t h e Brahmanas though t h e i r little long-winded and to

held i n high regard repetitive p r o s e has

i n India, inspired

interest

attention

f r o m Western academics<3>. T h e i r main v a l u e they help to f i l l

us to

here i s t h a t m y t h s and

i n some o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d a l l u d e d t o i n t h e hymns.

deities

which are

only

The clearly

border

b e t w e e n t h e B r a h m a n a s and

the Upanisads i s a

not

d e f i n e d . The X r a n y a k a s

( f o r e s t books) form

bridge Upanisads and

b e t w e e n t h e m , b u t a l l t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o v e r l a p . The form the closing portion

of the Vedic l i t e r a t u r e proper the Vedanta ('end called of the

as a b o d y a r e

sometimes c a l l e d

V e d a ' ) . T h o u g h many more r e c e n t w o r k s a r e only twelve or t h i r t e e n as and

Upanisad,

o f t h e o l d e s t ones a r e

generally from between

recognised a b o u t 700

a b s o l u t e l y a u t h e n t i c . These d a t e 300 BC. I n general terms, the

significant

change f r o m shift inner

Brahmana, t h r o u g h

Aranyaka,

to Upanisad i s a towards Their

i n e m p h a s i s away f r o m experience and

the

e x t e r n a l s of r i t u a l spiritual reality.

knowledge of

authors

came m o s t l y

from w i t h i n

orthodox

Brahma r u e with

circles,

but i n c r e a s i n g l y religion accepting

expressed

dissatisfaction

orthodox needs,

and l o o k e d beyond i t f o r t h e i r the beneficial influence

spiritual

of various

unorthodox

trends i n c l u d i n g spiritual

Yoga. I f t h e

firahmanas

represent a period of

d e c l i n e , t h e U p a n i s a d s r e p r e s e n t one o f r e b i r t h o r

reawakening.

The its

challenge

t o B r a h m a n i s m came f r o m w i t h i n the Upanisadic revival

and o u t s i d e arose various

own r a n k s .

Alongside

powerful is

spiritual

movements, t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t ranks

of which

B u d d h i s m , whose f o u n d e r

as one o f t h e g r e a t e s t . Though i t s earliest oral

figures

i n I n d i a n (and indeed almost

world) h i s t o r y from I n d i a ,

Buddhism l a t e r records, tradition

disappeared

preserved and f i r s t

like

t h e Vedas b y a s o p h i s t i c a t e d down i n t h e f i r s t

written

c e n t u r y BC

(some 500 y e a r s preserved

after

t h e Buddha's d e a t h ) , have been Canon, m o s t l y i n t h e form of discourses One o f t h e s t r i k i n g

as t h e P a l i

g i v e n b y t h e Buddha t o h i s f o l l o w e r s . t h i n g s about insistence t h e Buddha's s t y l e rather

and approach i s h i s He avoided

on p r a c t i c e

than t h e o r i s i n g .

metaphysical them

q u e s t i o n s a n d r e f u s e d t o g i v e any o p i n i o n on such q u e s t i o n s were futile), towards nibbana

( e x c e p t t o say t h a t

preferring realisation (skt.

t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e p r a c t i c a l

steps

o f h i g h e r k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e supreme g o a l , <4>).

nirvana

i i . N o t e s on i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Earlier themselves

Western i n d o l o g i s t s ,

s e v e r a l o f whom w e r e fall into the trap of

missionaries, could easily own C h r i s t i a n i t y

assuming f o r t h e i r

an i n n a t e c u l t u r a l a n d

spiritual

superiority.

Now,

in

a more s e c u l a r age, f o r the

we

are

more l i k e l y over any

t o assume i n n a t e s u p e r i o r i t y

scientific texts

o t h e r a p p r o a c h t o k n o w l e d g e . The as a r e s u l t of t h i s

Vedas a r e t h e of

most u n d e r e s t i m a t e d particularly religion and

kind

prejudice,

when i t i s a l s o assumed t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f knowledge must f o l l o w an e v o l u t i o n a r y

progression from lower thinking,

t o h i g h e r . Because of e v o l u t i o n a r y e a r l y Buddhism as the coming has of

t h e p e r i o d o f t h e U p a n i s a d s and

o f t e n b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d by W e s t e r n w r i t e r s age, so t o s p e a k , o f I n d i a n r e l i g i o n and

consequently

the to

Vedas d e p i c t e d as l i t t l e

more t h a n a p r i m i t i v e

prologue in

t h e m a i n e v e n t < 5 > . I f I h a v e g i v e n more a t t e n t i o n study is t o t h e Vedas t h a n t o o t h e r a r e a s i n o r d e r t o t r y and

this

of the l i t e r a t u r e , i t balance.

partly

c o r r e c t the

The

Vedic

poets

communicated m a i n l y

t h r o u g h myths

and on

s y m b o l s and various and

their

hymns w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

l e v e l s according to the i n t e l l e c t u a l

sophistication A

the degree of s p i r i t u a l hindrance

awareness of t h e l i s t e n e r < 6 > . i s t h a t the poets with a and the result their

major

to interpretation

naturally

presupposed a c e r t a i n mythology these and

degree of f a m i l i a r i t y

s y m b o l i s m c u r r e n t a t t h e t i m e . As e x p l a i n e d or d e s c r i b e d i n f u l l ( i f indeed ever) readily

are never

meaning i s n o t always us. Nevertheless,

accessible to

as W e r n e r p o i n t s o u t < 7 > , f a r as

i t i s important to to reformulate t o do justice

decipher it to

t h a t m e a n i n g as

p o s s i b l e and terms i f we

i n more f a m i l i a r

conceptual

are

t h e d e e p e r message c o n t a i n e d i n t h e Vedas.

The and

predominantly

conceptual texts

style

of b o t h fewer

the

Upanisadic

the early Buddhist than

presents

interpretative

problems

t h e p o e t r y o f t h e V e d a s , b e i n g t h a t much c l o s e r

to t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l P r o b l e m s do contrast that, arise

and

scientific

s t y l e s o f our

own of

time.

f r o m c o m m e n t a t o r s m a k i n g more use - perhaps a r e f l e c t i o n

than comparison

of the

fact

d e s p i t e c e n t u r i e s o f p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e and B u d d h i s m and separate their and Hinduism have always

mutual

influence, officially exaggerate

remained to

the adherents

o f b o t h have t e n d e d they

differences

a t t h e expense of what important

a c t u a l l y h a v e i n common. C e r t a i n l y exist, as t h e y do

differences literature, the

b e t w e e n t h e Vedas and study w i l l

the l a t e r

b u t I hope t h e f o l l o w i n g apparent Indian

show t h a t many o f

d i f f e r e n c e s between these

t h r e e g r e a t peaks o f early than

spirituality

- t h e V e d a s , t h e U p a n i s a d s and.

B u d d h i s m - h a v e more t o do w i t h w i t h what i s a c t u a l l y b e i n g

t h e means o f e x p r e s s i o n

expressed.

i i i .

The

theme o f

cosmogony.

A primary driving behind which

force behind

the Vedic

vision,

as

also

t h e U p a n i s a d s and

B u d d h i s m , i s an a t t i t u d e

of e n q u i r y fully

t a k e s n o t h i n g f o r g r a n t e d and A verse

seeks t o u n d e r s t a n d f r o m t h e V_ g o e s :

the v e r y essence of r e a l i t y .

ask

you

about

the f u r t h e s t

limit

of

earth;

Where, I a s k , I ask you you

i s the c e n t r e of the the S t a l l i o n ' s

world? seed; t h e Word.

about

prolific

I ask

about h i g h heaven where a b i d e s

( 1 . 1 6 4 .3 4 ) < 8 >

T h i s v e r s e i s e x p a n d e d and (exemplifying more e a s i l y the i d e a l

e x p l a i n e d by

Panikkar symbols i n an

of r e f o r m u l a t i n g Vedic conceptual terms) as

comprehensible into:

investigation

The b o u n d a r i e s o f o u r e x i s t e n c e , i t s e x t r e m e limits; and t h e core o f t h e whole creation, i t s energy of

dynamism; t h e m y s t e r y

of l i f e ,

especially

human l i f e ; reality but of also

and t h e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g

spiritual

t h a t embraces n o t o n l y transcendent r e a l i t y ,

the created world t h a t i s , the mystery

the spirit.<9>

Cosmogony, w h i c h c o n c e r n s universe and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

t h e source of l i f e

and t h e

of the individual to that mystery that confronts man

s o u r c e , i s one a s p e c t o f t h e w h o l e and one t h a t are and occupied t h e Vedic

poets a great deal.

The hymns light with

r i c h i n imagery consciousness,

o f dawn a n d t h e a w a k e n i n g as w e l l

of l i f e ,

as m y t h s d i r e c t l y d e a l i n g portions

origins.

The p h i l o s o p h i c a l

f o u n d l a t e r i n t h e Vedas on i n t o t h e Upanisads

show a c o n t i n u i n g c o n c e r n w h i c h and later literature.

carries

Cosmogony c o n t i n u e s t o h a v e an

i m m e d i a c y a n d i m p o r t a n c e b e c a u s e i t i s f a r more t h a n j u s t t h e s e a r c h f o r a r e a s o n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f how t h i n g s came t o be w h a t t h e y a r e now t h r o u g h e v e n t s t h a t p a s t . By p r o j e c t i n g occurred i n the d i s t a n t

back t o ' t h e b e g i n n i n g ' , those poets and

p h i l o s o p h e r s wexe a i m i n g t o d i s c o v e r a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e meaning o f t h e i r l i v e s i n the p r e s e n t .

1 . The

c r e a t o r and

other

principles

i n the

Vedas.

Creation, is

i n the

sense i n w h i c h t h e ex nihilo, has

Old no

Testament s t o r y real place in the

generally understood,

Vedic world-view. creator-god as the

Equally,

t h e r e i s no

place

for a I f a of as

sole o r i g i n a t o r

of t h i s

world.

creator-figure the world

i s invoked

a t a l l t o e x p l a i n the appearance sense t o t h e Greek d e m i u r g o s ,

i t i s i n a similar

a shaper or f a s h i o n e r There are v a r i o u s names l i k e Tvastr

o f some k i n d o f p r e - e x i s t e n t p o t e n t i a l . (deities) fulfilling and The this role, with (from

devas

( = wright, carpenter) clever).

t h e Rbhus

the a d j e c t i v e , rbhu = s k i l l f u l , is

work of c r e a t i o n little

sometimes l i k e n e d t o a f e a t of c o n s t r u c t i o n , in principle from

1 1

different

building

a h o u s e . A hymn t o t r e e and what the

Vi^vakarman, timber,

" A l l - m a k e r , asks what i s the

the b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , of which the w o r l d

i s made.

The

'creator' nor as

i s not regarded can this

as

the

absolute

source of

of his

everything, be regarded and

indeed

particular

'creation' once and

a totally

unique production,

for a l l . following by by waves

B o t h he

i t are

p a r t of a l a r g e r p a t t e r n . I n the

s h o r t poem a f u n d a m e n t a l c o s m i c r h y t h m i s s y m b o l i s e d which give r i s e to the year, cycles t h a t i s t i m e , marked o u t s u c h as day and

s e a s o n a l c h a n g e s and into being they are before

n i g h t . Time comes so t h a t he and

t h e c r e a t o r and

h i s works,

s u b j e c t t o i t s l a w s as t h a t wakes and sleeps,

everything else lives and dies.

"that blinks

t h e eye",

1. From b l a z i n g and from Truth

Ardor

( t a p a s ) Cosmic O r d e r t h e n c e was born

(rta)

came

(satya);

from

the obscure n i g h t ; waves.

thence the

Ocean w i t h i t s b i l l o w i n g

2. From Ocean w i t h i t s waves was which marshals controlling

born the year and eye. days,

the succession of n i g h t s that blinks the

everything

3. the the

Then, as b e f o r e ,

d i d the creator

(DhatrJ

fashion

Sun. and Moon, t h e Heaven a n d atmosphere and t h e domain o f

the E a r t h , light. (V 1 0 . 1 9 0 ) < 1 0 >

Dhatr

(establisher,

p r e s e r v e r ) h e r e r e p r e s e n t s an o f t h e cosmos, b u t shapes. opening of

intelligent is The with

f o r c e behind the s t r u c t u r i n g

not himself

t h e s o u r c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l w h i c h he source,

p o e t does n o t a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e t h a t the f i r s t movement, as i t w e r e ,

of the u n f o l d i n g

existence:

t a p a s . Tapas, a most i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t i n t h e translated or of s i m p l y as spiritual the

Vedas, B r a h m a n a s and U p a n i s a d s , c a n be ' h e a t ' and means t h e f e r v o u r endeavour universe. as w e l l

of a s c e t i c i s m

as t h e c r e a t i v e

energy which animates

So,

a creator,

i f mentioned

at a l l ,

i s a secondary

power.

F a r more s i g n i f i c a n t suprapersonal and a c t i v e

to the Vedic world-view are

certain reality

principles,

i n h e r e n t i n the n a t u r e of

from

the b e g i n n i n g i n the process of the w o r l d ' s Tapas i s one o f t h e s e , f o l l o w e d h e r e by rta

manifestation. and satya.

Satya, being,

truth,

i s etymologically extolled with

connected w i t h as one of the

sat, original and

and i s o f t e n

rta

principles underlying existence. meaningful. The No Vedic r s i s element saw

Whatever i s , i s t r u e and

life

t h e u n i v e r s e as a could be

sacred whole. r e g a r d e d as

or aspect of r e a l i t y as t o be

so s m a l l

o r so t r i v i a l

meaningless.

10

T r u t h as a c o s m i c p r i n c i p l e behaviour history

as w e l l

as s a c r e d

ideal

i n human

remains o f the utmost

importance

throughout the

of Indian r e l i g i o n

and p h i l o s o p h y .

Translated linguistically with

i n this cognate

poem as 'Cosmic O r d e r ' , r t a i s with t h e L a t i n ctus a n d r i t u s _ a n d

1

the English t o mean

'right'

and ' r i t e .

I t i s u s e d as an
1

adjective It it

'fitting'<11>,

'proper ,

'honest',

'holy'.

i s c l o s e i n meaning t o t h e o l d - I r a n i a n describes eternal, universal

asa< 12>. As a n o u n

Law o r O r d e r u n d e r l y i n g o f t h e Vedas i t was t h e cosmos, g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e

everything that necessary

i s . To t h e r s i s

foundation of a structured

consistent continuity

o f e x i s t e n c e . The t e r m r t a i s India and i n Buddhism,

s u p e r c e d e d b y dharma i n p o s t - V e d i c dhamrna

( s k t . dharma) e m b o d i e s t h e same

notion.

The

workings

of rta

are recognised

i n visible

aspects of

the u n i v e r s e ' s n a t u r a l rhythm. virtue of her r e g u l a r i t y to rta

F o r e x a m p l e , Lisas, Dawn, b y i s said t o be

and d e p e n d a b i l i t y , mechanical

faithful

- n o t merely

or automatic, b u t child

"well understanding"

( _ R V 1.12 4.3)

- a n d she i s c a l l e d

o f r t a (RV 1 . 1 1 3 . 1 2 ) . So t o o , t h e s u n i s c a l l e d t h e f a c e (anTkam) o f r t a uphold (RV 6 . 5 1 . 1 ) . The g o d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Varuna,

and m a i n t a i n r t a , w h i l e y e t s u b j e c t t o i t t h e m s e l v e s :

Those L o r d s who u p h o l d Mitra

of rta,

of l i g h t ,

I invoke

r t a by means o f r t a

and Varuna. (RV 1.23.5)<13>

Rta without: rta

cannot

be r e g a r d e d

as commandment i m p o s e d - from w i t h i n ,

from

arising with

reality

so t o s p e a k as

governs i t s u n f o l d i n g .

B u t i t i s n o t t o be u n d e r s t o o d

a law of m e r e l y mechanical moral

evolution

because i t i n c l u d e s scale implies that

l a w , and m o r a l l a w on a c o s m i c responsibility of r e a l i t y have a r o l e and

c h o i c e and the

to play i n d i r e c t i n g

evolution

of i n d i v i d u a l beings.

