Journal of Sport Management, 2012, 26, 490-505 2012 Human Kinetics, inc.

A New Approach to Stadium Experience: The Dynamics of the Sensoryscape, Sociai Interaction, and Sense of IHome
Seunghwan Lee, Hyun Jae Lee, Won Jae Seo, and Chris Green
University of Texas at Austin The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable, valid instrument of the sensory experiences of sport attendees. The initial scale development study (A' = 263) identified 22-items to represent five dimensions of the sensoryscape. The Sensoryscape scale was confirmed as a reliable scale using CFA. SEM was used in a study of scale validity. The sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home each had a positive, direct impact on fans' satisfaction for both major (N = 259) and minor {N= 218) league venues. Satisfaction with the stadium experience, in turn, had a positive, direct impact on intention to revisit. Similar models were confirmed for both contexts; however the magnitude of effects varied. Implications for sport marketing practice and future research are discussed. The importance of the experience economy has been widely recognized in consumer research (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). In the experience economy people readily exchange valued resources for motivational and emotional experiences that are staged by service organizations or product producing organizations (Barlow & Maul, 2000). Experiences have always been at the heart of the entertainment business (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), and sporting events are no exception. There is greater inducement to fans' repeat attendance when they have good experiences in the facility. Although economists have typically viewed experiences and services in a similar way, experiences are different from services in the sense that experiences tend to be more memorable, personal, and interactive (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). For spectator sports, creating more memorable and personally meaningful experiences is important to sport marketers because these experiences can mitigate the effects of a team's on-field performance (Hill & Green, 2000). For example, the Chicago Cubs have a history of poor on-field performance, but have also had a staunchly loyal fan base (Woolsey & Bmner, 2008). A number of consumer behavior studies have begun to pay close attention to consumers' experiences via their five senses: sight, sound, touch, smell and taste (Gob, 2001; Hultn, Broweus, & Dijk, 2009; Lindstrom, 2005; Schmitt, 1999). According to Anderson and Sullivan (1993), in a competitive marketing environment consumer satisfaction is one of the most important predictors of consumer retention. Consumers' sensual experience of products and brands via thefivesenses are widely known to affect consumer satisfaction. Indeed, consumers tend to be driven less by the functional attributes of products and services than the subconscious sensory elements derived by the total experience (Zaltman, 2003). This is why the world's most successful companies differentiate their products and brands by utilizing the five senses to gain a competitive advantage. For example, Singapore Airlines has created a branded flying experience by adding a distinct smell to its hot towel service and playing music in its cabins (Lindstrom, 2005). In the professional sports industry, a stadium is an important venue in which sport consumers directly consume and experience sports (Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999). Although the long-term health of any sport facility is directly affected by the quality of the sporting event, it is also dependent on the quality of the spectator experience (Sheard, 2001). The experience of a sport event through all five senses generates excitement, which can encourage sport consumers to attend live events rather than watch the same event on television. Although advanced technologies, such as HDTV, have enriched the media viewing experience and surround sound may enhance the auditory experience somewhat, the live experience still presents a sensual experience that cannot yet be fully reproduced. Fans seeking to stimulate all of the senses are more willing to overcome constraints such as travel time and cost to obtain this experience. However, little attention has focused on the role of the five senses in the creation of stadium satisfaction and subsequent intention to revisit. Traditionally, consumer behavior approaches have tended to assume that product or service quality is one

S. Lee, H.J. Lee, Seo, and Green are with the Dept. of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.

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of the most powerful determinants of customer satisfaction and behavioral intention (e.g., Anderson, Fomell, & Lehmann, 1994; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1994). This approach is far more concerned with product functionality or service quality than with the sensual experience of the customer. However, more recent work has focused on sustaining the brand and customer experience (e.g., Brakus, Schmitt, & Zarantonello, 2009; Gentile, Spiller, & Noci, 2007). This work recognizes the power of the customers' full experiences, including sensory, emotional, and cognitive components of the experience, via its effect on consumer satisfaction and loyalty (Brakus et al., 2009; Gentile et al., 2007). On the other hand, sport marketing researchers have primarily focused on two types of antecedents that lead to customer satisfaction and behavioral intention: core product (i.e., game performance; Madrigal, 1995; Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2005) and customer service (Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994, 1996; Wakefield, Blodgett, & Sloan, 1996; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). In this approach, the concept of satisfaction is outcome-oriented. In other words, if the core product (e.g., performance) or ancillary services (e.g., facility environment or employees' service) meet or exceed sport consumers' expectations, they will be satisfied. Of course, these product and service qualities are important components of the stadium experience. However, the consumption experience encompasses far more than receiving a quality product or service; there is also a significant hedonic component to the experience (Schmitt, 2003). Much of our customer service research relies heavily on consumers' cognitive evaluations of the sport facility and their interactions with stadium staff (e.g., Wakefield & Sloan, 1995; Yoshida & James, 2010). While this is certainly an important component when understanding the spectator experience, negative cognitive evaluations can be moderated by positive affective experiences. For example, fans often complain about seat comfort, food quality, and overpriced concessions. Yet they continue to attend games. In the face of such negative evaluations of the stadium and its amenities, pure cognitive evaluations would consider repeat attendance irrational. Clearly, there is more to the attendance experience than comfort, value, and polite staff. Both positive and negative feelings are often grounded in the sensory experiences of attendance and help to complete the stadium experience. In fact, these sensory experiences may influence and define the quality and intensity of our experience as sport consumers. A higher quality or more powerful sensory experience has been shown to influence the extent of the purchase and, when positive, result in a higher level of customer loyalty (Hultn et al., 2009; Lindstrom, 2005). Cleariy, the sensual experience can also have powerful negative effects. For example, a romantic dining experience may be ruined by the noise of sitting near the kitchen. In stadia, negative sensual experiences may relate to unwelcome odors, such as stale beer, or the tactile experience of overcrowding. Consequently, a more elaborated understanding of the

