3

Kinematics
Syllabus: Motion in a straight line, uniform motion, its graphical representation, projectile motion. uniform accelerated motion and its applications,

Review of Concepts
1. Time : It is measure of succession of events. It is a scalar quantity. If any event is started at t - 0 then time will not be negative. But if the oDservation is started after the start of event then time m a y be negative. 2. Distance and Displacement: Suppose an insect is at a point A (Xj, t/1; Zj) at t = tp It reaches at point B (x2, yi, Z2) at t = f 2 through path ACB with respect to the frame shown in figure. The actual length of curved path ACB is the distance travelled by the insect in time At = t2 - fj.
C

>-X

If a body is moving continuously in a given direction on a straight line, then the magnitude of displacement is equal to distance. (vii) Generally, the magnitude of displacement is less or equal to distance. (viii) Many paths are possible between two points. For different paths between two points, distances are different but magnitudes of displacement are same. (ix) The slope of distance-time graph is always greater or equal to zero. The slope of displacement-time graph may be (x) negative. Example : A man walks 3 m in east direction, then 4 m in north direction. Find distance covered and the displacement covered by man. Solution: The distance covered by man is the length of path = 3 m + 4 m = 7 m .
N

(vi)

If we connect point A (initial position) and point B (final position) by a straight line, then the length of straight line AB gives the magnitude of displacement of insect in time interval At = t 2 - tp The direction of displacement is directed from A to B through the straight line AB. From the concept of vector, the position vector of A is
>

Let the man starts from O and reaches finally at B (shown in figure). OB represents the displacement of man. From figure, I OB I =

= x 1 t + 2/if+Z;[ it and that of B is

rB = * 2 l + l/2j+Z2k. According to addition law of vectors,

rA

{OA)2 + (AB)2
4m 3m 4 3 3 v /
1

+ AB

= rB
>

= (3 m) 2 + (4 m) 2 = 5 m and tan 6 =

AB = rg - rA

= (X2~X1) l + (t/2-yi)
The magnitude of displacement is

) + (Z2-Zl) k

-1 ) = tan'

IABI = V ( x 2 - x 1 ) 2 + ( y 2 - y i ) 2 + ( 2 2 - 2 i ) 2 Some Conceptual P o i n t s : (i) Distance is a scalar quantity. (ii) Distance never be negative. (iii) For moving body, distance is always greater than zero. (iv) Distance never be equal to displacement. (v) Displacement is a vector quantity.

The displacement is directed at an angle tan

of east. 3. Average Speed and Average Velocity : Suppose we wish to calculate the average speed and average velocity of the insect (in section 2) between i - 1 ] and t = t2. From the path (shown in figure) we see that at t = fj, the position of

3 v y

north

Kinematics
the insect is A (x a , y\, zx) and at t = t2, the position of the insect is B (x2, y2, z 2 ). The average speed is defined as total distance travelled by a body in a particular time interval divided by the time interval. Thus, the average speed of the insect is Mathematically, : tan 0 =

35

t2-h

vav =

The length of curve ACB : 7 t2 - h

The average velocity is defined as total displacement travelled by a body in a particular time interval divided by the time interval. Thus, the average velocity of the insect in the time interval t2 - tj is

(vi) The area of speed-time graph gives distance. (vii) The area of velocity-time graph gives displacement. (viii) Speed can never be negative. 4. Instantaneous Velocity : Instantaneous velocity is defined as the average velocity over smaller and smaller interval of time. Suppose position of a particle at t is ~r*and at t + At is r + A r. The average velocity of the particle for time interval Ar AT From our definition of instantaneous velocity, At should be smaller and smaller. Thus, instantaneous velocity is
S Vflt,=

...