In

Vedic,

as i n o t h e r m y t h o l o g i e s state i s often

( s u c h as G r e e k ) , night. For

the the by

precreational primal the in

s y m b o l i s e d by

substance,

the world p o t e n t i a l w a i t i n g t h e most f r e q u e n t l y (a~pah) , o f t e n hailed

t o be

shaped

forces

of c r e a t i o n ,

occurring as a g r o u p

symbol of world

t h e Vedas i s w a t e r

deities,

t h e w a t e r s . The of t h a t

waters are found a l l over the a l s o be u s e d to

as a s y m b o l

p o t e n t i a l , and may

r e p r e s e n t the i n d i v i d u a l or c o l l e c t i v e unconscious: the well of hidden p o t e n t i a l t h a t underlies waking consciousness. and There and

that i s , our

surrounds

everyday

a r e many p a r a l l e l s thinking. A and

between t h e cosmic

the i n d i v i d u a l i n Indian interpreted

p o w e r f u l i m a g e w h i c h c a n be birth, or c o s m o g o n i c a l l y ,

i n t e r m s o f dawn

o r as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f of consciousness of f i r e or spiritual i n the deity in

e n l i g h t e n m e n t - t h e dawning revelation Waters. and the The

- i s t h a t of the b i r t h birthplace

or l i g h t of Agni

or d w e l l i n g - p l a c e with

(fire, ignis),

physical

phenomenon, c o g n a t e

the L a t i n

W a t e r s i s "one

of the b e s t e s t a b l i s h e d

points

i n Vedic of RV

mythology"<14>. A r e l a t e d Hiranyagarbha, 10.121,

cosmogonic myth i s t h a t (embryo, germ),

t h e g o l d e n egg tries

t h e theme o f

a hymn w h i c h

to demonstrate state:

the unknowability

and u n n a m e a b i l i t y

of the o r i g i n a l

When came t h e m i g h t y W a t e r s , the universal leapt

bringing the

with Fire,

them

Germ, whence s p r a n g t h e God's One Spirit our

thence

i n t o being. oblation?

What God

s h a l l we

adore w i t h

(10. 1 2 1 . 7 ) < 1 5 >

2. The

c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s , c o s m i c and

human.

said

that this

particular

c r e a t i o n could not

be as

regarded I think

as a t o t a l l y u n i q u e i t i s reasonable with

p r o d u c t i o n , once and. f o r a l l , from _ R _ V 10.190 "as b e f o r e " , i n

to infer

particularly

t h e words yatha-purvam,

verse 3 - the n o t i o n of a repeated c y c l e of c r e a t i o n s i n which the c r e a t o r , though perhaps the h i g h e s t of living

beings,

i s h i m s e l f s u b j e c t t o t i m e , c h a n g e and On the whole t h i s has

eventual

dissolution.

b e e n r e g a r d e d as a more

r e c e n t development i n I n d i a n m i g h t be argued late that one, the h i n t is still

t h o u g h t t h a n t h e Vedas, and i t of i t i n t h i s evidence poem, a late be of with proven

relatively development. either way,

o f i t as a easily

However, w h i l e t h e c a s e c a n n o t so much d e p e n d i n g imagery, on

the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

s y m b o l s and

the idea i s c e r t a i n l y vision.

compatible

the r e s t of the Vedic

If

there i s a universal

c y c l e of emanation be an e v e n t

and once

dissolution, only.

the c r e a t i o n cannot

that occurs

N e i t h e r i n t h e Vedas i s i t m e r e l y the f i r s t

the b i g event a t the which Creation ongoing,

beginning of the cycle, everything is

movement a f t e r

e l s e u n f o l d s more o r l e s s

automatically. rather on As as an

not r e a l l y

seen as an e v e n t a t a l l ,

endlessly repeated process, r e f l e c t e d natural c y c l e and i n human a c t i v i t y .

a l l levels i n the Werner s a y s , i n of mystical as a " c o n s t a n t

discussing experience,

t h e d i v i n e mother A d i t i

i n terms

t h e cosmogony i s t o be u n d e r s t o o d

f l o w b e t w e e n t h e u n m a n i f e s t and

the manifest"<16>.

According in terms

t o K u i p e r , who t h e Vedic

tends

to explore the

mythology their

o f how

I n d i a n s m i g h t have p r a c t i s e d

\3

religion, that

c o s m o g o n i c m y t h s owed t h e i r

importance to the considered a

fact

" e v e r y d e c i s i v e moment i n l i f e of the primeval

was

repetition a good d e a l vision,

p r o c e s s " < 1 7 > . One as

m y t h he

looks

at

has

l o n g been r e c o g n i s e d

c e n t r a l to the any other

Vedic in the

being

r e f e r r e d to probably told in full. This

more t h a n

hymns y e t n e v e r Vrtra. Vrtra,

i s the myth of I n d r a is the

and

' o b s t r u c t i o n ' or holds captive

'resistance', the fertile

s e r p e n t - d e m o n who or maidens) u n t i l

waters

( o r cows gods, the

s l a i n by

the w a r r i o r - k i n g of the Indra.

thunderbolt-wielding,

Soma_-drinking

At

first

European scholars

read

into

i t little of

more the

than Aryan

a dramatisation

o f t h e a n n u a l monsoon r a i n s and India<18>. On

conquest of n o r t h e r n represents the the

these l e v e l s V r t r a rain-cloud itself)

1

demon o f d r o u g h t of the indigenous

(or the
1

or

strongholds

dasas ; Indra i s

the the

storm-god r e l e a s i n g the r a i n s or wealth, women and cattle of the

the

war-god r e l e a s i n g

enemy.

On

a deeper l e v e l , the

t h e m y t h i s a c o s m o g o n i c one: inertia,

Vrtra i n which is the

represents the f e r t i l e active

c o s m i c n i g h t , o b s c u r i t y and of e x i s t e n c e the

potential

i s plunged: Indra darkness, releases

principle and

which pierces the

the

potential

initiates

c r e a t i v e process of

existence.

Kuiper believes new

the myth would have been a c e n t r a l f e a t u r e i n The regular repetition of these r i t e s the frequent to

year r i t e s < 1 9 > .

ensure c o n t i n u a t i o n of the calls

natural cycle to f i g h t and

and be

i n t h e hymns f o r I n d r a be

v i c t o r i o u s (eg. the the need

RV 4.19.8; 8.78.4) can for the

i n t e r p r e t e d as

indicating

c r e a t i v e power t o be existence.

c o n s t a n t l y a t work f o r

maintenance of

M a n k i n d i n t h e Vedas i s s e e n as an i n t e g r a l w o r l d o f complex i n t e l l i g e n c e s was u n d e r s t o o d cosmic e v e n t s . described o f t h e RV Purusa and f o r c e s ,

part of a

so n a t u r a l l y i t influence were sometimes late poem

t h a t he c o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e Naturally

i n and

t o o , cosmic processes

i n terms (10.90)

o f human a c t i v i t y .

A relatively

c e l e b r a t e s t h e cosmogony as a s a c r i f i c e o f has as

(lit.

' p e r s o n ' ) . P u r u s a i s d e s c r i b e d as a l l t h a t e x i s t e n c e as w e l l

been and i s t o be, encompassing a c t u a l the unborn, constitutes unmanifest, the beings realm. One

q u a r t e r of Purusa world, three quarters i s born or

of the actual That

the i m m o r t a l , t h e unborn. evolves "down h e r e " ,

p a r t o f him which

i s sacrificed

by t h e g o d s , e a c h p a r t o f aspect of the cosmic

the s a c r i f i c e , corresponding t o a d i f f e r e n t universe. processes

The c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n a n d human a c t i v i t y , especially ritual

activity,

c o n t i n u e s t o be e x p r e s s e d imagery

i n t h e Brahmanas and U p a n i s a d s , t h e

o f P u r u s a u n d e r l y i n g much o f t h e cosmogony and texts.

cosmology i n those

Examination Vrtra

of a further

level

o f t h e myth of I n d r a and p s y c h o l o g i c a l On t h i s further

and

shows a g a i n how c o s m o l o g i c a l a r e seen t o r u n p a r a l l e l .

processes

level,

Indra's c o n f l i c t with Vrtra creativity, inertia

represents the a c t i v e urge t o over ignorance and

e n l i g h t e n m e n t and f r e e d o m , the individual.

within

3. D u a l i t y

and o n e n e s s .

To

t h e s e e r s o f t h e Vedas, t h e v i s i o n o f e s s e n t i a l the apparent m u l t i p l i c i t y of the world found was

unity

underlying

s u p r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t and one way t h e y unity was b y p r o j e c t i n g b a c k primeval state

to illustrate

that

t o t h e ' o r i g i n a l s t a t e ' . The oneness, while

original, the world

i s undifferentiated

of normal experience

seems t o be c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y being and n o n - b e i n g , light

c o m p l e m e n t a r y and o p p o s i n g p a i r s : and an dark, early life

and d e a t h , male and f e m a l e ,

a n d so o n . T h u s , involve

stage of the m a n i f e s t a t i o n or p o l a r i s i n g

o f t h e w o r l d must oneness.

splitting

the u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

In active the

the story

of Indra

and V r t r a ,

Indra

represents the by V r t r a a r e

masculine p r i n c i p l e while

the waters held

fertile state

f e m e n i n e p o t e n t i a l , so t h e m y t h b e g i n s w i t h t h e o f d u a l i t y . A cosmogonic myth a l l u d e d (RV 10.61.5-7) a n d f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e d the o r i g i n of l i v i n g to briefly i n the

arisen in

t h e Vedas

Brahmartas, e x p l a i n s of

b e i n g s as t h e r e s u l t and h i s o r i g i n and.

the incestuous union of the primal an image w h i c h i l l u s t r a t e s of a l l . A d i t i ,

father

daughter, the

the single

interelatedness

the divine

mother, i s universal are i n nearly

another parent.

i m a g e o f t h e s o u r c e o f a l l as a s i n g l e The d i v i n e p a r e n t s , Dyaus a n d P r t h i v l , t o i n t h e dual form,

every i n s t a n c e r e f e r r e d

Dyavaprthivyau, state

H e a v e n - a n d - E a r t h as i f p o i n t i n g of o n e n e s s . One hymn a s k s :

us back t o t h e o r i g i n a l

W h i c h o f t h e s e t w o came e a r l i e r ,

w h i c h came l a t e r ? it?

How d i d t h e y come t o b i r t h ? Who, 0 S e e r s c a n d i s c e r n They c o n t a i n w i t h i n them a l l t h a t h a s a name, revolve as on a w h e e l .

W h i l e d a y s and n i g h t s

( Y 1 - 185 . 1 )<20>

Ik

Dyavaprthivyau i s / a r e neither the f u l l y c h a r a c t e r i s e d by o n e n e s s . The pictorial duality nor the absolute to that

evolved

state

premanifest the

effect

is similar

s u g g e s t e d by as

symbol

(known i n E u r o p e as w e l l

in Asia):

which d e p i c t s the fundamental u n i v e r s a l f o r c e s i n a s t a t e of unity us through balanced o p p o s i t i o n . One One step step 'forward' 'back' i s object, brings

t o the w o r l d of d u a l i t y .

further no

absolute no

o n e n e s s w h i c h o b v i o u s l y has

s u b j e c t , no

p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e b e y o n d o r o u t s i d e . So s t a t e c o u l d be indirect realised, how

even i f t h a t described

original except by

c o u l d i t be

means?

The

first

two an

verses

o f t h e c e l e b r a t e d na~sad~ya-s~ukta to describe the pre-creational and paradox. possible said

(RV

10.190<21>) a r e undifferentiated The is it is

attempt

o n e n e s s by term - and or

means o f n e g a t i v e i t i s as

only positive t a d ekam,

n e u t r a l as

' t h e one'

' t h a t one'.

I t c a n n o t be

that There

i s o r i s n o t . Space and a hint

t i m e have n o t y e t appeared. discernable creative a k i n d of e x p r e s s e d by

o f p e r s o n a l i t y b u t no ' t h a t One'

agent.

There i s o n l y dynamism and paradoxical

possessing

inherent the

unmanifest p o t e n t i a l "breathed windless".

The reality through

third as

and

f o u r t h verses of

describe

the u n f o l d i n g of form

the a r i s i n g

' t h e One'

i n actual manifested tapas,

the c r e a t i v e " f o r c e of heat",

a psychological seed

e q u i v a l e n t o f w h i c h i s l o v e o r d e s i r e , kama, " t h e f i r s t of mind" (manaso r e t a i l ) are thus they i n the next verse. as b e i n g regarded of Feeling and of

intelligence reality

regarded tend t o be

i n the nature today i n the

( n o t as

West,

as more o r l e s s a c c i d e n t a l b y - p r o d u c t s carbon-based l i f e - f o r m s ) . And parallel

certain outward

to the

/7

movement o f m a n i f e s t a t i o n sages s e a r c h i n g i n t h e i r reality together

i s t h e i n w a r d movement o f " t h e h e a r t s w i t h wisdom" to discover the

b e h i n d b e i n g and n o n - b e i n g , w h i c h the cosmological

again b r i n g s

and t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l .

In

the next verse

the arisen see t h a t

state

of d u a l i t y

obscures

the o r i g i n a l mystery with

o n e n e s s . We their

t h e sages may

penetrate the cannot be

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b u t t h a t t h e One

placed or grasped are d i s c e r n i b l e energy

conceptually. I n the manifested state creative force and f e r t i l e

there

agents:

power, with the

a n d i m p u l s e , b u t t h e s e a r e no l o n g e r i d e n t i c a l source. The last

the u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d poet's own

two v e r s e s e x p r e s s

doubt about

the nature of t h a t

source, l e a v i n g the gods

possibility

o p e n f o r h i g h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , h o w e v e r . The later

a r e r e c o g n i s e d as b e i n g b o r n i n and b e l o n g i n g t o a s t a g e . P e r h a p s e v e n t h e h i g h e s t God (the c r e a t i o n ) t o o , "He who

surveys i t side

i n t h e h i g h e s t heaven", belongs

to this

of the w o r l d ' s m a n i f e s t a t i o n a n s w e r . The V e d i c vision

and i s i g n o r a n t o f t h e f i n a l n o t on b l i n d faith b u t on

depends

uncompromising honesty

and t i r e l e s s

inquisitiveness.

Though apparent way

t h e Unborn p r e - c r e a t i o n a l

One

behind the w o r l d of

c h a n g e and m u l t i p l i c i t y , convey i t s t r u e

c a n n o t be d e s c r i b e d i n a poets often

t h a t would

n a t u r e , the Vedic

strongly

suggest

t h a t i t can a c t u a l l y

be e x p e r i e n c e d

and

known d i r e c t l y . o n e s , s e e r s who turn

Those t h a t know a r e r e f e r r e d have a t t a i n e d immortality.

t o as t h e w i s e mortals may

Lesser

t o them f o r a s s i s t a n c e :

Not u n d e r s t a n d i n g , I a s k t h e w i s e who Who may

and y e t d e s i r o u s t o do so, know, m y s e l f not knowing:

he b e , t h e One

i n the form o f t h e Unborn,

/8

Who

props

i n their

place

the six universal (gV

regions?

1.164.6)<22>

T h e r e i s a l w a y s e m p h a s i s on k n o w l e d g e by experience rather t h a n mere l e a r n i n g or

direct

personal

belief:

I know t h a t P r i m o r d i a l Man beyond darkness. Knowing him

(purusa) , golden a man way even now

as

the

sun,

becomes i m m o r t a l . T h i s i s t h e t o a t t a i n him; t h e r e i s no

other. (YV 31 . 18) <2.3>

However t h i s belief has and

does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t l e a r n i n g forms of r e l i g i o n are p o i n t l e s s . reality seem to

and One

the outward aware t h a t can

t o be one

there i s a higher

spiritual

before that

set out to r e a l i s e s y m b o l s and

i t fully. rites,

I t would pointing the

the myths,

religious

that

reality,

w e r e i n t e n d e d by

the seers

to help raise ideal

consciousness characterised

of o r d i n a r y people Indian philosophy

to t h i s and

- which

has day.

religion

to this

(1

4. The

Divine

Mother

The

nasadTya-sukta w i t h

i t s philosophical clearly

style

i s one

of

the l a t e r of

hymns o f t h e R _ V , though

i t d r a w s on

aspects

the h e r i t a g e t h a t precedes i t . conceptions we and

W i t h i n the Vedic

literature One

many d i f f e r e n t are found, and

expressions theistic

of the p r i m a l

come a c r o s s

expressions t o a god principle

alongside group raise because only "The

non-theistic

o n e s . Each hymn a d d r e s s e d an i m p e r s o n a l

(or a may

o f gods) o r d e a l i n g w i t h its of

s u b j e c t a b o v e a l l o t h e r s , b u t no the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a l l forms t h i n g which

conflict

arises

of expression are transcends i s One"

pointers

to the r e a l

them a l l .

seers c a l l

i n many ways t h a t w h i c h

( _ R V _ 1.164.46] <2 4>.