stadium experience, particularly through the five senses, is required. Just as brand and customer experiences are thought to be a function of multiple components (e.g., Brakus, et al., 2009; Gentile et al., 2007), stadium experiences are comprised of more than that experienced through the five senses. According to Westerbeek and Shilbury (1999), as a stadium serves as an outlet for social interaction, it is a key element that affects spectators' stadium experience. The critical element that sets the live experience apart from its televised replica seems to be the sense of community derived from the social interaction that a stadium affords. Indeed, sport spectators report liminoid experiences and communitas as a function of their interactions with other spectators, which can make the sporting event more enjoyable (Chalip, 2006). Sport stadia provide spectators with a chance to have convivial but anonymous relationships with strangers (spectators) for games (Melnick, 1993). In this world of strangers, spectators experience freedom, excitement, and fun (Lofland, 1973). Despite the importance of social interaction to spectators' experience, no empirical study has tested the effect of social interaction on satisfaction with the stadium experience itself. Sport researchers have instead examined social interaction as a motive for attendance (e.g.. Wann, 1995), or fanship (e.g.. Trail & James, 2001). It is not surprising that social interactions would be an important part of diverse stadium experiences that spectators may have. Thus, this study, in keeping with the multidimensional nature of the customer experience, examines the impact of social interaction on spectators' satisfaction with the stadium experience. Fans also report experiencing a feeling of home in their home stadium (Sigmon, Whitcomb, & Snyder, 2002). To some fans, a professional team's stadium is not just a facility; it also provides symbolic meaning in the sense that they have feelings of belongingness or rootedness and personal memories associated with their home stadium, just as they have toward their home places (Canter, Comber, & Uzzell, 1989; Giulianotti, 2004). Memories are often powerfully stimulated by sensual input such as smells and tastes (Willander & Larsson, 2006). A visit to a stadium with its attendant smells, sounds, and tastes can stimulate nostalgic memories of earlier visits and even the people associated with those visits. Although it makes intuitive sense that fans could have feelings for their home stadium that mimic those of their own home places, only one study has shown this relationship. Charleston (2009) found that fans perceived the stadium as a psychological home; they both identified with and felt a special affection for the physical locale that was reminiscent of home. Yet, Charleston's study makes no attempt to relate this sense of home to anything else. One would expect that stronger feelings of the stadium as home would positively affect fans' stadium experiences, and thus their satisfaction with the stadium experience. While it may be comfortable to feel at home in the stadium, unless this leads to other important consumer behaviors, it is not a particularly

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useful construct. Consequently, this study examines the relationship between sense of home and satisfaction with the stadium experience. Previous work in sport consumer research has predominantly focused attention on physical surroundings (i.e., sportscape) as a major determinant of consumer experience (e.g., Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994, 1996; Wakefield et al, 1996; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). The physical surroundings are clearly important, but they are interpreted through the senses. Sensory integration is a widely recognized phenomenon in cognitive psychology, suggesting that one sense influences another (Jones, 1986; Power, 1980). Previous work with the sportscape has failed to consider the myriad ways in which consumers experience physical surroundings. For example, comfortable seats may be a function of touch (How much room is there for your legs? How hard are the seats?), but the comfort experienced cannot ignore the impact of the smell of those seated around you, or the sound of nearby fans screaming in your ear. Fans interpret their surroundings through a synthesis of all sensory input being experienced. Traditional measures of stadium satisfaction fail to account for multiple sensory inputs. The purpose of this study is to provide a more complete understanding of the sensual, social, and psychological aspects of the sport consumption experience within the stadium. Specifically, the purpose of this research is to develop a reliable, valid scale of the sensoryscape. Consequently, it expands the insights of previous sensory research to the field of sport consumption and examines its relative impact (along with social interaction and sense of home) on spectators' satisfaction with the stadium experience and their intentions to return to a stadium across two different contexts (i.e., major and minor league professional baseball). The two settings were selected to test the validity and reliability of the scale.

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Sensory Experience
It is well established in consumer behavior that consumers' sensory experiences play an important role in their perceptions of the value companies provide. By developing the sensory elements to meet and exceed the expectations of consumers, companies can deliver a positive consumer experience that can turn casual consumers into loyal consumers (Gob, 2001; Lindstrom, 2005; Schmitt, 1999). For example, the Sydney Opera House is a trademark for not only a city, but a whole country for its attractive architecture (Lindstrom, 2005). The Intel Inside jingle has built consumers' stronger emotional connection with the Intel brand (Schmitt, 1999). After Coca-Cola replaced its glass bottles with cans, its brand recognition decreased because of the lack of the distinctive feel of the glass bottle (Gob, 2001). Rolls-Royce added the scent of classic models to new models to make

consumers recognize its unique scent (Lindstrom, 2005). The Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin distinguishes itself by the food and drink service offered inside the theater (Barlow & Maul, 2000). However, the sensory experience alone may not guarantee that consumers remember the experience. In order for the experience to exist in a consumer's mind, it must be memorable (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). According to memory researchers, information that engages in multiple senses is more likely to be remembered (Schacter, 1996). The effects of multisensory engagement of consumers vary. For example, brands that appeal to all five senses can affect the perception of product quality, and therefore demand a premium price over similar brands that appeal to only one or two senses (Lindstrom, 2005). In this regard, a stadium can be considered a "sensoryscape" which provides a memorable experience by appealing to allfivesenses; spectators can appreciate the visual beauty of a stadium's architecture and grounds, hear stimulating music at the stadium, feel comfortable seats, experience the stadium's unique smell, and enjoy the taste of the food available at the concession stands. This conceptualization of the stadium experience differs from most facility research that has focused on cognitive evaluations of customer service, with some attention to sight (e.g., facility aesthetics), seating comfort, and crowding. Yet even these dimensions related to sight and touch require a sensory evaluation in our current measures (cf. Wakefield et al., 1996). In short, sport facility researchers have paid little attention to the sensory components of fans' experiences at stadia and arenas. This research seeks to examine fans' sensory, rather than cognitive, evaluations of the stadium. Although there is no empirical study regarding what constitutes a stadium experience through the five senses, several studies have provided some insight into these dynamics. Gaffney and Bale (2004) suggested five sensual factors that affect stadium experiences: sight (e.g., a stadium's appearance, interior, sightlines, faade, image of a packed crowd); sound (e.g., the noise of spectators, chants and songs, acoustics); touch (e.g., feelings of compression by other spectators, comfortable seats); smell (e.g., a stadium's unique odor, evoked memories and nostalgia, crowd smells, food and beverage smells, tailgate party smells); and taste (e.g., tastes of stadium food and beverage, release from routine life by eating at the stadium). Other work has suggested at least one aspect of the five senses that can be experienced at the stadium. For example, visual experiences have focused mainly on aesthetic and functional aspects of a stadium that include a stadium's architecture, characteristics, design, color, landscape, decoration, scoreboards, and sightlines (Gladden & Funk, 2002; Hill & Green, 2000; Holt, 1995; Rein, Kotier, & Shields, 2006; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994, 1996; Wakefield et al., 1996; Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999). Auditory experiences are composed of sound systems, songs and music at the stadium, booming announcers, and noise, cheering, and applause by the crowd (Hocking, 1982; Holt, 1995; Rein et al., 2006;