->

-4

AB
2

VaV~'2-t

r B~ r = A - t2t]
=

- If position of a

..
Af->0

V = H M

Ar dr AT = Tt at an instant t is

(*2 - * l ) 1 + (yi - ?/l) ) + (22 - Zl) ^

particle

h~h
Some Important Points: (i) Velocity is a vector quantity while speed is a scalar quantity. (ii) If a particle travels equal distances at speeds i>i, v2, v3, ... etc. respectively, then the average speed is harmonic mean of individual speeds. (iii) If a particle moves a distance at speed V\ and comes 2v\v2 back with speed v2, then vav = Vi + v 2 But (iv)

A + lie, -xiA + y^ zi then

dx x-component of velocity is vx = ~ y-component of velocity is vy = z-component of velocity is vz = Thus, velocity of the particle is > A A
V = VX l +

VY)+V Z,

dx

dy
dt

Vav 0
=

1 + di%
dz A

If a particle moves in two equal intervals of time at different speeds v^ and v2 respectively, then Vi + v2

(v)

The average velocity between two points in a time interval can be obtained from a position versus time graph by calculating the slope of the straight line joining the co-ordinates of the two points.

Some Important Points: (i) Average velocity may or may not be equal to instantaneous velocity. If body moves with constant velocity, the (ii) instantaneous velocity is equal to average velocity. (iii) The instantaneous speed is equal to modulus of instantaneous velocity. (iv) Distance travelled by particle is s = J \v\ dt
(v)

x-component of displacement is Ax = J vx dt y-component of displacement is Ay = J Vy dt

(t 2 -t n ) :

(X2-Xl)

z-component of displacement is Az = Thus, displacement of particle is

jvzdt

(b) The graph [shown in fig. (a)], describes the motion of a particle moving along x-axis (along a straight line). Suppose we wish to calculate the average velocity between t = tj and t = t2. The slope of chord AB [shown in fig. (b)] gives the average velocity.

A~r = Axt + Ayf + Az 1c If particle moves on a straight line, (along x-axis), (vi) dx then v = dt (vii) The area of velocity-time graph gives displacement. (viii) The area of speed-time graph gives distance. (ix) The slope of tangent at position-time graph at a particular instant gives instantaneous velocity at that instant. 5. Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration : In general, when a body is moving, its velocity is not always

36
the same. A body whose velocity is increasing is said to be accelerated. Average acceleration is defined as change in velocity divided by the time interval. Let us consider the motion of a particle. Suppose that the particle has velocity "vj at f = fi and at a later time t = t2 it has velocity ~V2- Thus, the average acceleration during time interval At = t2 - t\ is
V

Kinematics
If the time interval approaches to zero, average acceleration is known as instantaneous acceleration. Mathematically,

a= lim = "37 A DT
AT->O ' Some Important Points: (i) Acceleration a vector quantity. (ii) (iii) (iv) Its unit is m /s . The slope of velocity-time graph gives acceleration. The area of acceleration-time graph in a particular time interval gives change in velocity in that time interval.

,.

Av

dv

2 ~

a"v~

h-h

~ At

6. Problem Solving Strategy : Motion on a Straight Line (one dimensional motion)

Uniform velocity

Motion with constant acceleration (i) (ii) s=

Motion with variable acceleration (i) (ii) If =/(*), = dv dt

(i) (ii)

s = vt a=0

fu + v

1 7 s = ut + ^ ar

(iii) v2 = u2 + las (iv) v = u+at

(v) Sth = M

dv ds dv (iii) If a =/&>), = dt If a =/(s), a = v v= ds dt

(iv) (v) (vi)

+ (2-l)|

s = { vdt v-jadt

(vi)

For retardation, 'a' will be negative.

7. Motion in Two or Three Dimension : A body is free to move in space. In this case, the initial position of body is taken as origin. Any convenient co-ordinate system is chosen. Let us suppose that at an instant t, the body is at point P ( x , y, z). The position vector of the body is r = x t + velocity dr dx A dx
V* =

Discussion: (i) (a) If ax is constant, vx = ux + axt x = ux t +

1

.2 -axt

+ z it. Thus,

_..2 v2 =u + laxx x x x'

A az dz A

(b) If ax is variable, x= jvxdt

In this way,

-dt
dvx dt

jdvx = jax dt (ii) (a) If ay is constant,

and acceleration along x-axis is ax = The velocity along y-axis is dy

y = uyt + -ay

tx2

Vy = Uy+ayt
UVy

and the acceleration along y-axis is ay - dt Similarly, vz = and dv. az=-dt

dv^

v2 = u2y + layy (b) If ay is variable,

y = jvydt
jdvy = jaydt

The acceleration of the body is ~a = a x ^ + a A + a z ic.