The

goddess A d i t i

r e p r e s e n t s t h e One

as

living divine popular

conscious

b e i n g , t h e d i v i n e m o t h e r o f e x i s t e n c e . The f o r m o r a n o t h e r , has throughout h i s t o r y , Aditi may been a f o c u s o f though we do

m o t h e r , i n one worship

i n India

n o t know of

w h a t p l a c e , i f any, ordinary and people

have h e l d i n t h e w o r s h i p i s a rather physical

of Vedic

t i m e s . She

mysterious features other with

undefined figure

i n t h e V e d a s . No and she

than her any

womb a r e m e n t i o n e d exploits. No

i s not associated t o her alone. "low

special

hymn i s d e v o t e d

N e v e r t h e l e s s , as W e r n e r p o i n t s she is called

o u t , d e s p i t e her (RV 2.40.6),

profile" of that She

" t h e p e r f e c t goddess"

"mother "all

gods and has is

kings"(1.113.19; still t o as

2.27.7) and born"

i s s a i d t o be

b e e n b o r n and also r e f e r r e d

i s t o be

( _ R V _ 1.89.10) <25>. (RV

the "centre of i m m o r t a l i t y "

8.90.15) .

Her

name, m o s t l i k e l y as

d e r i v e d from

t h e r o o t da, 'Freedom

has from

been

translated

'Boundlessness',

'Infinity',

b o n d s ' < 2 6 > . As t h e d i v i n e m o t h e r , source

she r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n f i n i t e and

o f e x i s t e n c e and i t s c o n t i n u e d n o u r i s h m e n t She s u p p l i e s t h e gods w i t h m i l k . (PvV by I n d r a i n the fight

protection. Soma is

10.63.3) and against Vrtra) R _ V

(drunk p a r t i c u l a r l y

compared t o h e r m i l k .

She i s s p o k e n o f as a cow

(eg.

1.153.3; 8.90.15) a n d as t h e e a r t h

( e g . RV 1.72.9; AV

1 3 . 1 . 3 8 ) , b o t h g r e a t m o t h e r s and p r o v i d e r s .

She as

represents actual manifested being

reality

itself

as w e l l

the unmanifest potential, (RV_ 1 . 8 9 . 1 0 ) . I n another

called

"mother, f a t h e r and this:

son"

hymn i t i s p u t l i k e

Daksa was b o r n Aditi was b o r n

of A d i t i , as y o u r

Aditi

o f Daksa, f o r 0 Daksa! (V 1 0.7 2.45 X 2 7 )

daughter,

Here Daksa, or demiurgos,

"thes k i l l f u l

god", has t h e r o l e

of creator form, in i t s

producer

of r e a l i t y

i n i t s manifested that same r e a l i t y

having

been h i m s e l f produced f r o m pre-manifest form.

unlimited,

The same i d e a i s e x p r e s s e d i n to Viraj (the "shining

RV 1 0 . 9 0 . 5 , w h e r e P u r u s a g i v e s b i r t h one") and i s i n t u r n born from V i r a j .

Macdonell, l i k e to and be o f l i t t l e primitive

most o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ,

found

Aditi

interest,

regarding her p r i m a r i l y

as a v a g u e

personification

o f t h e e a r t h o r o f an a b s t r a c t

idea l i k e role

'infinity'

o r ' f r e e d o m ' . He assumed any c o s m o g o n i c development:

o r m y s t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n t o be a s e c o n d a r y

The lent

indefiniteness itself

o f t h e name w o u l d

easily

have

to mystical identifications,

and t h e

c o n c e p t i o n was n a t u r a l l y and cosmogonic

a f f e c t e d by t h e t h e o g o n i c i n more r e c e n t

speculations found

3/

portions

of

t h e RV.<28>

W e r n e r , on

the o t h e r hand, reckons of prime importance

her

cosmogonic origins to

m o t h e r h o o d t o be to be found

and

f o r her

i n mystical experience The mystic experiences one

r a t h e r than i n h i m s e l f and the world the as

speculation. offspring divine

o f , and

ultimately

substance w i t h , i t i n every

infinite

source,

directly

d e p e n d e n t on

moment,

whereas:

t h i n k i n g mind, whether a simple one, is satisfied an

or

a the idea and then proceeds of a

sophisticated first

with

cause f r o m which line

independent effects

continuous

o f c a u s e s and

f u r t h e r . <29>

If

Adi t i

stands

f o r the i n f i n i t e

primeval

potential,

her

s o n s , t h e s o - c a l l e d A~dityas - a g r o u p o f gods - r e p r e s e n t v a r i o u s a s p e c t s Chief from

some seven o r e i g h t world. derives again

of the manifested

a m o n g s t them i s V a r u n a , whose name p r o b a b l y t h e r o o t yr_, t o 'cover' or

'encompass'. Werner

stresses ingenious as the

the importance

of m y s t i c a l experience

i n the sees V a r u n a

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n he

g i v e s t o t h e name. He of i n f i n i t e

'encompasser' or the

'enveloper'

space,

therefore

s u r f a c e of t h i n g s . t h e w o r l d we

According

to his and made up

interpretation, apparently of

experience,

of separate t o be

substantial

o b j e c t s , i s understood

"substanceless,

empty s h a p e s , c r e a t e d by t h e womb o f the

the

encompassing

movement o r power w i t h i n

infinite"<30>.

If Varuna of

we

accept

t h i s view, described (AV

i t makes sense as t h e warp and t h a t he

that i n the woof o f the

AV loom

s h o u l d be

the universe

4.16.8) and

s h o u l d be

intimately

2.Z

c o n n e c t e d i n many hymns w i t h

rta,

cosmic o r d e r , and a l s o

with

maya, b y w h i c h he i s s a i d t o h a v e it the were, w i t h a yardstick"<31>.

" m e a s u r e d o u t t h e e a r t h , as derived from

Maya, p r o b a b l y

r o o t ma ( m e a s u r e , c o n s t r u c t ) a n d c o g n a t e w i t h (insight, shrewdness, cunning, advice,

t h e Greek seems

metis

craft),

most a p t l y

t r a n s l a t e d by t h e E n g l i s h word, ' c r a f t ' of creative skill,

w h i c h has

connotations mysterious

a r t or a r t i f i c e , magic o r

power, c u n n i n g ,

i n g e n u i t y and g u i l e < 3 2 > .

In through

later

times,

particularly

i n Vedanta

philosophy

t h e w o r k o f Gaudapada, S a h k a r a and. o t h e r s , may a i s the dream-like insubstantiality of the essential

used t o d e s c r i b e world, reality

as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

t h e one a l l - e m b r a c i n g

o f b r a h m a n , a n d i t comes t o be more o r l e s s "illusion". T h i s has been r e g a r d e d as a

synonymous w i t h departure from

i t s Vedic meaning<33>, b u t perhaps a t most i t a subtle shift i n e m p h a s i s . Varurta i s t h e activity limited

only represents

g r e a t m a y i n < 3 4> among t h e gods a n d h i s c r e a t i v e ( l i k e h i s ordinances understanding for - rta) may be d e c e p t i v e

t o men's

- f o r as t h e " e n c o m p a s s e r " h e i s r e s p o n s i b l e that things e x i s t independently, i n their

the i l l u s i o n

own r i g h t , undivided

whereas t h e y a r e i n t r u t h infinite reality of A d i t i .

p a r t o f t h e one

13

5. Cosmogony i n t h e A t h a r v a

Veda.

Rather

as e a c h hymn o f t h e _ R _ V tends to the p o s i t i o n

t o r a i s e t h e god

to

whom i t i s a d d r e s s e d the the for AV one we see

o f t h e h i g h e s t , so i n principles glorified as

a number o f d i f f e r e n t

from which

a l l else derives r e a l i t y .

Thus i n

19.53

e x a m p l e , k'ala

( t i m e ) i s said, t o have s e n t f o r t h a l l (Lord of c r e a t u r e s ) , often the

existence,

including Prajapati or demiurge And

creator-figure later of the too

i n t h e AV, t h e Brahmanas a n d the

the source of

literature.

i n 19.54, t i m e i s s a i d t o be the d i f f e r e n t

t h e w a t e r s , b r a h m a n , t a p a s and

dimensions they

u n i v e r s e . H e a v e n and E a r t h a r e h i s p a r e n t s t h o u g h derive their being from him.

In first

9.2 and

and

19.52

kama, l o v e o r d e s i r e , The opening

i s extolled echoes

as the

the

foremost of a l l .

o f 19.52

nasadrya-sukta:

In the

t h e b e g i n n i n g was first seed o f

Desire,

mind. (AV 19.52)<35>

As

often

i n the e a r l y Upanisads, prima,

the s p i r i t

or on

life-force which shall we

e m b o d i e d i n b r e a t h , i s u s e d as a s y m b o l o f t h a t the f o u n d a t i o n of a l l t h a t i s

e v e r y t h i n g i s based, be. PraYta i s q u i t e see,

and as

c l o s e i n m e a n i n g t o a~tman w h i c h ,

shall

becomes t h e m a i n t e r m i n t h e U p a n i s a d s f o r t h e as e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e v e r s e o f a hymn d e v o t e d the l o r d of l i f e , t o praYta as individual the the similar with to primal

supreme r e a l i t y person. I n one and

principle

i t i s linked with and ( i n a phrase

cosmogonic image o f H i r a n y a g a r b h a

some o f t h e f a m o u s u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e U p a n i s a d i c the true inner self of the individual:

sages)

Breath

of L i f e ,

do n o t f o r s a k e

me.

You a r e , i n d e e d , I . L i k e t h e Embryo o f t h e W a t e r s I b i n d y o u t o me t h a t I may live! (11.4.26)<36>

A powerful

symbol i n which

many d i f f e r e n t

i d e a s and t h e Cosmic

images a r e b r o u g h t Pillar, and

t o g e t h e r i s skambha,

'support',

celebrated particularly

i n t w o hymns o f t h e AV ( 1 0 . 7 as a prop

8 ) . On t h e s i m p l e s t l e v e l apart (and l i n k i n g )

skambha i s p i c t u r e d

holding

h e a v e n and e a r t h , e x p r e s s i n g t h e

idea of the f i r s t primordial

a c t o f c r e a t i o n as a s e p a r a t i o n o f deeper t h a n t h i s , t h e two

opposites. But, going

hymns p o i n t t o skambha as t h e i n d i v i s i b l e One opposites. (Prajapati)

beyond

Skambha i s " t h e One on whom t h e L o r d o f L i f e leaned f o r s u p p o r t when h e p r o p p e d up t h e and i n him " t h e w o r l d s and O r d e r (rta) c o n s i s t ; i n him have their remain One

world"(10.7.7)<37> Creative Fervour

(tapas)

g r o u n d " ( 1 0 . 7 . 2 9 ) < 3 8 > . T h a n k s t o h i m "Heaven a n d E a r t h each f i x e d behind i n p l a c e " ( 1 0 . 8 . 2 ) < 3 9 > . He i s t h e e s s e n t i a l

a l l forms:

What moves, w h a t f l i e s , what b r e a t h e s , this, though

what stands

quite

still, t h e eye -

what b r e a t h e s into

not, blinks One,

concentrated multiple

a single

i t s forms,

sustains the earth. (10.8.11)<40>

In

skambha t h e i d e a surrounding

of the primal unmanifest and s u p p o r t i n g m a n i f e s t e d skambha i s b o t h

source reality i s p a r e n t and

constantly

strongly brought child

o u t . Like Adi t i ,

(1 0.8.2 7,28) . L i k e P u r u s a

( t h e imagery o f Purusa

underlies reality, different

t h e w h o l e o f 10.7) , skambha i s t h e one h i s l i m b s and parts faculties

body o f

corresponding to the is like t h e hub of a or

o f t h e u n i v e r s e . He men and gods l i k e on w h i c h

wheel i n which like the trunk

spokes are s e t the branches One

(10.8.34); depend

of a t r e e

(10.7.38). F i n a l l y , is t o be

as t h e e s s e n t i a l as b r a h m a n self

behind a l l forms, note 43),

he

known d i r e c t l y with

(see b e l o w and

identical

the inmost

(10.7.17;

10.8.37,38,43,44).

2.6

6. S a c r i f i c e

a n d o t h e r themes i n t h e B r a h m a n a s .

A central It was

theme o f t h e Brahmanas i s y a j f l a ,

sacrifice<41>.

a b o v e a l l b y means o f t h e s a c r i f i c e

t h a t the

Vedic-Brahmanic p r i e s t h o o d b e l i e v e d brahman,

i tcould manipulate t o be be

t h e m y s t e r i o u s s a c r e d power u n d e r s t o o d the r i t u a l .

associated with derived from

E t y r n o l o g i c a l l y b r a h m a n may

the root brh, i n the e a r l i e r

'grow, b u r s t f o r t h ' < 4 2 > a n d c a n be l i t e r a t u r e as t h e power b y which

interpreted things

a r e made t o h a p p e n o r a r e b r o u g h t i n t o

being<43>. I t

becomes b y t h e t i m e o f t h e U p a n i s a d s one o f t h e two m o s t commonly u s e d t e r m s f o r the h i g h e s t r e a l i t y .

Sacrifice

throughout the Vedic-Brahmanic

l i t e r a t u r e has a as a c o s m i c which

cosmogonic f u n c t i o n sacrifice, occurs it

and t h e image o f t h e c r e a t i o n (RV 1 0 . 3 0 ) ,

as i n t h e p u r u s a - s u k t a

i s one

a g a i n and a g a i n i n t h e Brahmanas. I n s t e a d o f P u r u s a , ( L o r d o f c r e a t u r e s ) o r Brahma ( t h e produces prompted t h e w o r l d and a l l by l o n e l i n e s s and

i s generally Prajapati

personalised beings desire.

f o r m o f b r a h m a n ) , who

i n an a c t o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e

So, f o r e x a m p l e , a t 5fi 7.5.2.6 Prajpati f a s h i o n s t h e animals from h i s d i f f e r e n t from h i s mind, faculties (prima -

different 'vital so on.

a i r s ' ) : man

the horse

f r o m h i s eye, and

Sometimes t h e a c t o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e and requires a reciprocal

exhausts

the creator

a c t of s a c r i f i c e

from the c r e a t i o n :

When he h a d p r o d u c e d into lying pieces, Being exhausted.

the creatures, Prajapati to a (mere)

fell was

reduced

h e a r t he

He u t t e r e d

a c r y : " A l a s my

life!"

The w a t e r s h e a r d h i m . They came t o h i s a i d and b y means o f s a c r i f i c e of the F i r s t b o r n they restored

on

him

t o h i s sovereignty. (TB 2.3.6.1)<44> a t B_ 4.1.2. H e r e i t i s

A similar Agni

situation

i s described

who r e s t o r e s P r a j a p a t i ,

and t h e commentator e x p l a i n s

(v.26) :

Now t h a t f a t h e r

(Prajapati)

i s ( a l s o ) t h e son: he i s A g n i s
1

i n a s m u c h as he c r e a t e d A_gni, t h e r e b y father; Agni a n d i n a s m u c h as A g n i <45>

r e s t o r e d him, thereby

i s h i s father.

Here i n a r a t h e r l a b o u r e d t h a t was e x p r e s s e d the o r i g i n a l and child) being

f o r m we h a v e t h e same n o t i o n a n d 10.90.5) , t h a t

i n the _ R V _ ( e g . 10.72.4 i s both producer

and p r o d u c e d ( o r p a r e n t i s t h e image o f creatures) (eg. 8.2.10;

of the creation.