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Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999). Tactile experiences have been discussed as comfortable seats, spatial arrangement of seats and aisles, intra-audience effects (i.e., spectators' reactions to each other), and crowd density (i.e., a tightly packed crowd; Hill & Green, 2000; Hocking, 1982; Rein et al, 2006; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994, 1996; Wakefield et al., 1996; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). Olfactory experiences have been suggested to be related to the smell of stadium food and beverage (Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999). Similarly, gustatory experiences have been described as a full range of food and beverage services, good tasting food, and feeling of better taste at the stadium (Hill & Green, 2000; Holt, 1995; Rein et al., 2006; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). Previous studies have suggested that sensory experience is a major determinant of consumer satisfaction (Hultn et al., 2009; Lindstrom, 2005; Schmitt, 1999). Since the sensoryscape is an amalgamation of experiences derived from thefivesenses, it is likely that more positive experiences of the sensoryscape lead to higher levels of satisfaction with the stadium experience. Based on the literature we suggest the following hypothesis: H|: More positive experiences ofthe sensoryscape will lead to higher levels of satisfaction with the stadium experience. Furtber, it is expected that the sensoryscape and its effects will remain stable across different settings.

If this is true, it is reasonable to expect that experiences of social interaction may contribute to spectators' overall satisfaction with the stadium experience. Although the effect of social interaction as a major motive or autotelic factor of spectators has been tested with vatious variables such as fanship, team loyalty, merchandise and media consumption, and game attendance, it seems that the effect of social interaction on stadium satisfaction may be more direct and salient. That is, social interaction and stadium experience (and subsequent satisfaction) occur together in the stadium while the effect of social interaction on consumers' other behavior (e.g., fanship, game, media, and merchandise consumption) seems to be less direct. Further, there is some evidence that social interaction can stimulate communitas, but this effect has been shown only in the case of mega-events. It is not clear whether social interaction can and does evince the same experience at smaller, more regularly occurring events. Recognizing the lack of knowledge regarding the effect of social interaction, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: Social interaction will have a positive and direct impact on stadium experience satisfaction.

Sense of Home
The importance of emotional attachment to sport venues that represent sport teams has been widely acknowledged in the field of sport sociology (e.g.. Bale, 2000). Professional sport teams have a significant link to the specific place where they are located (Crawford, 2004). For example, professional sport teams tend to be named after the specific place where they are nested (Canter et al., 1989). According to Bale (2000), as fans become attached to their home team, they also develop a topophilic (love of place) relationship with its venue. As a result, a sport team and its respective stadium are often imbued with a sense of home; it is their home team and home ground at the individual level (Bale, 1993; Sandvoss, 2005). This connection between the stadium and fans can be attributed to the fact that fans attach various meanings, such as feelings of belongingness or rootedness, and personal memories, to the stadium which are similar to those attached to their own home places (Giulianotti, 2004; Moore, 2000). Further, at the societal level, the sport venue becomes an "emblem of locaUty" that represents a town and its residents (Taylor, 1991). In an empirical study of English football Charleston (2009) found that supporters considered the stadium a "symbolic home." The football team's home stadium embodied the same meanings to supporters as those identified with their own home places including place attachment, establishment/maintenance of social relationships, ownership, and personal identity. Interestingly, feelings of a stadium as home are not dependent on live attendance. Instead, fans can associate home and place with a stadium they grew up seeing on television. Still, one would expect that fans with more actual experience of the stadium would be more likely to feel that it is "home."

Sociai Interaction
Social interaction has been widely studied as a key motive for sports spectating (e.g.. Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). Melnick (1993) argues that as American society has become more urbanized and fragmented and people feel more isolated, the sport stadium has become a "third place" for casual sociability. This is possible because as spectators share interest and excitement for the game or team, it is easier for them to engage in social interaction. In this regard, a stadium becomes an important outlet for social interaction in a society and gathers spectators to celebrate a unique experience (Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999). As Holt (1995) suggested, for fans who "consume as play," interpersonal actions, such as communing and socializing, are autotelic rather than instrumental. Therefore, they use their sport consumption and resulting shared experiences as resources to interact with fellow consumers. Even such interpersonal actions can extend to a more exclusive domainfan subculture (Green, 2001 ; Holt, 1995). Further, it is well recognized that social interaction is a key element of liminoid space where social boundaries disappear and a heightened sense of connection with other spectators (i.e., communitas) occurs that adds excitement and fun to the overall stadium experience, at least for mega-events (Chalip, 2006; Kemp, 1999). A new social structure (just fans, not white collar or blue collar) that exists only within the stadium as a liminoid space may be free of social restrictions or stigmas and can reinforce fans' desire for social interaction.

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Although the work of Charleston (2009) clearly shows that fans do indeed associate the stadium with feelings of home, there has been no research linking this sense of home with consumption behaviors. It is important to note that although sense of home to some degree can be considered a preexisting feeling that spectators bring to the sport venue, this feeling may also reflect an ongoing stadium experience that can be maintained, enhanced, or even mitigated with further stadium experience. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that when fans experience their team's stadium as home, their overall stadium satisfaction with the venue will increase. The following hypothesis is proposed: H3: A sense of home will have a positive and direct impact on stadium experience satisfaction.

spectators within the stadium where social interactions are more likely to occur. Spectators' emotional attachment to placesense of homeseems to be formed based on their sensory experiences of the team and its sport venues. Tuan ( 1975) argues that home as a place is a center of meaning constmcted by experience and can be experienced through sensory modes. Consequently, it is reasonable to expect that the sensory scape may contribute to spectators' experience of the stadium as home. On the other hand, those who seek to feel a sense of home are more likely to be receptive to the sensory scape. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H4: Sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home will be correlated with one another.