Kinematics
(iii) (a) If az is constant, or or or Also, jvzdt or jdvz = jazdt or 3t
T

37
dx dt~
2

z= u2f+-a2r v\ = u\ + 2az z (b) If az is variable, z=

JM
x=VY

t2dt

= 3t

I'3'
3 tdt y =

dy

If the motion of the body takes place in x-y plane, then az = 0, Example: A car vz = 0, in uz = 0 the x-y plane with moves

acceleration (3 m/s 2 t + 4 m/s 2 f ) (a) Assuming that the car is at rest at the origin at / = 0, derive expressions for the velocity and position vectors as function of time. (b) Find the equation of path of car. Solution : Here, ux = 0, ax = 3 (a) or and or vx = 31
VY =
VY

.'. Position of particle is

xt + y| f3 3 3t 2 A 2

uy = 0,

uz = 0
flr =

m/s 2 ,

ay = 4 m/s2 and
UY+ayt

dt

d (t2) = 21 dt

VY

= 3t dt dt

or

dvv

dt

= 4t A
V =

fly = 3 unit
Vxl+VY)

>

a = flxi + flyj = 2ft + 3 j

(ii) or and or

1 a *=lx3f2 = |f2
x = uxt + ^axt 1 l2 t y = uyt + ayt y = ~(4)t2 o 2 = 2t2 4

= (3fi + 4 f j )

8. Motion Under Gravity : The most familiar example of motion with constant acceleration on a straight line is motion in a vertical direction near the surface of earth. If air resistance is neglected, the acceleration of such type of particle is gravitational acceleration which is nearly constant for a height negligible with respect to the radius of earth. The magnitude of gravitational acceleration near surface of earth is g = 9.8 m/s2 = 32 ft/s2. Discussion: Case I : If particle is moving upwards : In this case applicable kinematics relations are: v = u-gt (i) (ii) h= ut-gt2

)= 3*
Hence, the path is straight line, (b) The position of car is r = xi+yj =-ri + 2r j

(iii) v2 = u2- 2gh (iv) Here h is the vertical height of the particle in upward direction. For maximum height attained by projectile

Example: A bird flies in the x-y plane with a velocity v'=/ 2 t + 3 f A t f =0, bird is at origin. Calculate position and acceleration of bird as function of time. Solution: Here, vx = t , vu = 3t and vz = 0
>

h=K
i.e., (0)2 = u2 i U_ "mav <

v=0 2ghmax

2g-

Case II : If particle is moving vertically downwards : In this case,

38
(i) (ii) (iii) v = u+ gt v2 = u2 + 2gh h = ut + ^gt2 Also,

Kinematics
X = Ux t (Vq COS 0) t = Vqt COS 0
y= 1 uyt--gt 1 2 Q)t--gt

:: I1

y = (z>0sin Here, h is the vertical height of particle in downward direction. 9. Projectile Motion: A familiar example of two dimensional motion is projectile motion. If a stone is thrown from ground obliquily, it moves under the force of gravity (in the absence of air resistance) near the surface of earth. Such type of motion is known as projectile motion. We refer to such object as projectile. To analyse this type of motion, we will start with its acceleration. The motion of stone is under gravitational acceleration which is constant in magnitude as well as in direction. Now let us consider a projectile launched so that its initial velocity Vq makes an angle 0 with the horizontal (shown in figure ) For discussion of motion, we take origin

The position of the projectile is > A A r = xi+yj

: Vqt COS 0 i + y o t s i n 0 - - (
(ii) Trajectory of projectile: The y-x graph gives the path or trajectory of the projectile. From discussion of instantaneous velocity of projectile. x = u o <cos0 ...(1) t-and 1 2 y = v0t sin 0 - - gt ...(2) ...(3)

Vq COS 0 r x
COS

Putting the value of t from (3) in the equation (2), y = vo sin 0

'