Closely related

creation through

(particularly incestuous

o f mankind and o t h e r i s found

union, which

i n the _ R _ V

10.61.5-7)

and p e r p e t u a t e d

i n t h e Brahmanas

( e g . TMB

JaimB 3 . 2 . 6 1 ; TB_ 2 . 3 . 1 0 ) . We meet i t a l s o i n ( e g . BU 1.4.1-6).<46>

the Upanisads

Often attributed looking late

i n t h e Brahmanas, t h e w o r k o f c r e a t i o n i s s i m p l y to a father figure, normally Prajapati, without

into his origin.

Prajapati

i s a f i g u r e who a p p e a r s

i n t h e Vedas, n o t a b l y i n _V_ 1 0 . 1 2 1 , t h e hymn o f t h e germ, w h e r e verse t h e unknown supreme though god i s i d e n t i f i e d i n reckon

golden

the f i n a l that

as P r a j a p a t i ,

many c o m m e n t a t o r s

t o be an i n t e r p o l a t i o n .

Though P r a j a p a t i figure, noted first being

i s most f r e q u e n t l y or cosmic p a r e n t ,

cited

as t h e c r e a t o r I

the tendency which

particularly

i n connection

with

t h e AV, t o e l e v a t e one

as

of in in

a variety of principles

to that position,

i s apparent

also

t h e B r a h m a n a s . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , Vac ( s p e e c h , t h e W o r d ) : whom a l l b e i n g s l i v e and " a l l t h e w o r l d s f i n d their

support"(TB immortality"

2.8.8.4)<47>;

" m o t h e r o f t h e Veda a n d h u b o f

(TB 2.8 . 8 . 5 ) < 4 8 > ; "womb o f t h e u n i v e r s e " < 4 3 > . subordinate,

S o m e t i m e s Vac i s p r e s e n t e d as more o r l e s s becoming t h e f e m i n i n e c o u n t e r p a r t not unlike t h e s"akti f i g u r e s

or consort of t h e creator,

i n l a t e r Hinduism:

This,

[ i n thebeginning],

was o n l y

t h e Lord of t h e

u n i v e r s e . H i s Word was w i t h h i m . s e c o n d . He c o n t e m p l a t e d . He s a i d , t h i s Word so t h a t being a l l t h i s she w i l l

T h i s Word was h i s " I will deliver into

produce and b r i n g

world." (TMB 2 0 . 1 4 . 2 ) < 5 0 >

In

t h e AV, Vac i s l i n k e d w i t h V i r a j ,

according t o

Bhattacharyya the early

an i m p o r t a n t f e m e n i n e c o s m o g o n i c p r i n c i p l e i n especially

l i t e r a t u r e < 5 1 > . V~ac i s no d o u b t

p r o m i n e n t i n t h e Brahmanas p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d by t h e p r i e s t l y formulae<52> other and. commentators t o v e r b a l recitation, but

to the details of correct

p r i n c i p l e s are also

i n v o k e d . A t TB_ 2.2.9.1-2, as t h e f i r s t

for

example, a s a t acting

(non-being) i s t r e a t e d

principle, which

d e l i b e r a t e l y t o come i n t o b e i n g ,

i n a passage

typifies

t h e way some o f t h e B r a h m a n i c a u t h o r s a t t e m p t e d t o state using

evoke t h e m y s t e r i o u s paradox o f t h e p r e c r e a t i o n a l more o r l e s s convincingly philosophical than t h e r s i language - r a t h e r o f RV 10.129. less

A s i m i l a r p a s s a g e , p o s i t i n g manas principle,

( m i n d ) as t h e f i r s t
1

c l e a r l y draws from _ R V 10.129, b u t a g a i n t h e r s i s

23

delicate

and

p r e c i s e use

of words i s

unequalled:

1. V e r i l y , it

i n the beginning

this

( u n i v e r s e ) was, existent; as in

as the

were, n e i t h e r n o n - e x i s t e n t nor this ( u n i v e r s e ) , indeed,

beginning

i t were, then only that

e x i s t e d and Mind.

d i d not e x i s t :

t h e r e was

2.

Wherefore- i t has

b e e n s a i d by

the Rsi, the

"There

was

then

n e i t h e r t h e n o n - e x i s t e n t nor

existent". (SB 10.5.3)<53>

Prana with Viraj

(spirit, ( e g . AV

breath, energy),
11.12)

also l i n k e d

i n the as the

AV first

, i s sometimes i n v o k e d and a l s o , as

principle

( e g . oB_ 1 1 . 1 . 6 . 1 7 )

i n the e a r l y self of the the term

U p a n i s a d s , u s e d as individual, atman. a role

a symbol o f t h e i n m o s t that i s later taken

o v e r by

The primal

Waters c o n t i n u e

t o be

u s e d as

a symbol of w i t h the

the

element, o f t e n l i n k e d

i n some way

cosmogonic related

image o f H i r a r i y a g a r b h a

(cf. _ R V 1 0 . 1 2 1 ) , and

w i t h the

theme o f A g n i i n t h e W a t e r s . So,

f o r example:

.In t h e b e g i n n i n g , n o t h i n g b u t a sea "How can we be

t o be

sure,

this

w o r l d was

water,

of water.

The

waters

desired, own

propagated?" this very

They k i n d l e d t h e i r act with fervor.

ardor,

performing

While and

summoning t h e i r a golden sure, egg egg was

c r e a t i v e e n e r g y t h e y warmed up produced. At that time, to This year...

(J B 11 . 1

be

t h e y e a r was

not yet e x i s t i n g . l o n g as a

golden

floated

a b o u t f o r as

. 6 . 1 ) <54 >

3o

A l s o e v i d e n t i n t h i s p a s s a g e a n d many o t h e r s i n t h e Brahmanas i s t a p a s , 11.5.8.1; the the creative force of heat (eg. _ B found

1 3 . 7 . 1 . 1 ) . SB 1 3 . 7 . 1 . 1 r e l a t e s o f tapas f r u i t l e s s ,

that having

practice

b r a h m a n made an o f f e r i n g o in itself. A t TB

itself

i n a l l b e i n g s and a l l b e i n g s

3.12.3.1, t h e s e l f - e x i s t e n t brahman, t h e o r i g i n a l p r i n c i p l e is called t h e h i g h e s t t a p a s and, l i k e Ad_iti, said t o be

father,

mother and son.

3l

7. Some m y t h s o f t h e B r a h m a n a s .

Several

myths v/ith cosmogonic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

appear i n are

t h e Brahmanas, sometimes s h e d d i n g l i g h t not f u l l y may revealed

on m y t h s w h i c h

i n t h e Vedas. A l l u s i o n s made i n t h e hymns reference to the l a t e r i n the texts. Vedas, and

s o m e t i m e s be deities who

e x p l a i n e d by are

Also,

r a t h e r shadowy f i g u r e s

s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r much more p r o m i n e n t l y the l a t e r figure literature. An

i n t h e Brahmanas does not

e x a m p l e i s V i s n u , who

prominently

i n t h e Vedas t h o u g h he and may well

is closely

associated

w i t h Indra<55> than

have g r e a t e r

significance

appears a t f i r s t

glance.

The times "who

myth of Visnu's t h r e e s t r i d e s

i s alluded to

several one

i n t h e hymns. I n RV

1.154, f o r e x a m p l e , he regions and

i s the

measured o u t t h e e a r t h l y

propped the

heavens

above, a c c o m p l i s h i n g (v.l), and

i n h i s course three mighty paces are

strides"

i n whose " t h r e e m i g h t y

set a l l worlds" with the

(v.2)<56>.

I n t h e fi ( e g . 1.2.5.1-3) he and as the sacrifice he

is identified

the s a c r i f i c e

i s s a i d t o h a v e won be small i t of the

whole w o r l d , f o r though the a c t u a l a l t a r represents t h e whole u n i v e r s e . later brought dwarf Various

strands

mythology are story

together (as an

i n the Bhagavata

Purana of three

o f Vamana t h e

i n c a r n a t i o n - avatar accomplishing

Visn.u) who great his

wins the w o r l d from The myth can be

demons by

strides. steps

interpreted level)

cosmogonically, the threefold

three

constituting

(on one

Vedic u n i v e r s e

o f e a r t h , h e a v e n and

intermediate region.

The (notably

w e l l known f l o o d - m y t h , Semitic) mythology, or

w h i c h has clearly

parallels has a

i n other

also

cosmogonic or

interpretation.

Flood

submersion i n t h e w o r l d ocean

waters cycles.

can The
1

be

i n t e r p r e t e d as at

t h e cosmic sleep between w o r l d 1.8.1.1-6 and forms the basis as

myth i s t o l d

o f Visn.u s i n c a r n a t i o n as M a t s y a t h e f i s h . the boar, Varaha, i s f o r e s h a d o w e d fp a t TS becomes a b o a r i n the

His i n c a r n a t i o n 7.1.5.1 and S _ B to create the

14.1.2.11, where F r a j a p a t i o r t o save i t f r o m

earth

submersion

world-ocean.

In he wins

the s t o r y mentioned

above, o f V i snu's t h r e e

strides,

the world from the asuras, stands

a common theme i n t h e The of the may

Brahmanas w h e r e a s u r a

f o r demon o r a n t i - g o d . so much a f e a t u r e

c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n deva and Brahmanas and actually the l a t e r

asura,

folk

literature

of the Puranas, of emphasis i n t o Indjra, the time

r e p r e s e n t on one

level

the s h i f t

popular worship

from Varuna, t h e g r e a t asura, has a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e by Through most of s e n s e and

king of

of t h e devas, which the c o d i f i c a t i o n still praise has

o f t h e RV.

t h e RV,

asura of

a strongly

positive

i s u s e d as a t i t l e to the pre-Vedic applied era to

f o r many g o d s . T h i s p o i n t s b a c k (or i t s I n d o - I r a n i a n evidence

when a s u r a

e q u i v a l e n t ) was

t h e v e r y h i g h e s t , as the e a r l i e s t

from the o l d - I r a n i a n Avesta shows.

and

p o r t i o n s o f t h e RV

There are undoubted A h u r a Mazda and too w i t h Quranos

parallels

between

the

Zoroastrians be

t h e V e d i c V a r u n a and

t h e r e may

parallels with In

(probably l i n g u i s t i c a l l y i s father

cognate

V a r u n a ) o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e , who Greek m y t h o l o g y

of the t i t a n s . may

t h e v i o l e n t and i n c e s t u o u s t i t a n s

r e p r e s e n t the dark f o r c e s of the p r i m o r d i a l c h a o s and rule, cosmos b e f o r e t h e gods i n s t i t u t e d and

w o r l d between their own ordered

overthrowing the former Interpreting

i m p r i s o n i n g them i n the asuras similarly, he considers

Tartaros. Kuiper

V a r u n a and

takes

"the problem

of the asuras"

- which

33

of

vital,

central

significance

i n Vedic mythology

- to

d e m o n s t r a t e w h a t he sees as t w o d i s t i n c t cosmogony <57>.

stages i n t h e

The f i r s t

stage i n v o l v e s full

t h e spontaneous

arising

of the

primordial world, differentiated, represented floating stage.

of turbulent forces life

and n o t t r u l y and b e i n g , mountain this

the world of p o t e n t i a l

s y m b o l i c a l l y by t h e i m a g e o f t h e c o s m i c

on t h e w a t e r s . The a s u r a s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h stage i s i n s t i t u t e d fight by I n d r a , king

The s e c o n d

of the

d e v a s , whose h e r o i c sets f r e e

a g a i n s t t h e dragon

of o b s t r u c t i o n as t h e

t h e powers o f l i f e

which m a n i f e s t themselves

o r d e r e d cosmos. The w o r l d o f t h e a s u r a s now becomes t h e nether world, surrounding the subterranean waters, a continual must

t h r e a t t o coherent existence which as t h e r e a l

constantly reassert i t s e l f potential. can c a l l actually

over t h e merely i t : t h e devas

Not a l l t h e asuras a r e banished w i t h

on t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f c e r t a i n

a s u r a s and some a s u r a s i s made

11

become d e v a s . I n t h e RV a d i s t i n c t i o n

between devav-asura, asurah -adevah, i

h_

" a s u r a s who h a v e become d e v a s , and Varun a, i

" a s u r a s who a r e n o t d e v a s " . i s accepted i n t o over

particularly, retaining with

t h e ranks o f t h e devas,

lordship

t h e w a t e r s and t h u s h i s c o n n e c t i o n

the primordial

world.

3<f

8. C h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s

and e x p r e s s i o n

i n the

Llpanisads.

A certain in

preoccupation with

ritualism

i sstill

evident which though

p a r t s o f t h e Upanisads - p a r t i c u l a r l y form the closing portions

earlier

parts

actually

o f t h e Brahmanas Sacrifice

we c a n see a d e f i n i t e an i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t the cosmic s a c r i f i c e

change o f e m p h a s i s . (important too is

i s still o f Purusa,

t h e imagery

- see f o r e x a m p l e MunU 2 . 1 . 1 - 1 0 ) b u t , attitude o f t h e Brahmanas, t h e sacrifice rather than rather

contradicting

the prevailing

authors o f t h e Upanisads s t r e s s t h a t meaningful d e p e n d s on a n i n n e r a t t i t u d e external observance. lies and u n d e r s t a n d i n g

Recognition that

i nunderstanding

than r i t u a l be found

t h e t r u e meaning o f t h e r e l i g i o u s

l i f e can

i n t h e B r a h m a n a s , as a t B_ 1 0 . 5 . 4 . 1 6 :

By

knowledge t h e y ascend t h a t sacrificial practisers

(state)

where d e s i r e s

have v a n i s h e d : nor the fervid

gifts

go n o t t h i t h e r , without

of r i t e s

knowledge.< 5 8 >

H o w e v e r , as a r u l e characteristic exemplifies and

this kind

of statement

i s more

o f t h e U p a n i s a d s . A p a s s a g e o f MunU attitude, d e s c r i b i n g mere learning

t h e Upanisadic

c e r e m o n y as l o w e r the imperishable

knowledge, (aksara)

thehigher being

" t h a t by It-

which

i s apprehended" (1 1 5 ) .

goes o n t o e x t o l l observances cannot

thevirtues

and. r e w a r d s o f p r o p e r i n themselves

religious

(1.2.1-6),

b u t says t h a t

these

lead t o real

understanding

and u l t i m a t e

liberation.

They, a t b e s t , c a n o n l y b r i n g worlds, to the worlds which

one t o a t t a i n m e n t o f h e a v e n l y created, subject the uncreated,

are nevertheless born,

decay, whereas t h e t r u e imperishable

goal i s t h e unborn,

(1.2.12-13).

1C

That g o a l , i s normally indicating,

termed brahman o r atman, brahman angle o f approach,

so t o s p e a k , t h e o b j e c t i v e

atman t h e s u b j e c t i v e ;

brahman t h e essence o f t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e two u l t i m a t e l y t o be

atman t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , recognised as i d e n t i c a l .

As I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , brahman i s a l r e a d y w e l l reality.

by t h e t i m e o f t h e U p a n i s a d s f o r the highest

e s t a b l i s h e d as a t e r m

Atman, p o s s i b l y d e r i v e d f r o m

t h e r o o t an, like from

' b r e a t h e ' < 5 9 > , i s u s e d i n t h e Vedas t o mean s o m e t h i n g life-force or breath or s p i r i t . I t g r a d u a l l y takes f o rthat over

symbols l i k e experienced

p r a n a as t h e m a i n t e r m within

reality

as

the heart or s p i r i t

of the i n d i v i d u a l . I t

s h o u l d be n o t e d

that i t s translation

as ' s o u l ' c a n be

m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e o f some W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f a f i x e d a n d finite core within the individual which survives death.