Relationship Among Sensoryscape, Social Interaction, and Sense of Home

Research clearly suggests that the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home should each affect fans' satisfaction with the stadium. However, there are fewer suggestions regarding the relationships among sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home. There are grounds for expecting the three factors to be related with one another. It is likely that social interactions within the stadium may contribute to feelings of the sport venue as home. Just as social interactions are a part of feeling at home, the stadium too can offer fans home-like benefits (e.g., comfort, sense of neighborhood or belongingness) from social connections available at the stadium (Charleston, 2009; Hildago & Hernandez, 2001). In other words, fans' consideration ofthe stadium as home should be, at least in part, a function of the fan's level of social interaction. On the other hand, it can be expected that those that seek a sense of home are more likely to engage in interactions with other spectators. In addition, the physical environment can affect the nature of social interaction among consumers (Bennett & Bennett, 1970; Bitner, 1992). Previous work in organizational behavior has found that behaviors related to social interaction, such as small group interaction, friendship formation, group cohesion, and communication pattems, can be influenced by physical conditions (e.g., Sundstorm & Sundstorm, 1986). Similarly, in the stadium context, Melnick (1993) argues that the physical conditions at the stadium (e.g., spatial arrangement of seats and aisles, amount of room afforded for concessions) can be important means to promote social interaction. Although a stadium's physical environment, what Wakefield and Sloan (1995) label the "sportscape," clearly seems to be a major factor in promoting (or inhibiting) social interaction, the human element (other spectators) that are encompassed by the "sensoryscape" presented in this study can also enhance social interaction. Alternatively, it is equally plausible that those who desire more social interaction would identify the physical environment and potential

Stadium Satisfaction and Repeat Attendance

Because of its influence on consumers' behavioral intentions and customer retention (Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Oliver, 1980), consumer satisfaction bas been the subject of much attention in the context of spectator sports (e.g., Cronin, Brady, & Huit, 2000; Yoshida & James, 2010). Satisfied consumers tend to report stronger repurchase intentions, and are more likely to recommend the products or services purchased to others (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). In the context of sport venues, Wakefield and Blodgett ( 1994,1996) found that consumer satisfaction with the sportscape had a positive effect on repeat patronage. Oliver (1993) distinguished overall (cumulative) satisfaction from transaction-specific consumer satisfaction, which is an immediate postpurchase evaluation. However Garbarino and Johnson (1999) argue that measuring consumer satisfaction as the consumer's cumulative level of satisfaction based on all experiences with the product or service provider is more useful to capture the enduring and general level of consumer satisfaction. Since spectators at the stadium may experience a variety of stadium elements, such as services provided, interaction with other spectators, emotional attachment to a stadium, and the physical environment, stadium satisfaction will be defined as a sport consumer's overall evaluation and associated emotions based on all experiences within the stadium. In this regard, this study focuses on consumers' stadium experience satisfaction rather than their game satisfaction. With the refined definition of stadium satisfaction, the following was hypothesized: H5: Stadium experience satisfaction will have a positive and direct impact on future intention to revisit. The study was conducted in two stages: scale development and validation. The scale development stage identified and generated potential items for the sensoryscape through a review of relevant literatures. Items were then evaluated by an expert panel for content validity. Lastly,

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confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to confirm the hypothesized factor model by examining the fit of the model to the observed data. The scale validation stage examined the relationships among the sensoryscape, social interaction, sense of home, satisfaction with the stadium experience, and intention to revisit using stmctural equation modeling (SEM). (Figure 1)

Sensoryscape Scale Development

Based on the literature reviewed (e.g., Gaffney & Bale, 2004; Gladden & Funk, 2002; Hill & Green, 2000; Hocking, 1982; Holt, 1995; Rein et al., 2006; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994, 1996; Wakefield et al, 1996; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995; Westerbeek & Shilbury, 1999), 24 items representing the sensoryscape were generated. The sight dimension of the sensoryscape was determined to be composed of a stadium's architecture, landscape, sightlines, scoreboards, decorations, and colors. The sound dimension consists of the noise of other spectators, cheering, the sound system, announcer, and stadium music. The touch dimension includes psychological touch (that derives from a tightly packed crowd), physical contact with other spectators, seat comfort, and spatial arrangement

of the aisles and seats. The smell dimension contains a stadium's unique smells, past, pleasant memories evoked by the stadium smells, crowd smells, food smells, and tailgate party smells. The taste dimension is composed of a wide range of food and beverage choices, the taste of food, psychological taste (i.e., stadium's foods taste better than those purchased outside), and release from routine life by eating at the stadium. To ensure content validity, an expert panel review was conducted. A four person panel of experts consisting of professors and graduate students majoring in sport management and business examined the 24 items that were identified from the literature. They identified ambiguous items and suggested some rewording of items. In response to the suggestions of the expert panel, two items representing the sound dimension and two items representing the touch dimension were reworded.

Sample and Procedure

A convenience sample consisted of 263 respondents who were members of 20 MLB fan forum websites. To obtain participants who had actually attended a game at the stadium, one screening question was asked, "Which MLB team's stadium did you attend most recently?"

Figure 1 Hypothesized model: Antecedents and consequences of stadium experience satisfaction

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Age of respondents ranged from 16 to 78 years (M = 35.3), with males contributing 77% of the total sample. Data were collected via an online survey. A link to a web survey of the 24 items was posted to 20 MLB fan forum websites. The survey contained a brief statement of the purpose of the research and asked respondents for their consent to participate. Participants were free to end the survey at anytime. The anonymous responses were sent directly to the researchers' server.

Measurement
To identify and confirm the dimensions of the sensoryscape, the researchers used the 5 dimensions and 24-items that were identified in the literature review and reworded by expert review. The sight dimension was measured using 6-items. Four of the six items (stadium architecture, scoreboards, decorations, and colors) were modifications of items derived from Wakefield et al.'s (1996) measure. The sound dimension was measured using 5-items. The touch dimension was measured using 4-items. The two items of the touch dimension (comfortable seating and spatial arrangement of the aisles and seats) were derived from Wakefield et al.'s (1996) measure. The smell dimension was measured using 5-items. The taste dimension was measured using 4-items. Two of the four items (a wide range of food and beverage choices and good tasting food) were derived from Wakefield and Sloan's (1995) measure of food service. Respondents were asked to rate each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Sound_2 (the sound of cheering) and Touch_2 (physical contact with other spectators), respectively. Therefore, these two items, Sound_l and Touch_l, were deemed redundant and dropped from the model. All Cronbach's alpha coefficients of the five dimensions exceeded .70, ranging from .75 for Sound to .87 for Sight. The revised model fit the data better than did the original model (%^ difference = 177, df= 43, /? < .01; CH = .857; RMSEA = .092; SRMR = .075). Overall, the model is a moderate fit to the data (cf. Hu & Bentier, 1999). Marsh, Hau, and Wen (2004) argue that research should be evaluated in relation to theoretical issues such that every hypothesized link is logically supported rather than relying strictly on the rules of thumb. The final sensoryscape model is a clear, logical, conceptually sound representation of 22 items representing five sensory dimensions. Highly correlated latent factors propose the need to explore the probability of a second-order structure for the Sensoryscape scale. Conceptually, the hierarchical model examines whether the correlations among latent factors are the product of another latent factor, the sensoryscape. All five factors were significantly correlated with one another (.61 < r < .75, p < .01 throughout). Test of the Second-Order-Factor Model. As the five latent factors were significantly correlated, a secondorder-factor-model was tested. Keith (2005) recommends a hierarchical model as a more constrained, parsimonious version of the first-order model. Figure 2 shows that all items loaded significantly on their respective factors (p < .01), and factor loadings ranged from .45 for Sound_2 to .89 for Taste_4. The loadings of first-order factors on the second-order factor were also significant (p<.01) ranging from .80 for Sight and Touch to .86 for Sound. Overall, thefitof the model to the data were moderate (CFI = .854; RMSEA = .092; SRMR = .078). The second-order-factor model for the sensoryscape is shown in Figure 2.