- ^ VQ COS 0
S*2
2VQ COS 2 0

;g Vq

*
0 ..(4)

or

y = x tan 0 -

This is the required path of projectile. at the point of projection. Horizontal direction as x-axis and vertical direction as y-axis is taken. The initial velocity of projectile along x-axis is ux = Vq COS 0. The component of gravitational acceleration along x-axis is ax=gcos 90 = 0. The component of initial velocity along y-axis is Uy = Vq sin 0. The acceleration along y-axis is Uy = -g. Discussion: (i) The instantaneous velocity of the projectile as function of time : Let projectile reaches at point (x, y) after time t (shown in figure). Multiplying the equation (4) by we get x
2

2z;2 cos 2 0

to both sides,

2v sin g

cos

x=

2v cos 0
g

Adding

Vq sin 0 cos 0
g sin 0 cos 0

to both sides, we get

2vq C O S 2 0

g This is of the form,

x-

1 sin9 0 Vq
y

Vx = Ux = Vq COS 0
and Vy = Uy-gt = v= vxi+vy) + (UQ sin 0 - gt) f v0smQ-gt

(x-a) =c(y-b) which is the equation of a parabola. Hence, the equation of the path of the projectile is a parabola. (iii) Time of flight: The time taken by projectile to reach at point A from point O is known as time of flight. Here, OA = vx T, where T is time of flight. The total displacement along y-axis during motion of projectile from O to A is zero so, y = 0, But or 1 2

y= uyT~ 2sT
0 = ( vq sin T= 2v0 sin 0 g Q)T-jgT2

~V = t>0 COS 0*1

The instantaneous speed = l~vl = V(u0 cos 0)2 + (Vq sin 0 - gt)2

Kinematics
(iv) Range of projectile: Distance OA is known as range. The time taken to reach to point A from point 0 is 2I>Q sin 0 (b) (i)

39
If for the two angles of projection a j and a 2 , the speeds are same then ranges will be same. The condition is a j + a 2 = 90.

T-

The range R-uxT=

(v0 cos 0)
= v

r 2 vr,

sin 0 '

(2 sin 0 cos 9) 20

vq sin

g The time taken by projectile to reach from O to B is equal T to the time taken by projectile to reach from B to A = (v) Height attained by projectile : At the maximum height (at point B) the vertical component of velocity is zero. y J i vy = B H
r

If particles be projected from the same point in the same plane so as to describe equal parabolas, the vertices of their paths lie on a parabola. (iii) The locus of the foci of all parabolas described by the particles projected simultaneously from the same point with equal velocity but in different directions is a circle. (iv) The velocity acquired by a particle at any point of its path is the same as acquired by a particle in falling freely from the directrix to that point. (v) A projectile will have maximum range when it is projected at an angle of 45 to the horizontal and the maximum range will be g At the maximum range, H = Rn

(ii)

ii

(vi) In the case of projectile motion, at the highest point, potential energy is maximum and is 1 2 2 equal to mu sin a. (vii) If the body is projected at an angle of 45 to the horizontal, at the highest point half of its mechanical energy is potential energy and rest is kinetic energy. (viii) The weight of a body in projectile motion is zero as it is freely falling body. (ix) If two projectiles A and B are projected under gravity, then the path of projectile A with respect to the projectile B is a straight line. 10. The equation of trajectory of projectile is
X -

v2 =

u2-2gH

(0) 2 = (v sin 0) 2 - 2 gH H =
2 VQ

sin 0

2g

Alternative method: A particle is projected with a velocity u at an angle a to the horizontal, there being no force except gravity, which remains constant throughout its motion. > A . A u =u cos a i + u sin a j y A
>

u sin a cos a g 2 u2

2u

cos a g

2 u2 sin a

2*

(a) Latus rectum =

cos 2

a z A Aa > S N.