The

e q u a t i o n o f a t m a n a n d b r a h m a n , as Deussen conception that o f t h e Upanisads,

says<60>, though we

forms t h e fundamental should bear establish primarily i n mind

the texts

do n o t s e t o u t t o They a r e of the

a consistent philosophical doctrine. records of i n s t r u c t i o n towards

experience

transcendent, and

r e p r e s e n t i n g a number o f d i f f e r e n t quite

individuals

groups and spanning

a long period i n time. I t i s i n t h e Upanisads the origins justification

not s u p r i s i n g for and a variety the nature

t h a t we c a n f i n d

of views concerning of r e a l i t y .

of the universe of several each by i t s

The a p p e a r a n c e l a t e r

distinct with

p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y s t e m s b a s e d on t h e U p a n i s a d s ,

i t s own c o s m o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k a n d e a c h r e g a r d e d as t h e t r u e i n t e r p r e t i o n to the v a r i e t y . of Upanisadic

followers

philosophy,

bears witness

36

The U p a n i s a d i c dealing with

authors

recognised

that

they

were n o t t i m e and they were

the great questions

f o r the f i r s t

acknowledged t h e i r not and

i n h e r i t a n c e from

t h e Veda 5 <61>. They the

r e l u c t a n t t o b o r r o w symbols and imagery from t h e poems o f t h e Vedas w h e r e Originality However, these

ritual purposes

suited their

<62>.

for originality's even b e f o r e

sake was

n o t seen as a

virtue.

t h e end o f t h e V e d i c p e r i o d t h e

mythological

and s y m b o l i c

l a n g u a g e o f t h e hymns a p p e a r s t o and t h e i r message h a d

have been l o s i n g since

i t s effectiveness

become f u r t h e r

o b s c u r e d by the. B r a h m a r d c c o m m e n t a r i e s . authors increasingly recast the and

So i t i s t h a t old

the Upanisadic kind

p r o b l e m s i n a new

of language, conceptual

philosophical, portions the

w h i c h was

already

emerging i n the l a t e r great achievement of and idiom

o f t h e RV

and i n t h e AV. The

sages o f t h e U p a n i s a d s l i e s

i n the rediscovery i n an

reformulation suited

o f t h e t r u e message o f t h e r s i s time.

to their

The

need f o r r e d i s c o v e r y

and r e f o r m u l a t i o n i s given

i s constantly

asserted, discovered

e v e n w h e r e due r e g a r d i n the o l d texts.

t o t h e answers just to accept as

I t i s n o t enough

w h a t h a s gone b e f o r e . to the o r i g i n

u_ o p e n s w i t h a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s offering already various

and c a u s e o f t h e w o r l d ,

solutions the

t h a t have been p u t f o r w a r d rediscovery:

and

recognising

need f o r t h e i r

1.

Those who

discourse

on Brahman s a y : What i s t h e what

cause?

( I s i t ) Brahman? Whence a r e we b o r n ? By on w h a t a r e we (tell established?

do we l i v e ? And who

Q ye

know Brahman, live

us) p r e s i d e d

o v e r by whom pleasures

do we and

our d i f f e r e n t , c o n d i t i o n s i n than pleasures (pains).

other

37

2.

Time, i n h e r e n t n a t u r e , t h e womb o r as the

n e c e s s i t y , chance,

the be

elements, considered

the person

(should they)

cause?<63>

The

means t o d i r e c t

knowledge of the t r u e verses as d h y a n a

origin

and and

cause i s g i v e n yoga, and theistic, protector experience w o r l d may, theistic regarded the

i n succeeding i n which

(meditation)

form

i t i s expressed Rudra

i n t h i s Upanisad i s as c r e a t o r , and the

the author and

glorifying

(s'iva)

the seat of i m m o r t a l i t y . behind

A c t u a l knowledge phenomena o f to not

o f t h e One as we saw

the m u l t i p l e

i n t h e V e d i c hymns, g i v e r i s e expressions which the should

and

non-theistic

be

as m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . R a t h e r merely c o n f i r m w h a t we be

different said, this that thing or

expressions the the One

have a l r e a d y down as

cannot s a t i s f a c t o r i l y personal God

pinned

o t h e r , as

or i m p e r s o n a l aspects

essence. to

Different

people

emphasise d i f f e r e n t individual

according

their in

different the the

n a t u r e s . We and

witness

a k i n d of theism In

elevation very

of P r a j a p a t i Upanisads

Brahma i n t h e B r a h m a n a s . the

earliest

(BU, ChU, TU, AU, KauU) p r o m i n e n t l y , though

theistic later

a p p r o a c h does n o t f i g u r e TU and

some

ones, p a r t i c u l a r l y Later can be still

SU_, a r e more

definitely

theistic. in which

came a p r o f u s i o n o f of popular

t h e i s t i c Upani sads, worship of V i s n u and

seen t h e r i s e

Siva.

3%

9. The

limitations

of

language.

In

attempting

t o speak o f t h e f i r s t

principle

the as t h e r_si

Upanisadic authors are faced w i t h o f RV 10.129 - t h e p r o b l e m and

t h e same p r o b l e m

of encompassing t h a t

which are

precedes

transcends ordinary

e x i s t e n c e i n terms which ordinary

i n a d e q u a t e because t h e y d e r i v e e x i s t e n c e as we know i t . But

f r o m and b e l o n g t o

the f a i l u r e

o f words t o d e s c r i b e of words, o n l y Such a where

the i n d e s c r i b a b l e to a careful recognition the p o s i t i v e qualification either

need n o t l e a d

to a rejection limitations.

r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r i s f o u n d a t KathU reality

2.3.12-13, f o r e x a m p l e , with the

o f atman i s a f f i r m e d

that i t s true

nature i s not immediately faculties:

obvious

t o t h e senses or t h e m e n t a l

12. be

N o t by

s p e e c h , n o t by m i n d , c a n he be is'?

n o t by

sight

can

he

a p p r e h e n d e d , how who says, 'He

comprehended

except

by h i m

13.

He

s h o u l d be

a p p r e h e n d e d o n l y as e x i s t e n t

and

then i n h i s real

n a t u r e - i n b o t h ways. When he i s his real n a t u r e becomes

a p p r e h e n d e d as e x i s t e n t , clear (later o n ) . <64>

As arising (being)

i n t h e B r a h m a n a s , we f r o m t h e use t o t r y and

find

contradictions asat

inevitably and sat

o f words l i k e

(non-being) the r s i

encompass t h a t w h i c h t h e one t o be

o f RV The

10.129

described state

as n e i t h e r

nor y e t t h e o t h e r . non-existence from

primal

i s sometimes s a i d arises

which against

existence which father

( e g . TjJ 2.7;

ChU 3 . 1 9 . 1 ; BU 1 . 2 . 1 ) ,

stands a t ChU

the i n s t r u c t i o n 6.2:

t h a t Svetaketu receives from h i s

1. I n one

t h e b e g i n n i n g , my d e a r ,

this

was B e i n g

alone,

o n l y , w i t h o u t a s e c o n d . Some p e o p l e was n o n - b e i n g

say ' i n t h e

beginning t h i s

a l o n e , one o n l y , non-being b e i n g was

w i t h o u t a s e c o n d . From t h a t produced ' .

2. B u t how, i n d e e d , my d e a r , he.

c o u l d i t be t h u s ?

said

How c o u l d b e i n g be p r o d u c e d my d e a r ,

f r o m n o n - b e i n g ? On

the c o n t r a r y ,

i n t h e b e g i n n i n g t h i s was <65>

b e i n g a l o n e , one o n l y , w i t h o u t a s e c o n d .

The

apparent

contradictions

thus r a i s e d ,

as c o m m e n t a t o r s

are eager t o s t r e s s , differences absolute. refers

do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e t r a y deep constitutes the passage<66>, there are

i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g what r e a l l y

Radhakrishnan, i n a note

to this

to Indian formal logic

( a c c o r d i n g t o which abhava),

four kinds of non-existence,

s a y i n g t h a t we m u s t

d i s t i n g u i s h here between a b s o l u t e (atyantabhava) (pragabhava). non-being and p r i o r

non-existence non-existence non-being, which

or antecedent

When b e i n g i s s a i d

t o a r i s e from

i s t o be u n d e r s t o o d angle

as p r i o r

non-existence,

from another he

i s potential

o r p o s s i b l e e x i s t e n c e . Thus i s refuting t h e use o f a s a t

says t h a t S v e t a k e t u ' s f a t h e r i n t h e sense o f a b s o l u t e

only

non-existence.

D e u s s e n , c o m m e n t i n g on t h e t h e f i r s t with

line

of R _ V 10.129

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e U p a n i s a d i c b r a h m a n , makes b a s i c a l l y t h e i n a slightly d i f f e r e n t way, e x p l a i n i n g t h a t language that the

same p o i n t problem

a r i s e s because o f t h e f a c t the world of empirical which

itself

derives from used that

experience b u t i s being beyond the l i m i t s of

t o d e s c r i b e something experience:

lies

4#

Since ideas

h o w e v e r m e t a p h y s i c s has and expressions to which and from

to borrow

a l l i t s of conceptions in that i n first

the r e a l i t y of our

experience, is limited,

the c i r c l e

t o remodel

them s o l e l y

conformity with the process

i t s needs, i t i s n a t u r a l should find as the the

o f t i m e we

principle

o f t h i n g s d e f i n e d now being, now as

(not-empirical) not-being. <67>

the

(empirical)

One one

o f t h e b e s t known e x p r e s s i o n s and non-being, which

i n the Upanisads of communicates i t s formula

the

beyond being

indescribability to Yajrtavalkya: BU

very well neti neti,

i s the simple 'not t h i s ,

attributed repeated at

not t h a t ' ,

2.3.6; 3.9.26; 4.2.4; 4.4.22;

4.5.15. O t h e r p a s s a g e s and that'. A t MaiU and

would 6.15 the

seem t o s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s ' b o t h t h i s it i s said that and t h e r e are two

f o r m s o f brahman, t i m e 2.3.1;

timeless,

similarly

a t BU

Verily and

t h e r e are

two

f o r m s o f Brahman, t h e

formed the and

t h e f o r m l e s s , t h e m o r t a l and

the immortal, (existent)

u n m o v i n g and the true

the moving, the a c t u a l

(being).<68>

In

10.30, F u r u s a i s s a i d t o exceed t h e w o r l d and to surpass the immortal spheres

"by "by

ten

fingers breadth" consuming f o o d " , Similarly, himself, a t BU

t h a t i s by

being

also the m o r t a l

world. mortal

1.4.6 i t i s s a i d t h a t Brahma, " t h o u g h The the absolute actual, defies nor as only

created the immortals". I t i s not merely o n l y be

classification. beyond. I t can b o t h and

the of

pointed to i n d i r e c t l y

the source out f o r

t h e would-be knower e n c o u r a g e d t o f i n d

himself.

I n Panikkar's

words:

The

U p a n i s a d s a t t e m p t t o r e s o l v e t h e dilemma t h e way of s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , the

by

propounding

personal discovery of the hidden is within and w i t h o u t , p e r s o n a l

t r e a s u r e . The and impersonal,

Lord

m o v i n g and u n m o v i n g , B e i n g and N o n b e i n g . He Lord pair p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e he i s n o t l i m i t e d of opposites.<69>

i s the one

by any

kZ

.10 . The p r o c e s s o f

manifestation.

The

nature

o f t h e source i s t h e f i r s t

concern o f rise

cosmogony; t h e n e x t to of the manifested manifestation

i s t h e way i n w h i c h t h e s o u r c e g i v e s

w o r l d . A word used t o d e s c r i b e i s srsti,

t h e process

w h i c h c a n be t r a n s l a t e d as Several s i m i l e s a r e used t o t h e supreme

'emanation' o r 'emission'. illustrate

t h e p r o c e s s as a movement f r o m w i t h i n

imperishable

e s s e n c e . I t i s c o m p a r e d t o t h e way a s p i d e r come f r o m a fire (BU

p r o d u c e s i t s t h r e a d a n d t h e way s p a r k s 2.1.20; MunU 1.1.7 & 2 . 1 . 1 ) , that t h e manifested its source and t h a t universe

such images s e r v i n g t o emphasise i s essentially inseparable inherent from

t h e process occurs of r e a l i t y this

through

tendencies

i n the nature Again,

itself,

not through

anything external. various ways.

i s expressed m y t h o l o g i c a l l y i n

One s u c h m y t h o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n (BU_ 1.4.1-4) r e c a l l s

of beings

t h e theme o f i n c e s t w h i c h was f o u n d i n symbolising the

t h e Vedas a n d B r a h m a n a s . A p r i m a l b e i n g unmanifest p o t e n t i a l , loneliness here c a l l e d

a t m a n , i s moved b y The atman becomes

and d e s i r e t o produce a n o t h e r .

b o t h man a n d woman who t h e n mate and p r o d u c e h u m a n k i n d . Attempting t o escape t h e i n c e s t u o u s union, t h e f e m a l e becomes

a cow b u t he becomes a b u l l , stallion they a n d so o n . M a t i n g

she becomes a mare b u t he a animals

i n the forms of v a r i o u s

produce a l l beings.

The p a s s a g e t h e n

goes on t o d e s c r i b e

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e gods f r o m

a t m a n , who " h i m s e l f i s a l l t h e c r e a t i o n "even t o i n the

t h e g o d s " , a n d t h e e n t r y o f a"tman i n t o the t i p s of the nails, as a r a z o r

i s (hidden)

razor-case,

o r as a f i r e

i n the fire-source."<70>

^3

The itself the

image o f t h e a'tman p r o d u c i n g and then entering i n t o

the u n i v e r s e out of A t TU 2,6

i t appears elsewhere.

atman produces the w o r l d t h r o u g h e x e r c i s e o f t a p a s , into i t :

then

enters

H a v i n g e n t e r e d i t , he became b o t h t h e a c t u a l the beyond, and t h e d e f i n e d and the non-founded, the true

and the

the undefined, both the i n t e l l i g e n t and the untrue. (TU and

founded the

non-intelligent,

2.6)<71>

The

essential

self,

m a n i f e s t i n g t h e w o r l d o u t o f i t s own i s thus said t o be hidden i n the seen,

pre-existent multiple

potential,

forms one

o f e x i s t e n c e and aspect, b u t as

o n l y c o m p r e h e n d e d when i s i n every

n o t i n any and

t h a t which

aspect

on w h i c h

e v e r y t h i n g depends.

From t h e s t a t e world's stages

o f oneness t h e o u t w a r d

process

of

the

e m a n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d as

going through

several So, for

of s u c c e s s i v e l y grosser m a n i f e s t a t i o n s .

example . -

From t h i s air; from

Self,

verily,

ether arose; water;

from

ether the

air fire;

from f i r e

from water food;

earth; food

from

the e a r t h herbs; (TU 2.1)<72>

from herbs

from

the person.

At

ChU

6.2.3-4, b e i n g which

(sat)

emanates

(srj)

fire,

which and at

emanates w a t e r FU 1.4,

emanates f o o d , tapas,

the b a s i s of l i f e ; rise to matter which

Prajapati

performs life

giving

(rayi,

f e m i n i n e ) and

(prana, m a s c u l i n e ) , of primary

Radhakrishnan c a l l s answering to matter

"a d u a l i t y and

existences various

f o r m o f A r i s t o t l e " < 7 3 > . Of

groups five, air

o f b a s i c elements, which

t h e most u n i v e r s a l

i s t h e group o f (akasa),

i s a l s o found i n Europe: (tejas) , water

space o r e t h e r

(vayu) , f i r e group

( a p a s ) , and e a r t h

(prthiv'J) .

Another

i s of three elements,

corresponding t othe Sanrkhya

t h r e e gunas philosophy:

(qualities) the lucid

found i n the l a t e r

sattva,

r e p r e s e n t e d by w h i t e n e s s ; t h e and t h e dark lethargic

active rajas,

r e p r e s e n t e d by r e d n e s s ;

tamas, r e p r e s e n t e d by b l a c k n e s s . elaborated

This t h r e e - f o l d

division i s qualities

a t some l e n g t h a t ChU 6 w h e r e t h e t h r e e by water (white), fire

are symbolised (black).