Data Analysis
Because items were selected to represent consumers' experience of the stadium through the five senses, CFA was used to confirm the expected relationships between indicators and their corresponding dimensions.

Results
Initial Measurement Model. The initial measurement model was assessed to (1) confirm the measurement structure of the Sensoryscape scale, and (2) to identify correlations among the five latent factors. As Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranged from .74 for Touch to .87 for Sight, the identified constructs were internally consistent (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). All loadings of items on latent factors were statistically significant (/? < .01). The loadings ranged from .36 for Touch_l to .89 for Taste_4. CFA revealed an inadequate fit to the data (CFI = .826, RMSEA = .095, SRMR = .081 ). Consequently, the model fit left room for improvement. A competing model emerged based on examination of the modification indices and the item loading values. Two items showed loaded poorly on their respective factors (.46 for Sound_l and .36 for Touch_l ). Closer examination revealed that Sound_l (the noise of other spectators) and Touch_l (a tightly packed crowd) are similar in nature to

Scale Validation
Contexts
The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of the Sensoryscape scale by examining the relative impact of the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home on stadium satisfaction and, ultimately, intention to revisit. To evaluate the generalizability of the sensoryscape, the relationships were investigated in two different contexts: a professional major league baseball facility and a minor league baseball facility. The logic behind the differentiation was to identify the differences expected in contexts that often produce very different experiences, at least in terms of magnitude, with respect to the identified factors. For example, Lienert (1998) suggested that minor league teams pay more attention to the quality of experiences offered at the stadium and seek to provide them in different ways. Hill and Green (2000) also identified that the components of overall stadium experience that are important in the minor league context

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Sensoryscape

Figure 2 The second-order-factor model for the Sensoryscape scale are different than those that are important in the major league context. To investigate the effect of the league level, a MLB team, the Houston Astros, and a minor league (AAA) baseball team, the Round Rock Express, were chosen for this study.

Sample and Procedures

Data were collected in person for the minor league context. The sampling for the Round Rock Express was stratified by seating section. Spectators within each of 23 sections were approached randomly until an expected number (230)

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of surveys were completed. The survey participation was voluntary. A total of 218 completed, useable responses were obtained from the Round Rock Express site. Males were 59% of total sample, and respondents ranged in age from 11 to 85 years (M = 40.7). Most respondents were White (71%) followed by Hispanic (16%). Data for the Houston Astros were collected via an online survey, as the researchers could not obtain access to survey fans onsite. The researchers posted a survey on twelve Houston Astros' fan websites. Since some of the members of the fan websites may not have actually attended the games, one screening question was asked, "Have you ever attended a Houston Astros game before?" The responses were sent directly to the researchers' server. A total of 259 completed responses were obtained for the study. Males were 64% of the total sample, and age of respondents ranged from 15 to 77 years (M= 34.6). Similar to the Round Rock Express sample, most respondents were White (67%) followed by Hispanic (21%).

df= 2.015; CFI = .899; RMSEA = .063; SRMR = .064 (cf. Marsh et al., 2004). All three correlations among the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home were significant: .35 < r < .49, p < .01 throughout (see Table 2), thus providing evidence of convergent validity. Therefore, H4 in the major league setting was supported. The four paths between latent factors were all significant: .22 < g < .68,j9< .01 throughout. The sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home each had a positive and direct impact on stadium experience satisfaction. Stadium experience satisfaction, in turn, had a positive and direct impact on intention to revisit. Therefore, H|, H2, H3, and H5 in the major league setting were supported, and provide evidence of predictive validity. The structural model indicated that the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home explained 71.1% of the variance in satisfaction with the Houston Astros' stadium, and that these four factors predicted 45.1% of the variance in spectators' intention to retum to the stadium. Minor League Context. Like the major league context, the structural model for the minor league stadium also shows an adequate fit to the data: X^/df= 2.133; CFI = .872; RMSEA = .072; SRMR = .079. Evidence of convergent validity is shown; the correlations among the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home were significant: .19 < r < .44, p < .01 throughout. Consequently, H4 for the minor league context was supported. All the four paths between latent variables were significant: .17 < g < .15, p < .01 throughout, thus providing evidence of predictive validity. Therefore, H], H2, H3, and H5 for the minor league context were supported. The structural model indicated that the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home explained 70.5% ofthe variance in satisfaction with the Round Rock Express stadium experience; these four factors predicted 55% of the variance in spectators' intention to retum to the Round Rock Express' stadium.

Measurement
The questionnaire for the scale validation study included five measures: the sensoryscape, social interaction, sense of home, consumer satisfaction at the stadium, and repeat attendance. Demographic information was also collected. The sensoryscape was measured with the 22 items confirmed in the first study. Spectators rated each item on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Trail and James's (2001) three-item scale was used to measure respondents' social interaction at the stadium using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Sense ofthe sport venue as home was measured with four items from Charleston's (2009) measure using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Consumer satisfaction at the stadium was measured with three items from Bitner and Hubbert (1994), using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Intention to revisit was measured with a single item using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly uninterested) to 7 (strongly interested). A summary of the measures and the items within each measure is given in Table 1. Demographic information included gender, age, and ethnicity.

Discussion
This study proposed an expanded approach to understanding the stadium experience by shifting focus from a physical, instrumental perspective to a more holistic perspective that encompasses sensory, social, and psychological aspects that spectators experience at the stadium. The model is a powerful one, with the sensoryscape, social interaction, and sense of home predicting over 70% ofthe variance in satisfaction with the stadium experience in both settings. Further, stadium satisfaction had a strong, positive impact on intention to return in both contexts.

Data Analysis
Structural equation models (SEM) using AMOS were conducted separately for each context (i.e., major league and minor league) to test the hypothesized relationships among the sensoryscape, social interaction, sense of home, stadium experience satisfaction, and intention to revisit in both major and minor league settings.

Sensoryscape
The Sensoryscape scale is a reliable and valid instrument to measure fans' stadium experience. The 22-item, fivedimension scale is parsimonious, and shows good intemal consistency. It shows strong validity, as it relates to existing constructs in expected ways and is highly predictive

Results
Major League Context. The structural model shows an acceptable fit to the data for tbe major league context: xV

Table 1

Summary of Measures

Constructs Items Sensoryscape

Sight ' " '

The stadium's architecture is attractive. The stadium's landscape is attractive. The stadium provides good sightlines to watch the game. The stadium's scoreboards are entertaining to watch. The stadium's decorations are enjoyable. The stadium's colors are attractive. Sound The sound of cheering in the stadium adds excitement. The stadium has a quality sound system. The stadium announcer is entertaining. The music at the stadium is exciting. Touch Physical contact with other spectators when cheering is exciting. The stadium provides comfortable seating. The stadium has appropriate spatial arrangement of the aisles and seats. Smell , .. The stadium has a unique smell. The smells at the stadium bring back pleasant memories. The smell of the crowd is exciting. I like the smell of stadium foods. The smell of the tailgate parties is exciting. Taste The stadium offers a wide range of food and beverage. When eating at this stadium, I feel like I am released from everyday life. ' i , :

-^

- --i.

It feels ke foods purchased inside the stadium taste better than foods purchased outside. The stadium provides good tasting food. Social Interaction Interacting with other fans is a very important part of attending [team name] games. I like to talk to other people sitting near me during [team name] games. [Team name] games are great opportunities to socialize with other people. Sense of Home The one place that most represents who I am is [stadium name]. [Stadium name] means as much to me as my own home. I feel more at home at [stadium name] than at my own house. I feel more comfortable at [stadium name] than anywhere else. Stadium Experience Satisfaction Compared with other stadiums' experience, I am very satisfied with [stadium name]. My experience at [stadium name] has always been pleasant. Based on all my experience with [stadium name], I am very satisfied. Intention to Revisit How interested are you in returning to [stadium name] for other games?

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Table 2

Summary of Structural Models

Houston Astros Coefficients
R2

Path/Correlation

Round Rock Express Coefficients .51 .40 .711 .18 .37 .705 R^

Hl Sensoryscape > Stadium Satisfaction H2 Social Interaction > Stadium Satisfaction H3 Sense of Home > Stadium Satisfaction H4 Sensoryscape <-^ Social Interaction Sensoryscape <-^ Sense of Home Social Interaction <r-> Sense of Home H5 Stadium Satisfaction -* Intention to Revisit X2/df Houston Astros Round Rock Express 2.015 2.133 CFI .899 .872

.55 .22 .30 .35 .48 .24 .67 .451 RMSEA .063 .072

.20 .43
.74 SRMR .064 .079 .550

Note. All path and correlation coefficients are significant at .01 level.

of satisfaction with the stadium experience. Further, the Sensoryscape scale dimensions and associations with other constructs maintain their structure across contexts. The most significant factor affecting spectators' overall stadium satisfaction was the sensoryscape. This was true for both major and minor league contexts. This finding suggests the utility of the 5-dimensional sensoryscape approach as a basic but powerful way to leverage human senses in the spectator sport industry. This has significant theoretical implications for sport consumer behavior. It is well recognized in cognitive research that when all five senses are engaged people are more likely to form, retain, and revisit memory (Schacter, 1996). From a sport marketing point of view, sport teams can build a stronger and longer-lasting connection with sport consumers by understanding what constitutes the stadium experience through the five senses and leveraging them to build emotional attachments to place. Specifically, the sport venue's physical environment was a major element of the sensoryscape and infiuenced spectators' overall satisfaction with the stadium experience. This is consistent with previous work that emphasized the importance of a stadium's physical attributes (Wakefield & Blodgett, 1994, 1996; Wakefield, et al., 1996; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). However, the sensoryscape extends the scope of the conventional sportscape by adopting a more complex sensory perspective (e.g., Brakus et al., 2009; Gentile et al., 2007). That is, while the sportscape has largely focused on sight (e.g., facility aesthetics), touch (e.g., seating comfort), and occasionally taste (e.g., food services) dimensions, the sensoryscape adds other two dimensions, sound and smell, to the sportscape. These two dimensions are important to the

stadium experience in that they can add further excitement to the game atmosphere. Smell is increasingly recognized as an important component of experience, enhancing the sense of immersion in the experience (Willander & Larsson, 2006). Thus, stadium smells may stimulate a more holistic experience of the game and stadium. Importantly, smell is strongly associated with memory (Willander & Larsson, 2006), and can stimulate fans' previous associations with the stadium. The sensoryscape incorporates fans' sensory experience of other customers (i.e., sound, touch, smell) in ways that other conceptualizations do not. Not only do fans see one another, but they also hear, touch and smell their fellow spectators. Clearly, presence of other spectators at the stadium plays a critical role in sport consumers' experience. Recent work supports thisfinding,suggesting that watching the crowd and experiencing the atmosphere that attracts them are significant drivers of sport event attendance (Crawford, 2004). However, sport businesses still know very little about how to leverage spectators themselves to create a unique stadium experience. In this regard, lessons from European soccer and South Korean and Japanese baseball may provide some insight into the role of spectators in the creation of spectacle and atmosphere within sport venues. Spectators in those countries are not passive consumers; rather, they play a critical role in creating the spectacle and atmosphere within the sport venues through coordinated crowd activities such as doing the wave, wearing team-related costumes, chanting and singing, and playing musical instruments or balloon sticks. Interestingly, Korean baseball teams have cheering songs for individual players, as well as for the teams as an important tool for fan unity. It has the added