(red) and e a r t h

The

r e d u c t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g t o a few s i m p l e

elements level to

means t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t we c o n s i d e r on t h e n o r m a l be u n i q u e o r s e p a r a t e c a n i n f a c t be e x p l a i n e d as a o f those elements

modification same way

a n d t h u s becomes known, i n t h e

that:

by

one c l o d of nail

of clay

( o r one n u g g e t

o f g o l d , o r one

pair gold,

s c i s s o r s ) a l l t h a t i s made o f c l a y ( o r becomes k n o w n , t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n from clay speech w h i l e t h e (or gold, or i r o n ) .

or i r o n )

b e i n g o n l y a name a r i s i n g truth (ChU i s that i t i s just

4.1.4-6) <74>

So i t i s s a i d t h a t , elements, the unique

when b r o k e n

down i n t o

the simple and i t i s

quality

of a thing

disappears

e a s i l y understood Ultimately that

as a compound f o r m o f t h o s e

elements.

t h e process though

of r e d u c t i o n leads t o the r e a l i s a t i o n p e r c e i v e d as s e p a r a t e , a r e u l t i m a t e l y reality.

a l l things,

modifications

o f t h e one e s s e n t i a l

us

11.

The u n i v e r s e a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

I noted parallels The

earlier

that

the Vedic

myths o f t e n r e v e a l processes. (particularly rites,

between c o s m o l o g i c a l

and p s y c h o l o g i c a l imagery their

a u t h o r s o f t h e Brahmanas u s e d V e d i c and s a n c t i f y (notably (notably

t h a t of Purusa) t o j u s t i f y identifying the and human a c t i v i t y with cosmic

complex

the material

details of

sacrifice.) structuring

the mythological origins

o f t h e u n i v e r s e ) . The U p a n i s a d s a l s o make passages

much o f s u c h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s a n d t h e r e a r e many linking t h e m i c r o c o s m o f t h e human f a c u l t i e s ,

with the

macrocosm o f t h e e l e m e n t s . intuition

As i n t h e V e d a s , t h e u n d e r l y i n g

i s o f a u n i v e r s e made up o f i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d are u l t i m a t e l y t o be

interdependent f o r c e s , a l l of which recognised atman. as m o d i f i c a t i o n s

o f t h e one e s s e n c e , b r a h m a n o r

S e e i n g any s i n g l e a s p e c t

alone

as t h e e s s e n c e , o r distinct from oneself,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e s s e n c e as s o m e t h i n g amounts t o i g n o r a n c e demonstrating t h i s understanding often J u s t as t h e w o r l d ' s several of stages,

and t h e r e a r e many p a s s a g e s

( e g . KauU 4 . 1 - 2 0 ) . However, t h e g r o w t h o f seems t o o c c u r outward g r a d u a l l y or i n stages. through

manifestation unfolds

so t h e i n d i v i d u a l reality

penetrates t o the mystery of successively

the essential

through envelopes

subtler

selves or elements.

So, f o r e x a m p l e , a t TU 3.1.1 t h e words: "Venerable

B h r g u goes t o h i s f a t h e r Sir,

Varuna w i t h

t e a c h me b r a h m a n . " H i s f a t h e r

describes

the basic "That, verily,

c o n s t i t u e n t s of l i f e from which they l i v e ,

and t h e w o r l d and. s a y s : are born,

these beings that into

t h a t by w h i c h ,

when b o r n , That

which,

when d e p a r t i n g t h e y e n t e r .

s e e k t o know. T h a t i s b r a h m a n . " Then, b y e x e r c i s e o f t a p a s ,

Bhrgu a t t a i n s s u c c e s s i v e l y matter or f o o d

deeper e x p e r i e n c e s of brahman: as or b r e a t h (prana), as

(anna), as l i f e

i n t e l l i g e n c e or mind (manas), as knowledge or wisdom ( v i j n a n a ) and f i n a l l y as b l i s s (ananda) .<75>

A s i m i l a r progressive

development of u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s Indra

expressed m y t h o l o g i c a l l y a t ChU 8.7-12 i n the s t o r y of and V i r o c a n a , one a god the o t h e r a demon, who go to

P r a j a p a t i f o r i n s t r u c t i o n concerning

the true s e l f

(atman).

Only I n d r a goes beyond the f i r s t l e v e l of i n s t r u c t i o n i n which the t r u e i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the b o d i l y s e l f . d i s s a t i s f i e d a g a i n and again Returning Indra the self

for further instruction,

u n d e r s t a n d s t h e t r u e s e l f t o be t h e dreaming s e l f , t h e n s e l f i n deep sleep and f i n a l l y the deathless, bodiless

b e h i n d and beyond a l l these p a r t i a l The

manifestations. of

r e d u c t i o n of a l l t h i n g s t o the s o l e r e a l i t y

brahman or atman r a i s e s the i n t e r e s t i n g problem of what s t a t u s s h o u l d be a s c r i b e d t o t h e e m p i r i c a l w o r l d . to Deussen, who f o l l o w s the p h i l o s o p h e r s According

of t h e Vedanta

school his

of p h i l o s o p h y ,

the Upanisads teach a pure i d e a l i s m . I n

words: The all atman i s t h e s o l e r e a l i t y ; w i t h knowledge of i t i s known; t h e r e i s no p l u r a l i t y and the appearance of (maya). <76> no change. plurality

N a t u r e which p r e s e n t s and He

change i s mere i l l u s i o n

argues t h a t t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l i d e a l i s m l i e s a t t h e a t the h e a r t of a l l r e l i g i o n constantly

h e a r t o f t h e Upanisads - i n d e e d , and

philosophy<77> - b u t t h a t c o n c e s s i o n s are

b e i n g made ( o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y )

t o "the e m p i r i c a l forms of assert their

knowledge which are i n n a t e w i t h i n us and

r i g h t " < 7 8 > . The merely one

t h e o r e t i c a l framework of "cosmogonism" i s

of s e v e r a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t o pure i d e a l i s m ,

whereby the u n i t y of t h e atman and t h e u n i v e r s e i s made intelligible effect: by p u t t i n g them i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p of cause and.

t h e atman produces t h e u n i v e r s e and t h e n e n t e r s i n t o

i t as i t s S e l f . Deussen f i n d s s u p p o r t in. t h e f a c t t h a t "the p r o f e s s o r s of t h e Vedanta, Badarayana, Gaudapada, and ankara, m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e sacred w r i t i n g s t e a c h a c r e a t i o n of of the u n i v e r s e o n l y by way understanding"<79>. Radhakrishnan t a k e s i s s u e w i t h the views expressed Deussen and t h e V e d a n t i s t s < 8 0 > . He u n i v e r s e has it says t h a t w h i l e t h e by of a c o n c e s s i o n t o man's f a c u l t y

no r e a l i t y o u t s i d e of the A b s o l u t e , n e v e r t h e l e s s

i s r e a l i n t h e sense t h a t i t cannot be d e s c r i b e d as mere I t comes i n t o b e i n g t h r o u g h a d e l i b e r a t e

show or i l l u s i o n . act

of t h e Supreme S e l f , i t i s t h e emanation of t h e c r e a t i v e of God, and i t i s t h e r e f o r e t o be t a k e n as r e a l "the l i f e though

energy the

A b s o l u t e i s , as i t were, more r e a l ,

of t h i s

life,

t h e t r u t h of t h i s t r u t h " < 8 1 > . For Deussen the u n i v e r s e (so he t r a n s l a t e s maya) and For he as

i s mere d e c e p t i o n or i l l u s i o n

e m p i r i c a l knowledge of i t amounts_to a v i d y a , i g n o r a n c e . Radhakrishnan a v i d y a i s t h e source of t h e d e c e p t i o n and s t r e s s e s t h e s u b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r of i l l u s o r y e x p e r i e n c e

a g a i n s t t h e cosmic c h a r a c t e r of maya which i s the w o r l d . Maya s e t s t h e s t a g e , b u t i t i s our f a i l u r e t o see beyond t h e outward of forms t h a t t r a p s us i n i g n o r a n c e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e

things: We are s u b j e c t to a v i d y a when we l o o k upon t h e and

m u l t i p l i c i t y of o b j e c t s and egos as f i n a l

f u n d a m e n t a l . . . The w o r l d of m u l t i p l i c i t y i s o u t

t h e r e , and has i t s p l a c e , b u t i f we l o o k upon i t as a s e l f - e x i s t i n g cosmos, we a r e making an e r r o r . <82> From t h e p o i n t o f view of t h e e m p i r i c a l s e l f or ego some interesting i m p l i c a t i o n s a r i s e o u t of t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f t o be f o r m u l a t e d c o n c e p t u a l l y i n t h e

karma, which b e g i n s

e a r l i e s t Upanisads. S e v e r a l passages d e s c r i b e t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l in. an endless r o u n d o f b i r t h and d e a t h

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f r u i t s o f a c t i o n s or d e s i r e s : According as one a c t s , a c c o r d i n g as one behaves, so

does he become. The doer o f good becomes good, t h e doer o f e v i l becomes e v i l . . . his will; as i s h i s w i l l , As h i s d e s i r e i s so i s

so i s t h e deed he does;

whatever deed he does, t h a t he a t t a i n s . (U 4.4.5)<83> E f f e c t i v e l y , the i n d i v i d u a l the c r e a t e s h i s own f a t e , even

v e r y s u r r o u n d i n g s i n which he comes t o be. However, i n through ignorance and

normal l i f e he does t h i s b l i n d l y ,

d e s i r e , f o r w i t h knowledge o f brahman t h e c y c l e of phenomenal e x i s t e n c e ceases, and the one t h u s f r e e d no l o n g e r participates h e l p l e s s l y i n i t . I n s t e a d he r e a l i s e s h i m s e l f t o of t h e w o r l d , i m m o r t a l and

be t h e maker and c o n t r o l l e r eternally free:

Whoever has f o u n d and has awakened

t o the s e l f . . . he

he i s t h e maker o f a l l . .His i s t h e w o r l d ; indeed is the world i t s e l f . (BU 4.4.13)<84>

12. The Buddha's " c o s m o l o g i c a l

agnosticism"<85>.

The Upanisads were l a r g e l y t h e work of t e a c h e r s from w i t h i n , t h e Brahmanical t r a d i t i o n who had become d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l approach. Of v a r i o u s more or l e s s p a r a l l e l movements s p r i n g i n g from o t h e r sources, Buddhism i s the one w h i c h g a i n e d t h e l a r g e s t , f o l l o w i n g and has been most i n f l u e n t i a l . Because of t h i s , r e f e r e n c e t o the t e a c h i n g of t h e Buddha h e l p s t o g i v e a more complete p i c t u r e of t h e i d e a s of t h e U p a n i s a d i c p e r i o d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t Buddhism d i d n o t appear i n i s o l a t i o n and t h a t t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e between t h e v a r i o u s movements and s c h o o l s of t h e t i m e .

The

Buddha d i f f e r e d from many of h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i n

t h a t he r u l e d o u t any k i n d of mere s p e c u l a t i o n as u n p r o f i t a b l e and, though he d i d t a k e i s s u e w i t h s e v e r a l

renowned t h i n k e r s of t h e t i m e , r e f u t i n g views t h a t were f a l s e a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own experience, he r e p e a t e d l y r e f u s e d t o

commit h i m s e l f t o those k i n d s of o p i n i o n s which were t h e s t u f f o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l debate. H i s s o - c a l l e d d i f f i c u l t unsuitable questions t e x t s and, or

( a v y a k r t a v a s t u n i ) appear i n s e v e r a l follows:

summarised by K l o e t z i , are as t h e w o r l d and

(1-4) Are

the s e l f e t e r n a l ? non-eternal? Neither and

Non-eternal?

Both e t e r n a l and

e t e r n a l nor n o n - e t e r n a l ?

(5-8) Are

the w o r l d and

the s e l f f i n i t e ? I n f i n i t e ? Both f i n i t e i n f i n i t e ? Neither f i n i t e nor i n f i n i t e ?

(9-12) Does

t h e T a t h a g a t a e x i s t a f t e r death? Does he not e x i s t a f t e r death? Does he b o t h e x i s t and n o t - e x i s t a f t e r death? Does he n e i t h e r e x i s t nor n o t - e x i s t a f t e r

So

death? (13-14) I s t h e v i t a l

p r i n c i p l e t h e same as

t h e body? I s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e body? <86> When asked why he expressed no o p i n i o n on these t h e Buddha r e p l i e d , as i n t h e Potthapada S u t t a questions

( i n DN), t h a t concerned

none o f these q u e s t i o n s was " c a l c u l a t e d t o p r o f i t , w i t h t h e Dhamma ( t e a c h i n g , l a w , r e a l i t y : l e a d i n g t o t h e elements o f r i g h t conduct,

s k t . dharma), t o detachment, t o

p u r i f i c a t i o n from l u s t s , t o c e s s a t i o n o f p a s s i o n , t o calmness, t o supra-normal knowledge, t o t h e h i g h e s t wisdom, and t o nibbana"<8 7>. The t e a c h i n g which he chooses t o expound instead, f u l f i l l s , he says, t h e above c o n d i t i o n s and d e a l s

w i t h " s u f f e r i n g , the o r i g i n of s u f f e r i n g , the cessation of s u f f e r i n g , and. t h e method by w h i c h t o reach the c e s s a t i o n of

s u f f e r i n g " < 8 8 > , i . e . t h e f o u r 'noble t r u t h s ' , which form t h e b a s i c framework o f e a r l y Buddhism. I n t h e Brahmajala S u t t a ( a l s o i n DN), t h e Buddha

c r i t i c i z e s a t l e n g t h t h e views o f some a s c e t i c s and brahmans who, among o t h e r t h i n g s , " s p e c u l a t e on t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a their

w o r l d c y c l e and on t h e u l t i m a t e past"<89>. He d e s c r i b e s

views as a n e t i n which those p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u l a t o r s a r e hopelessly entangled, u n l i k e himself: These v i e w - p o i n t s , thus t a k e n up, t h u s adhered t o , w i l l have f o r r e s u l t f u t u r e r e b i r t h . That t h e T a t h a g a t a knows and He knows immeasurably beyond. But He i s n o t a t t a c h e d t o t h e knowledge, and from l a c k of attachment has f o u n d o u t f o r H i m s e l f even

t h e f i n a l b l i s s . Having come t o know, as they r e a l l y are according t o t h e T r u t h , t h e o r i g i n of feelings, t h e i r passing away, t h e i r satisfaction

and d i s a d v a n t a g e s ,

and t h e way

of d e p a r t u r e

from

them, t h e T a t h a g a t a , f r o m not g r a s p i n g , i s freed.<30> Obviously we have t o a c c e p t , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e Buddha's

t e a c h i n g , a f i r m d i s t i n c t i o n between knowledge which i s e s s e n t i a l f o r l i b e r a t i o n and t h a t w h i c h i s n o n - e s s e n t i a l . By and l a r g e , q u e s t i o n s of cosmology and cosmogony f a l l ip-o the

l a t t e r c l a s s , and y e t i t i s a f a c t t h a t they occupy a major p l a c e i n B u d d h i s t w r i t i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n those of t h e l a t e r Ma Kayaha s c h o o l s . T h i s a p p a r e n t paradox may be j u s t the

r e s u l t of human weakness, a d e s i r e t o c l i n g t o t h e o r e t i c a l systems d e s p i t e the Buddha's a p p a r e n t i t may censure. Alternatively

be e x p l a i n e d by what K l o e t z i c a l l s t h e "drama o f the

s a l v a t i o n " < 3 1 > . K l o e t z i uses t h i s n o t i o n t o j u s t i f y p r o f u s i o n of c o s m o l o g i c a l themes t h r o u g h o u t

the v a r i o u s

phases of Buddhism as a i d s t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g and. communicating t h e t e a c h i n g s y m b o l i c a l l y , r a t h e r than as s p e c u l a t i o n s of v a l u e i n themselves. Though he warned a g a i n s t s p e c u l a t i o n on these between t h e l i n e s of t h e Buddha's d i s c o u r s e s a matters,

coherent the

cosmology does emerge, n o t d i f f e r i n g markedly from

f a m i l i a r background of t h e Upanisads. A major j o b of s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n was undertaken l o n g a f t e r h i s death by the

c o m p i l e r s of t h e Abhidhamma ( s k t . Abhidharma) p o r t i o n of t h e early Buddhist cakravala) canon, and i t i s t h e s o - c a l l e d cakkavala (skt.

or s i n g l e w o r l d system d e t a i l e d t h e r e t h a t forms

t h e b a s i c cosmology of e a r l y Buddhism.

13. Some elements o f B u d d h i s t cosmology and cosmogony. The c a k k a v a l a w o r l d system has been d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l

elsewhere<92> and I propose o n l y t o p i c k o u t c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s here. There a r e t h r e e major desire divisions, into t h e realms o f

(kama^vacara), those o f f o r m

(rupa-vacara) and t h e

f o r m l e s s realms

(arupa v a c a r a ) . The gods o f t h e Vedic/Hindu

pantheon a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e upper l e v e l s o f kama-vacara, t h e i r e x i s t e n c e - whether i n d e p e n d e n t experiences - p o s i n g no problem or p u r e l y as s u b j e c t i v e

or t h r e a t t o t h e Buddhist

o u t l o o k . Brahma", t h e h i g h e s t b e i n g t o concern h i m s e l f w i t h human a f f a i r s , i n h a b i t s t h e l o w e s t l e v e l s o f t h e realms o f

form. Mankind i s p l a c e d somewhere i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e realms of d e s i r e , a s i t u a t i o n reckoned ideal f o rsalvation, being

n e i t h e r so p l e a s u r a b l e nor so p a i n f u l as t o be s e r i o u s l y d i s t r a c t i n g f o r t h e e a r n e s t freedom-seeker. The main t h i n g t o note i s t h a t even t h e h i g h e s t heavens and l o w e s t h e l l s and t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s a r e r e g a r d e d as impermanent and u l t i m a t e l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e s o f b e i n g which a r e t r a n s c e n d e d by t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f nibbana<93>. A l l w o r l d s and a l l b e i n g s b e l o n g t o t h e realms e f f e c t . They have an o r i g i n o r b i r t h , o f cause and

a p e r i o d of s t a b i l i t y

f o l l o w e d by decay, death and. r e b i r t h a c c o r d i n g t o a c t i o n s ( o r , more a c c u r a t e l y , i n t e n t i o n s ) . E x i s t e n c e i s c y c l i c and a t no l e v e l permanent or w h o l l y secure. Hence, i n r e l a t i o n t o the a b s o l u t e , a l l b e i n g s have e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same s t a t u s , and i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l pass t h r o u g h a l l manner o f s t a t e s and find

forms o f e x i s t e n c e , w i t h o u t a p p a r e n t end, u n l e s s they

the way o u t . Nibbana, which i s t h e g o a l o f t h e t e a c h i n g , freedom f r o m s u f f e r i n g , l i e s beyond a l l s t a t e s o f b e i n g and d e f i e s d e s c r i p t i o n o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n , i n terms which a p p l y t o

phenomenal e x i s t e n c e . Thus a l s o t h e Buddha h i m s e l f anyone e l s e who has

(like the

a t t a i n e d t o t h e g o a l , whether t h r o u g h defies c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

Buddha's t e a c h i n g or i n d e p e n d e n t l y ) among the b e i n g s of t h e u n i v e r s e .

Regarding t h e phenomenal w o r l d as a whole, t h e view i s of a u n i v e r s e which undergoes p e r i o d i c d i s s o l u t i o n and

r e - f o r m i n g , a view seems t o have been w i d e l y a c c e p t e d i n I n d i a n t h i n k i n g by t h e t i m e of t h e Buddha. D i f f e r e n c e s a r i s e w i t h r e g a r d t o o r i g i n and cause. The " f a l s e views" Buddha's a n a l y s i s of

i n t h e B r a h m a j a l a S u t t a g i v e s an i d e a of the-

v a r i e t y of o p i n i o n s h e l d . A most i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t of t h e B r a h m a j a l a S u t t a i s the way i n w h i c h he d e s c r i b e s incomplete certain memory of able t o no

people a r r i v i n g a t c e r t a i n views t h r o u g h past l i v e s . The

Buddha s a i d of h i m s e l f t h a t he was

r e c a l l a l l h i s i n n u m e r a b l e p a s t l i v e s and remained under

i l l u s i o n s as t o t h e causes and mechanisms t h a t g i v e r i s e t o the w o r l d (eg. SN 2.213). N e v e r t h e l e s s , u n l i k e those he absolute

c r i t i c i s e s , he r e f u s e d t o be drawn on t h e s u b j e c t of origins, s a y i n g t h a t no m a t t e r how I n s t e a d he d e s c r i b e d f a r back one

l o o k s none

are a p p a r e n t .

the w o r l d process as a

c y c l i c c h a i n of r e l a t i v e . c a u s e s , which he was concerned to_ i l l u m i n a t e i n terms of i n d i v i d u a l i n v o l v e m e n t transcendence. It i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o s p e c i f y d e f i n i t e l y whether t h e the m e d i t a t i o n a l realms, worlds, heavens as and

l e v e l s of e x i s t e n c e ,

and h e l l s , of t h e c a k k a v a l a system are t o be regarded o b j e c t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t , or o n l y as s u b j e c t i v e U l t i m a t e l y i t makes l i t t l e

experiences.

or no d i f f e r e n c e . More i m p o r t a n t

i s the i d e a t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s reckoned t o have power over h i s own involvement i n t h e w o r l d , and t h e w o r l d , at

whatever l e v e l , I s something t o he t r a n s c e n d e d . i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s i s found a t AN asked whether t h e r e i s anywhere one 2.46,

An

where t h e Buddha i s

can go t o escape b i r t h , can go t o d i s c o v e r saying

decay, d e a t h and r e b i r t h , anywhere one "the end of the w o r l d " . He instead that:

r e p l i e s i n the negative,

i n t h i s v e r y body, s i x f e e t i n l e n g t h , w i t h i t s s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s and i t s t h o u g h t s and i d e a s , I do

d e c l a r e t o you are t h e w o r l d , and t h e o r i g i n of t h e w o r l d , and t h e c e a s i n g of t h e w o r l d , and t h e Way t h a t leadeth t o the ceasing likei^ise

thereof.<94>

A g a i n h i s answer p o i n t s t o t h e f o u r Noble T r u t h s , t h e second of w h i c h concerns t h e o r i g i n of t h e w o r l d (of suffering). The second t r u t h i s d e a l t w i t h i n d e t a i l i n t h e

c h a i n o f patXccasamuppada ( s k t . p r a t T t y a s a m u t p a d a ) , 'interdependent o r i g i n a t i o n
1

or

'conditioned co-production ,

which e x p l a i n s phenomenal e x i s t e n c e - c a l l e d samsara, 'endless flux' - as a b e g i n n i n g l e s s and endless

s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g c y c l e , d r i v e n m a i n l y by the f o r c e s of ignorance and d e s i r e , i n t h e c o n t e x t of which q u e s t i o n s of or end have no place. an

absolute beginning

14. Some comparisons between B u d d h i s t

and U p a n i s a d i c i d e a s .

Many w r i t e r s have p o i n t e d o u t e s s e n t i a l s i m i l a r i t i e s between the Hindu and t h e B u d d h i s t goal of the r e l i g i o u s l i f e . f r e e ) and nibbana/nirvana p o s i t i o n s regarding the

Moksa (from t h e r o o t rauc, t o (from n i s - v a , to be blown o u t - as are used i n a v e r y

of a flame - to be assuaged or cooled) s i m i l a r way

as d e s i g n a t i o n s f o r t h a t u l t i m a t e freedom, w h i c h essentially

i s reckoned i n Hinduism as i n Buddhism t o be i n d e s c r i b a b l e and

i n d e f i n e a b l e . Not o n l y are they i n b a s i c on b o t h s i d e s Buddha, l i k e recognise other

agreement, b u t e n l i g h t e n e d t e a c h e r s

the common aims and achievements. The

t e a c h e r s , d i d n o t c l a i m h i s t e a c h i n g as t o t a l l y u n i q u e or new. He recognised p r e v i o u s Buddhas and sages o u t s i d e

Buddhism, i n c l u d i n g those he c a l l e d paccekabuddhas ( s k t . p r a t y e k a b u d d h a ) , those who a t t a i n t o t h e same h i g h e s t g o a l as

h i m s e l f b u t do n o t , l i k e h i m s e l f , become t e a c h e r s f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r b e i n g s . And unenlightened though he o f t e n c r i t i c i z e d was

t e a c h e r s from the B r a h m a n i c a l t r a d i t i o n , he

n o t averse t o u s i n g t h e i r ideas and t e r m i n o l o g y i f i t s u i t e d h i s purpose. <95>

Regarding t h e phenomenal w o r l d , the Buddha, l i k e some of the Upanisadic teachers, taught t h a t a l l t h i n g s could b r o k e n down i n t o t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t elements and understood. The thus be

fundamental elements or b u i l d i n g b l o c k s of

t h e u n i v e r s e are s i m i l a r i n Buddhism t o those d e s c r i b e d i n the Upanisads, though h i s a n a l y s i s o f human p e r s o n a l i t y i s f a r more d e t a i l e d and e x h a u s t i v e t e x t s . As i n the Upanisadic understood t h a n a n y t h i n g i n those the universe i s process guaranteed by

tradition,

i n Buddhism t o be a c o h e r e n t

t h e e x i s t e n c e of a u n i v e r s a l n a t u r a l law or o r d e r

(dhamma/dharma)<96>. Both t r a d i t i o n s agree t h a t no c r e a t o r , except perhaps as an agent i n h e r e n t i n t h e process itself, is there are

r e q u i r e d t o e x p l a i n , t h e o r i g i n , o f t h e w o r l d , though s t r o n g l y t h e i s t i c trends i n t h e Vedic-Upanisadic

tradition,

a r i s i n g from t h e f a c t t h a t the a b s o l u t e i s e x p e r i e n c e d by some as a p e r s o n a l b e i n g . G e n e r a l l y speaking, t h e Buddha's

t e a c h i n g s on t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s - n o t a b l y i g n o r a n c e and d e s i r e - behind existence, the workings e s s e n t i a l worthlessness o f k a r m i c law and t h e reality,

o f t h e whole o f phenomenal

are i n agreement w i t h t h e views most f r e q u e n t l y and f o r c e f u l l y expressed i n t h e Upanisads. We can compare t h e

U p a n i s a d i c n o t i o n t h a t each o f us i s t h e "maker and c o n t r o l l e r " o f t h e w o r l d w i t h t h e Buddha's s t a t e m e n t w i t h i n " t h i s fathom-long end o f t h e w o r l d . The problem o f whether the e m p i r i c a l w o r l d can be c a l l e d that

body" i s t o be found t h e o r i g i n and

' r e a l ' or n o t has e x e r c i s e d some B u d d h i s t minds j u s t as i t has t h e i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t h e Upanisads (see c h a p t e r 1 1 ) .

Nagarjuna, an eminent B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h e r of the 2nd or 3 r d c e n t u r y AD, f o r m u l a t e d t h e idea o f two l e v e l s of t r u t h samvrti satya (phenomenal t r u t h ) and paramartha s a t y a samsara i s t r u e and

( a b s o l u t e t r u t h ) - a c c o r d i n g t o which

r e a l from t h e p o i n t o f view o f a b e i n g i n samsara, b u t f r o m the l e v e l o f t h e a b s o l u t e , n i r v a n a , i t has no r e a l i t y . The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s t o acknowledge t h e l e v e l one i s t a l k i n g from o r about. T h i s idea can be u s e f u l l y a p p l i e d t o t h e

Buddha's o r i g i n a l t e a c h i n g and a l s o may h e l p i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g some p a r t s o f t h e Upanisads such as MaiU 6.17: i f brahman i s i n f i n i t e i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , from t h e p o i n t o f view o f brahman

"east and t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s e x i s t n o t " , y e t they a r e r e a l

f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d . The main, d i f f e r e n c e between t h e U p a n i s a d i c t e a c h i n g s and concerns t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e phenomenal as we have

the Buddhist

w o r l d t o t h e a b s o l u t e . The U p a n i s a d i c t e a c h e r s ,

seen, q u i t e c l e a r l y equate t h e g o a l o f knowledge "with t h e source o f e x i s t e n c e , t h a t i s , brahman or atroan, b u t t h e Buddha never a s s e r t e d t h a t nibbana was e i t h e r t h e s o u r c e or in of any way c a u s a l l y connected w i t h samsara. I n d e e d he spoke nibbana as e v e r y t h i n g samsara i s n o t . On t h e o t h e r hand, I any r e l a t i o n

am n o t aware t h a t he ever e x p r e s s l y d e n i e d between t h e a b s o l u t e merely dismissed

source and. t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y . He and s p e c u l a t i o n s as

such q u e s t i o n s

i n a p p r o p r i a t e - I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t some l a t e r s c h o o l s o f Buddhism ( n o t a b l y V i j n a n a v a d a ) come round t o a view whereby

from t h e angle o f an e n l i g h t e n e d one no r e a l d i s t i n c t i o n i s drawn between samsara and n i r v a n a . A c c o r d i n g to the

Vijnanavadins, the attainment of nirvana e n t a i l s a s h i f t i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s (from t h e c o n t e x t o f l o k a - d h a t u , 'world-element' t o dharma-dhatu, 'reality-element'), v "

samsara i s n o t l i t e r a l l y

l e f t b e h i n d b u t r a t h e r ceases t o

b i n d t h e e n l i g h t e n e d one. From such an a n g l e , no l o n g e r p e r c e i v i n g any dichotomy o f s u b j e c t and o b j e c t or of t h i s w o r l d and t h e beyond, samsara and n i r v a n a a r e s a i d t o be one and t h e same.

APPENDIX:

Some notes on cosmogony i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s .

There a r e many p a r a l l e l s w i t h I n d i a i n t h e mythology and p h i l o s o p h y o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s . W h i l e I have drawn a t t e n t i o n t o a few o f them i n t h e course worth e l a b o r a t i n g a little o f t h i s s t u d y , i t i s perhaps further. c h a p t e r t h a t water i s a common I t is

I mentioned i n t h e f i r s t

symbol f o r t h e w o r l d p o t e n t i a l , t h e p r i m a l element. found i n o t h e r Indo-European and a l s o

( f o r example) S e m i t i c

m y t h o l o g i e s , n o t a b l y i n b i b l i c a l image o f "the S p i r i t o f God" moving on the f a c e o f t h e waters<97>. The cosmic egg i s found elsewhere, f o r example i n Greek, E g y p t i a n and Japanese

cosmogonies<98>, and t h e f l o o d - m y t h appears i n s e v e r a l contexts too, i n the b i b l i c a l example. Varuna, c l o s e l y connected is (as 1 mentioned i n c h a p t e r w i t h t h e w a t e r s i n t h e Vedas 7) p o s s i b l y of t h e same s t o r y o f Noah's Ark, f o r

Indo-European r o o t as t h e Greek Quranos. Anyone f a m i l i a r w i t h the Vedic Varuna m i g h t be s t r u c k by a cosmogonic passage from Hesiod which t e l l s how " b r o a d - b r e a s t e d Gaia, t h e f i r m and gave b i r t h (without a

e v e r l a s t i n g abode o f a l l d i v i n i t i e s " , mate) t o : " f i r s t

o f a l l and as h e r e q u a l , t h e s t a r r y Sky,

Ouranos, so t h a t he s h o u l d c o m p l e t e l y cover h e r and be a f i r m and e v e r l a s t i n g abode f o r t h e b l e s s e d gods" (Theogonia 116)

<99>. Varujia' s name, as I s a i d , may be d e r i v e d from a r o o t meaning ' t o c o v e r ' , 'to encompass', he i s t h e f i r s t - b o r n o f

A d i t i and he i s r e p r e s e n t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e sky w i t h i t s s t a r s , moon and sun. I n c i d e n t a l l y , Varana of t h e o l d - I r a n i a n Avesta i s c a l l e d t h e " a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g The sky"<100>.

myth o f I n d r a and V r t r a i s p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e

^5

hero-dragon-maiden s t o r i e s which appear f r e q u e n t l y i n o t h e r Indo-European m y t h o l o g i e s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t the a c t u a l l y he a h e r o i c Slightly two

p a t r o n s a i n t of England, St. George, may

f i g u r e from p r e - C h r i s t i a n Indo-European mythology. f u r t h e r a f i e l d , i n B a b y l o n i a n cosmogony, one of the

p r i m a l forms o f w a t e r , Tiamat - r e p r e s e n t i n g the

dark,

d e s t r u c t i v e powers of n a t u r e - i s d e p i c t e d i n t h e i r mythology as a dragon who i s s l a i n by the hero Merodach or Marduk<101>. i n the I n d i a n t e x t s , "the f i r s t seed

Kama, Love or D e s i r e of mind" (RV

10.129.4), i s m i r r o r e d i n Greek -

particularly

Orphic - m y t h o l o g y by Eros, among whose o t h e r names are Protogonos who egg ( ' f i r s t - b o r n ' ) and Phan.es ('he who appears' or 'he

r e v e a l s ' ) . I n some s t o r i e s Eros was

b o r n from a s i l v e r in turn

produced by Chronos, Time, or Nyx, N i g h t , and gods<102>.

produced t h e o t h e r The

Word, p r o m i n e n t i n the Brahmanas, appears i n o t h e r

c o n t e x t s , n o t a b l y i n opening l i n e s of St. John's Gospel i n the New Testament of the B i b l e where i t s Greek form i s l o g o s . the

Logos a l s o f e a t u r e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the w r i t i n g s of G n o s t i c s of e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y < 1 0 3 > . I r e f e r r e d i n chapter

1 t o t h e Greek word demiurgos,

w h i l e s p e a k i n g about the c r e a t o r or c r e a t i v e power as something d i s t i n c t from t h e a b s o l u t e source. I n some G n o s t i c r u l e r of an

w r i t i n g s the Demiurge i s the c r e a t o r and

i m p e r f e c t , l i m i t e d cosmos i n which the s o u l or s p i r i t i s trapped as i n a p r i s o n . The t r u e God, the goal of spiritual

a s p i r a t i o n , l i e s beyond and responsible

i s not a c t u a l l y causally

f o r the w o r l d of s u f f e r i n g and. e v i l < 1 0 4 > . Whether any d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e from I n d i a , we can

or not t h e r e was

r e c o g n i s e here a v e r y s i m i l a r view t o t h a t i n e a r l y Buddhism, where Mara (Death, the d e s t r o y e r ) p r e s i d e s over t h e whole o f

samsara, w h i l e n i r v a n a l i e s beyond and i s i n no way c a u s a l l y connected w i t h it.