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benefit of the game atmosphere more exciting. In this cheering process, the spectators form a key aspect of the entertainment experience through the visual, aural, and sometimes tactile (e.g., coordinated movement) elements they bring. The challenge in leveraging the human element of the stadium experience is not merely a matter of the spatial arrangement of sport venues. It also depends on the ways that crowd participation is facilitated, designed, implemented, or at least encouraged. Each of the five senses can be leveraged to create a stronger bond with the facility. Visually, a stadium can reflect its locality via its attractive architectural appearance. The San Diego Padres incorporated the historic Westem Metal Supply Company building into PETCO Park, and the left-field train at Minute Maid Park of the Astros was designed to evoke the spirit of early industrial Houston. Meadowlands stadium, where both the New York Giants and Jets play, can change its interior lighting depending on which team plays at home. The sounds of the ballpark can be incorporated into pre- and postgame soundtracks. Consider hearing the crack of bat on ball played through the loudspeakers as you walk from your car to the stadium. Feel your heart race a bit as you hear the organ play the chords leading to a crowd pleasing, "Charge!" Further, spectators have their own sounds that can increase fans' sense of excitement. Collegiate sport fans have their fight song, soccer fans have their supporter songs, and home teams develop crowd chants. Many of these sounds are crowd created and spontaneous. The challenge to sport marketers is to find ways to facilitate fans to develop their own sounds, chants, and songs. This would enhance game atmosphere and make spectators more excited. The stadium is nothing if not a tactile environment. Comfortable seats with appropriate aisle space can enhance the fan experience. Quality surfaces throughout the stadium can also enhance fans' tactile evaluations of the venue. As with sounds, other spectators play a large role in the tactile environment of sport venues. Small crowds provide each individual with more space, but do little to enhance the hedonic value or excitement of the game. On the other hand, too much crowding can result in high levels of physical contact (and discomfort) among spectators. Touch requires a delicate balance to positively enhance the venue experience. Physical modifications and adjustments, such as closing down sections of seating, can help to optimize the perceptions of crowds as exciting. Further, sport organizations can use music and visuals to encourage physical contact with other spectators by encouraging fan interactions via such activities as the Mexican Wave or the 7th Inning Stretch. These would enhance spectators' stadium experience, and more importantly, motivate those who had the feeling of immersion in the activities to repeatedly attend the future games. The integration of smell and locality can provide a memorable experience to fans. For example, Texas barbeque brings with it smoke and an immediately identifiable smell to which fans may have positive associations. AT&T Park in San Francisco brings the sights and the

smells of the San Francisco Bay into the ballpark via its location and architecture. In addition, the smell of freshly cut grass or a newly watered and raked infield is very distinctive. The consistency of smells at the venue can contribute to powerful olfactory cues to memories. For example, the smell of hotdogs and beer may stimulate positive memories of attending a game with friends or family. On the other hand, the stench of poorly maintained restrooms can stimulate negative thoughts and memories of the venue. Sense of smell is highly related to taste. Thus the scent of foods and beverages available at a sports venue can stimulate hunger and even cause more saliva to be formed. Consequently, sport teams can provide locally famous dishes, and franchise food providers can create a special dish only available at the stadium. The stronger spectators' positive associations with these tastes, the more likely that just smelling them cook will stimulate positive emotions. In terms of sensory integration, the sensoryscape provides an opportunity for cross-leveraging. Chalip (1992) showed that neighboring environments themed to sporting events were a key element for a successful IndyCar event. The opposite may also be true. That is, sport marketers may be able to take advantage of strong community identification by theming the stadium's sensory environment to evoke the broader sense of place where the team is located (Taylor, 1991). Although previous work has primarily focused on visual elements to theme sporting events, theming is more than mere visual decorations; it can appeal to all senses of spectators. For example, the stadium can evoke the sense of locality through decorating the stadium with local (or state) historic landmarks or symbols, playing local music, installing mosaic seating sections themed to local symbols, and offering local cuisine.

Social Interaction
The study revealed that social interaction had a positive impact on stadium satisfaction in both the major and minor league contexts, although the magnitude of the effect was much higher in the minor league context than in the major league context. It is not surprising when considering that interpersonal motivation is a dominant fan motive for minor league sports (James & Ross, 2002), and that fewer than half of fans attend minor league games for the game itself (Johnson, 2004). While previous research has highlighted the importance of social interaction as an attractor or motive to attend games, this study found it to be an important antecedent to satisfaction. This suggests that minor league ballparks are doing a good job of facilitating social interaction. As many minor league teams have tried to differentiate themselves from major league teams by offering fanand family-friendly experiences (Lachowetz, Dees, Todd, & Ryan, 2009; Lienert, 1998), social interaction seems to be a more influential aspect of the stadium experience for minor league fans than it is for major league fans.

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Nevertheless, the significant effect of social interaction on overall stadium satisfaction hints that marketers should consider providing more spaces for formal and informal socializing, as a significant means for enhancing the stadium experience and ultimately repeat attendance. Importantly, social interaction that surrounds the sporting event can also add value; it can facilitate the creation of liminoid space, which in turn can evoke a sense of communitas through which spectators can attribute deeper meaning and satisfaction to their stadium experience (e.g., Chalip, 2006). From a marketing perspective, social interaction can be enabled in and around sport venues by providing appropriate spacing of seats that allows spectators to turn and talk to one another, ample space with tables and chairs around concessions, or enough sites for picnics and tailgates outside the sport venues. Further, sport teams can create an opportunity for social interaction by providing a "park inside the ballpark" behind the outfield fence where families and children can interact before and during games. By providing TV screens in those areas, adults can watch the game while their children are playing. Sport fans in many sports have attempted to create spaces for social interaction outside the stadium via tailgating. Some sport organizations are taking a more active role by creating (and sometimes selling) spots for tailgating. Yet, few organizations are actively facilitating fans' social interactions. While spaces are necessary, space alone is not sufficient. Sport organizations can do more to facilitate social interaction by placing these spaces near well-traveled paths to the stadium, extending access to the areas, perhaps even creating special programming which can occur in these spaces (e.g., contests, player/mascot appearances). It is important to note that any programming offered in these spaces should be interactive. In short, many venues already offer fans a place to socialize with one another. In addition, the game and the team provide highly identified fans with a common superordinate goal (i.e., winning) that provides fodder for interactions. This study did not differentiate between social interactions with known versus unknown others. Future research should examine the types of interactions as well as the relationships among fans to determine appropriate ways to facilitate social interactions among fan groups. Further, future research should examine the structural and sociological factors associated with positive fan interactions.