NOTES 1. For a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n of t h e changing approach of modern European s c h o l a r s h i p t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Vedas see K. Werner, The Teachings_pf_ the,Veda and t h e Adhyatmika Method of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; i n t h e Golden J u b i l e e Volume of t h e V a i d i k a Samsodhana Mandala, Poona 1981, pp.28 8-29 5. 2. I n c i d e n t a l l y , r e c o g n i t i o n of t h i s d e c l i n e can be seen c l e a r l y i n some l a t e hymns of t h e Vedas, l i k e RV 10.82, t h e l a s t v e r s e of w h i c h r u n s : You have no knowledge of him who c r e a t e d t h e s e w o r l d s ; some o t h e r t h i n g has i n t e r p o s e d between you. The r e c i t e r s of hymns who r a v i s h l i f e i n t h e i r r i t u a l proceed w i t h t h e i r m u t t e r i n g , enwrapped i n c o n f u s i o n and i g n o r a n c e . (R. P a n i k k a r , The V e d i c E x p e r i e n c e : M a n t r a m a n j a r l , London 1977, p.813. ) 3. A t y p i c a l r e a c t i o n , e m p h a t i c a l l y expressed, opens E g g e l i n g ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e g a t a p a t h a Brahmana: I n t h e whole range of l i t e r a t u r e few works are p r o b a b l y l e s s c a l c u l a t e d t o e x c i t e t h e i n t e r e s t of any o u t s i d e t h e v e r y l i m i t e d number of s p e c i a l i s t s t h a n t h e . . . Brahmanas. For wearisome p r o l i x i t y of e x p r e s s i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s e d by dogmatic a s s e r t i o n and a f l i m s y symbolism r a t h e r t h a n s e r i o u s r e a s o n i n g , t h e s e works are perhaps n o t e q u a l l e d anywhere... (Sacred Books of t h e East,, ed. F. Max M u l l e r , v o l . X I I , p. i x . ) 4. I have g e n e r a l l y k e p t t o P a l i f o r B u d d h i s t terms, i n brackets t h e i r Sanskrit equivalents. putting

5. The e v o l u t i o n a r y view of r e l i g i o n i s more or l e s s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d by many w r i t e r s . Thus Radhakrishnan and Moore can get away w i t h s a y i n g t h a t t h e " r e p r e s e n t s t h e e a r l i e s t phase of t h e e v o l u t i o n of r e l i g i o u s consciousness where we have n o t so much commandments of p r i e s t s as t h e o u t p o u r i n g s of p o e t i c minds who are s t r u c k by t h e i n e x h a u s t i b l e mystery of l i f e " (A Sourcebook i n I n d i a n P h i l o s o p h y , P r i n c e t o n 1 973, p. 4 ) . Deussen, w r i t i n g a t t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y , compares Veda and Upanisad w i t h t h e Old Testament and the New Testament of the B i b l e , s e e i n g t h e l a t t e r as t h e c u l m i n a t i o n and c r o w n i n g achievement of t h e f o r m e r . He goes on t o say: t h i s analogy i s n o t merely e x t e r n a l and a c c i d e n t a l , b u t i s fundamental and based upon a u n i v e r s a l law of development of t h e r e l i g i o u s l i f e w h i c h i s acknowledged on b o t h s i d e s . (P. Deussen, The P h i l o s o p h y of t h e Upanisads, New York 1966, p- 46) I would argue b o t h w i t h t h e idea of any such u n i v e r s a l law and w i t h t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t i t i s "acknowledged on b o t h s i d e s " . The New Testament may w e l l be t o C h r i s t i a n s t h e c l i m a x and f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e Old Testament, b u t i n I n d i a t h e Vedas t r a d i t i o n a l l y h o l d t h e p l a c e of a u t h o r i t y and i n t h e Upanisads t h e m s e l v e s r e f e r e n c e s are made t o Vedic verses as r e c o r d s of the v e r y h i g h e s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g (see note 6 1 ) .

6. Werner speaks o f " t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e Vedic message d e l i v e r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on s e v e r a l l e v e l s - a d d r e s s i n g o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , educated c l a s s e s l i k e p r i e s t s and a r i s t o c r a t s and a l s o a s p i r i t u a l l y minded m i n o r i t y - t h r o u g h the medium o f t h e language of symbols and myths" (K. Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas and i t s C o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n , i n Numen. v o l . x x i v - Dec.1 97 7, p.223). 7. Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas..., p.22 4. 8. P a n i k k a r , p.102. 3. P a n i k k a r , p.98. 10. P a n i k k a r , p.60. 11. The r o o t or ar may be connected w i t h t h e f i t t i n g o f spokes t o t h e hub o f a wheel. See P a n i k k a r , p. 350 note 132. 12. See F.B.J. K u i p e r , A n c i e n t I n d i a n Cosmogony, New D e l h i 1983, ch.4: "The B l i s s o f Asa". 13. P a n i k k a r , p.509. 14. A.A. M a c d o n e l l , Vedic Mythology, 15. P a n i k k a r , p.7 2. 16. Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas..., p.231. 1 7 . .Kuiper , pp . 3- 1 0 . 18. See f o r example t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n M a c d o n e l l , p . 5 4 f f . 13. K u i p e r , pp..12-13. 20. P a n i k k a r , p. 437. 21. I owe a l o t here t o Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas..., pp.223-2 40. References a r e t o M a c d o n e l l ' s t r a n s l a t i o n , used a l s o by Werner i n t h e a r t i c l e . 22. P a n i k k a r , p.66 0. 23. P a n i k k a r , p.7 53. 24. P a n i k k a r , p.660. 25. Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas..., p. 2 25. 26. An a l t e r n a t i v e d e r i v a t i o n m i g h t p o s s i b l y be made from t h e r o o t cla, ' c u t o f f ' , hence ' u n c u t , ' u n d i v i d e d ' .
1

D e l h i 1381, p.70.

27. Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas. . . , p. 2 2 6. 28. M a c d o n e l l , p. 121.

23. Werner, Symbolism i n t h e Vedas. . ., p.231. 30. Werner, Yoga and I n d i a n P h i l o s o p h y , D e l h i 1 3 7 7, p.27. See a l s o Symbolism i n t h e Vedas. . . , p.233.

45

31. P a n i k k a r , p. 508. 32. .Panikkar, p. 5 08. 33. Eg. J..L. JBrockington, The Sacred Thread. Edinburgh p. 108. ~ ~ " " ' 34. P a n i k k a r , P- 508. 35. P a n i k k a r , P- 245 . 36 . P a n i k k a r , P- 2 08 . 37 . P a n i k k a r , P- 63 . 38. P a n i k k a r , P- 65 . 39. P a n i k k a r , P- 84. 40 . P a n i k k a r , P- 825 . 41. S a c r i f i c e i s a l s o c e n t r a l t o t h e Vedas and t o t h e Upanisads, b u t i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t ways. P a n i k k a r says: I f one had t o choose a s i n g l e word t o express t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e of t h e Vedic R e v e l a t i o n , t h e word y a j n a , s a c r i f i c e , would perhaps he t h e most adeguate... The c o n c e p t i o n of s a c r i f i c e , c e r t a i n l y , v a r i e d t h r o u g h t h e ages, and t h e term i t s e l f has received d i f f e r i n g connotations, but the u n d e r l y i n g i n t u i t i o n and i t s c e n t r a l i t y have remained. ( P a n i k k a r , p. 347.) 42. S. RadJiakrishnan, The P r i n c i p a l Upanisads, London p. 5 2 . 1953, 1981,

43. For a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e meaning o f brahman, see Werner, Yoga and I n d i a n P h i l o s o p h y , p.30. 44. P a n i k k a r , p.80. _45. Eg.gsling, p.153. 46. For a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i n c e s t theme see P a n i k k a r , 47. P a n i k k a r , p. 107. 48. P a n i k k a r , p.88. p.544ff.

49. P a n i k k a r , p. 106. 50. P a n i k k a r , p.107.

51. N.N. .Bhattacharyya, .History of I n d i a n Cosmogonlcal I d e a s , New D e l h i 1971 , p . 31 . 52. Such as t h e "pure sounds", bhuh, bhuvah, s v a r , and. t h e sacred s y l l a b l e , am. See, f o r example, AS, 5.32. 53. E g g e l i n g , p.374.

54. P a n i k k a r , p.79. 55. For r e f e r e n c e s see P a n i k k a r , p.152. 56 . P a n i k k a r , p . 1b2. 57. K u i p e r , pp.9-22 . 58. E g g e l i n g , p.380. 59. Radhakrishnan p.73.

60. Deussen, The P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Upanisads p . 3 8 f f . 61. An example o f such a r e f e r e n c e i s a t ChU 3.17.6-7 where t h e a u t h o r quotes from RV 1.50.10, p u t t i n g t h e Vedic imagery o f dawn and l i g h t a l o n g s i d e t h e U p a n i s a d i c t e r m i n o l o g y o f freedom from d e s i r e and r e a l i s a t i o n of oneness w i t h t h e u n d y i n g essence o f l i f e . 62. So, f o r example, f r o m t h e a g n i h o t r a - the t r a d i t i o n a l f i r e - s a c r i f i c e c e n t r a l t o t h e Vedic r i t u a l and e l a b o r a t e d i n the s p e c u l a t i o n s o f t h e Brahmanas - t h e U p a n i s a d i c a u t h o r s developed t h e n o t i o n o f prana~gnihotra, t h e i n n e r ' f i r e o b l a t i o n by b r e a t h ' . 63 . Radhakri shnan, P64. Radhakrishnan, P- 6 46 . See a l s o MunU 3 65 . Radhakrishnan, PP .447 -9 . 66 . Radhakri shnan, P- 4 48 . 67 . Deussen, p . 128 . 68 . Radhakri shnan, P- 192 . 69 . P a n i k k a r , p.15 6 70 . Radhakrishnan, P- 166 . 71 . Radhakri shnan, P- 5 48. 72 . Radhakrishnan, P -5 42 . 73 . Radhakrishnan, P- 652 . 74. Radhakrishnan, PP . 446-7. See a l s o 75 . Radhakrishnan, PP .553 -7 . 76 . Deussen, p.23 7 . 77 . Deussen, p.40. 78 . Deussen, p.236. 79 . Deussen, pp. 18 4-5 80 . Radhakrishnan, P 84f f ChU

4<r

81. Radhakrishnan, p.85. 82. Radhakrishnan, p.83. 83. Radhakrishnan, p.27 2. 84. Radhakrishnan, p.276. 85. The phrase ' c o s m o l o g i c a l a g n o s t i c i s m ' i s borrowed f r o m K l o e t z i , B u d d h i s t Cosmology, D e l h i 1 983, p.12. 86. K l o e t z i , p . l . See p . l , note 1 , f o r sources and v a r i a t i o n s .

87. T. L i n g (ed. & a r r . ) , The ^uddha^s^M^l^s ^^hxjJf ^Man^ London 1381, p. 63. 88. L i n g , p. 64. 89. A.A.G. B e n n e t t , p. 43 . 90. B e n n e t t , p.45. Long D i s c o u r s e s o f t h e Buddha, Bombay 1964,

S I . K l o e t z i , p.12. J2. For d i s c u s s i o n and r e f e r e n c e s , see K l o e t z i , ch.2. 33. See, f o r example, the Buddha's d i s c o u r s e on u n i v e r s a l impermanence a t AN 10.23. 94. F.L. Woodward, Some Sayings o f the Buddha, London 1325, p.22 4-6 . 95. An example o f t h i s can be f o u n d i n t h e T e v i i j a S u t t a , where two young Brahmans, Vasettha and Bharadvaga, a r g u i n g about which p a t h t a u g h t by t h e i r e l d e r s l e a d s most s u r e l y t o u n i o n w i t h Brahma, t u r n t o h i m f o r a d v i c e . The Buddha p o i n t s o u t t h a t those c o r r u p t Brahmans, w i t h w e a l t h and wives, o f unsound minds and impure h e a r t s , q u i t e opposed t o t h e q u a l i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d t o Brahma, can n e i t h e r have a t t a i n e d t o u n i o n w i t h him nor be i n a p o s i t i o n t o t e a c h t h e way t o such u n i o n . Of one who, on t h e o t h e r hand, has f o l l o w e d t h e e i g h t f o l d p a t h t a u g h t by a Tatha~gata - h i m s e l f v i s i b l e p r o o f of and f r e e f r o m a l l doubts about the r e l i g i o u s l i f e and i t s f r u i t s - he says t h i s : [ I f J you say, V a s e t t h a , t h a t the B h i k k h u i s f r e e f r o m anger, f r e e from m a l i c e , pure i n mind, and master o f h i m s e l f ; and. t h a t Brahma i s l i k e w i s e f r e e from anger e t c . Then i n s o o t h , V a s e t t h a , t h a t the. .Bhikkhu who i s f r e e f r o m anger e t c . s h o u l d a f t e r d e a t h , when t h e body i s d i s s o l v e d , become u n i t e d w i t h Brahma , who i s t h e same - such a c o n d i t i o n of t h i n g s i s i n every way p o s s i b l e . (Dwight Goddard, A B u d d h i s t B i b l e , New York 137 0, p. 72)
1

96. See E. Conze, B u d d h i s t Thought i n I n d i a , London 1962, p t . l ch. 7 . 37. Genesis ch.1 v.2. Hebrew cosmogony appears t o be a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e B a b y l o n i a n , i n w h i c h water p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t . See B h a t t a c h a r y y a , p.121.

98. B h a t t a c h a r y y s , pp.115, 117 8 120. 99. C. .Kerenyi, The Gods of the. Greeks, London 1 9 79. 100. Panikkar, p.b07.

101. B h a t t a c h a r y y a , p.118. 102. K e r e n y i , pp.16, 17, 114, e t c .

103. See K. Rudolph ( t r a n s l . W i l s o n ) , Gnosis, E d i n b u r g h 1983, p.77 and o t h e r r e f s . 104. Rudolph, p.58 and o t h e r refs.

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