Sense of Home
This study extends Charleston's (2009) work by showing that sense of home positively and meaningfully impacted spectators' satisfaction with the stadium experience in both major and minor-league settings. Contrary to the impact of social interaction, the magnitude of the effect of sense of home on stadium experience satisfaction was much higher in the major league context than it was in

the minor league context. This result may be affected by differences in fan identification or perhaps by familiarity with mediated images of the venue. While consumers of major league teams tend to have higher levels of fan identification, consumers of minor league teams often report lower levels of fan identification (James & Ross, 2002). Therefore it is reasonable to argue that as consumers of minor league teams have a weaker personal connection to the team; their emotional attachment to the home stadium would not weigh heavily in their evaluation of the stadium experience, at least in comparison with consumers of major league teams. In fact, the effect of sense of home on satisfaction with the stadium experience is somewhat unexpected in the minor league context. Although minor league stadiums purport to link their identity to the local community, they do not typically have the same advantages (most notably media coverage and the resulting familiarity) of major league stadiums. One would expect major league venues to have a natural advantage in creating a sense of home for their fans. After all, home is associated with a sense of stability, permanency, and familiarity (Mallett, 2004). For the most part, major league teams (and often their venues) have been part of their community for a long time. Major league fanship is often a family tradition. Unlike minor league venues, fans are able to become familiar with major league venues through televised broadcasts of games. While this is, albeit, a superficial familiarity, the stability of those images would clearly impact major league fans' sense of the stadium as home. Consequently, one would expect that a sense of the stadium as home would take longer to obtain for minor league fans as it would be entirely dependent on direct experience of the stadium. In this sense, major league venues may have a head start in creating a sense of home in their venues. This also offers suggestions for enhancing fans' sense of the stadium as home. First, marketers should find more ways for spectators (and potential spectators) to come into contact with the stadium and images of the stadium. Ideally, this would be done by encouraging people to attend games. However, minor league ballparks can also host community events throughout the year to enhance fans' familiarity with the venue and to position the venue firmly within the community. The more fans see the link between the stadium and positive aspects of the community, the more likely they are to feel that it is like home. Sport teams can provide spectators with a chance to tour the stadium to increase the levels of familiarity and comfort that are bases for sense of home. Further, sport teams can host more fantasy camps where fantasy camp participants can play with or have lessons from the team's players. Similarly, it would be beneficial to enhance spectators' team identification. The more positive associations that people have with the team, players, and coaches, the more likely those associations are to affect their attachment to the venue as well. In effect, this would function as a cobranding exercise between the team, the community, and the venue.

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Relationship Among Sensoryscape, Social Interaction, and Sense of Home

The study found that while the correlation between the sensoryscape and social interaction in both contexts was similar in its magnitude, the correlation between social interaction and sense of home was much higher in the minor league context than in major league context, and the correlation between sensoryscape and sense of home was much higher in major league context than in major league context. This may be attributed to the dynamics of fan identification (and subsequent emotional attachment to the stadium) and social interaction. Since consumers of major league teams may have the higher level of attachment with a team and its respective stadium, the experience or memories associated with physical environments and other spectators may be more salient contributors in the creation of sense of home. On the other hand, since consumers of minor league teams are more likely to engage in social interaction, due perhaps to the less stable, less familiar but friendlier, interactive environment, experiences associated with social interaction may play a critical role in the creation of sense of home at minor league venues. These results provide marketers with some initial insights for leveraging the sense of home, but we still know little about the antecedents to a sense of home or the individual sensory experiences that can lead to a sense of the stadium as home. The impact of a sense of home had a positive effect on stadium experience satisfaction (as per H3). Consequently, more research is needed to identify the key antecedents. In practice, minor league teams may do well to create and enhance a sense of home by promoting social interaction while major league teams may need to focus on promoting the sensoryscape.

the on-line sampling for the major league context used a screening procedure to obtain actual game attendees, the on-line survey may constrain the ability of respondents to recall their stadium experiences, compared with the on-field survey. Future research should seek to confirm the proposed model with data collected from major league sites, or to compare fans' responses to the same facility via on-line and on-site methods.

Implications for Future Research

The overall sensoryscape construct explained the most variance in spectators' satisfaction with the stadium experience. While this finding is profoundly valuable, from a practical perspective, it may be useful to understand which of the sensoryscape dimensions are most predictive. The Sensoryscape instrument can be used to determine the relative importance of each dimension to predict satisfaction, future intentions, or other outcomes of interest. Future research should also consider the relative impacts ofthe sensoryscape elements across different contexts (e.g., sports, levels of sport, cultures). Scant attention has been paid to scents at sport venues, yet smells are a powerful stimulator of memories, particularly memories from long ago (Willander & Larsson, 2006). In this sense, entertainment providers are increasingly recognizing the potential of scent as an experience enhancer. For example, scientists have created products designed to enhance video gaming experiences via the addition of scent modules which provide an olfactory layer to games which further Immerse players in the online world by wafting scents related to the images shown (Bingham, 2009). This suggests the potential importance of scent to spectators' immersion in the game experience. It may be that sensory inputs such as scent are in important point of differentiation between attending a live event and watching a broadcast of the same event. Future research could begin to look experimentally at the impact of scent on viewers' affective responses to sport contests. In addition, future research could explore the value to minor league venues of incorporating sensory elements of the major league partner's venue to take advantage of the familiarity and existing associations (including feelings of nostalgia) that fans may have toward the major league partner. While this may not be feasible for all minor league venues, it is an interesting avenue for exploration. Lastly, future research could explore the potential value of the sensoryscape for branding and the creation of brand extensions (e.g., restaurants, camps, clinics, participation facilities).

Limitations
The model confirmed by this study is an important first step in exploring the role of the sensoryscape in marketing to sport spectators. The hypothesized model is an adequate fit to the data in both major and minor league contexts (Figure 1). This supports the validity ofthe Sensoryscape instrument, at least in major and minor league baseball contexts. The instrument's ability to predict satisfaction directly and intention to retum (indirectly) is a strong indication of convergent validity. Its ability to predict in both contexts serves as intemal replication providing a glimpse of the generalizability of the instrument. However, the instrument has room for improvement. Specifically, the measurement model (Figure 2) showed only a moderate fit to the data. That is, there may be other potentially missing constructs or items that are not included in the model. Consequentiy, future research should explore other ways in which fans use their five senses to experience the stadium, to continue to improve the Sensoryscape scale. To this end, other contexts could be explored (e.g., college sport, individual sport settings such as golf and tennis, road races). Another limitation comes from the sampling procedure employed in the major league context. Although

Conclusion
This research suggests a new direction for experience marketing in sport that leverages each of the five senses (i.e., the sensoryscape). The challenge is to identify the means to capitalize on the stadium experience that sport events engender. A positive experience of the stadium makes the sporting event more enjoyable and more

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memorable, thus increasing spectators' desire to retum. This more holistic approach to understanding spectators' satisfaction through their attendance experience offers an important counterbalance to an oven^eliance on team performance to attract spectators. By cultivating the sensoryscape, facilitating social interaction, and providing a sense of home, sport consumers can have a more enjoyable and memorable game experience, regardless of the game outcome.

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