s =xi+y j +

S be the focus, then \^t2 (0,0)

s=l}t

AS = ^ (latus rectum) SM = -

A A , A A. , 1 ,2A xi + y j = (u cos a i + u sin a j ) t-^g* J x = ut cosa, For the maximum height, T t=rr 2u sin a T= ' g
2 2

u2 cos2

2g

y = ut sin a - ^

gt2

(b) The co-ordinates of the focus a cos a u 2 -2 a u2 sin sin g

R x = ' 2

y=H *

TT

2g

(c) The equation of directrix, y = The range of Mth trajectory <u

H= (a) For the range, x = R, R=

u sin a 2^ y = 0, u2 sin 2a t=T

40
e"
1

Kinematics
u2 sin 2a

8
where e is the coefficient of restitution. 11. Projectile motion on an inclined plane: A projectile is projected up the inclined plane from the point O with an initial velocity v0 at an angle 9 with horizontal. The angle of inclination of the plane with horizontal is a (as shown in figure) or fit+

l=ut + ^ t

o f = ( cos (a - P ) * + u sin ( a - P ) " j ) T - | s T 2 ( s i n Pi + c o s P j )

Equating the coefficients of 1 and f separately. We get, R = uT cos ( a - P ) - 1 gT2 sin (3 1 2 0 = uT sin a - - gT cos P .
T=

g sin ( 9 0 - a ) = g cos a

2Msin(a-p) g COS P 2u cos a sin (a + P) gcos2p

(b) Range is R =

The acceleration along x-axis is ax = - g sin a and <h/ = - g cos a.

y \

yS

The component of velocity along x-axis is (a) Time of flight : During motion from point O to A, the displacement along y-axis is zero. y = 0 at t = T ,2 y=Uyt+ Clyt or 1 ? 0 = v0 sin (0 - a ) T - ^ g cos a T z T= 2v0 sin (0 - a ) gcosa OA
(d)

. 1

: 1 [ s i n ( 2 a - p ) - s i n p] gcos P (c) For maximum range 2-P=f ^max

u 2 (1 - sin p) g cos 2 p S (! + sin P)

(b) Range of projectile : As shown in figure represents the range of projectile. For range, x = R, t=T 1 1 ?

T2g = 2Rmax

x=uxt+^axt or

R=v0 COS (9 - a) T - ^gsin ol T

...(1)

Putting the value of T =

R =-

2v0 sin (0 - a ) ^ ^ in eq. (1) g cos a

vl

g cos' a

[sin (20 - a ) - sin a]

Alternative method: Here, P = The angle of inclination of the inclined plane a = The angle of projection u = The velocity of projection /. In vector form, !i = - g sin p i - g cos p j1 u cos {d - P) 1 + u sin (d - p) j For the point A, t = T= the time of flight.

When the range of a projectile on an inclined plane is maximum, the focus of the path is on (e) (i) the plane. From a point on the ground at distance x from (ii) a vertical wall, a ball is thrown at an angle 45, it just clears the wall and strikes the ground at a distance y on the other side. Then the xy height of the wall is 6 x+y (iii) If a body moves along a straight line by an 2/o engine delivering constant power, then t ~ s (iv) If a, b, c be distances moved by a particle travelling with uniform acceleration during xth, yth and zth second of its motion respectively, then a (y - z) + b(z - x) + c (x - y) = 0 12. Relative velocity: ~vAB = relative velocity of A with respect to 8 VAB = - Vb

Kinematics
>

41
VB/1

= vB -

v^

V
t=

-v.

AB =

(a) If a satellite is moving in equatorial plane with velocity "v and a point on the surface of earth with velocity u relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface of earth
VSE : :

COS

Vt;2 -

t= In this case, the magnitude of displacement = d. (f) If boat crosses the river along the shortest path, then time is not least. (g) If c is a space curve defined by the function r (f), then dt. is a vector in the direction of the tangent to c. If dt the scalar t is taken arc length s measured from some d~t fixed point on c, then c jmd is a unit tangent vector to R. Then

V -

(b) If a car is moving at equator on the earth's surface with a velocity relative to earth's surface and a point on the surface of earth with velocity V relative to its centre, then

C E

= v - uE
c

(c) If the car moves from west to east (the direction of motion of earth)
VC

= VCE + V

and if the car moves from east to west (opposite to the motion of earth) C = - E (d) For crossing the river in shortest time, the boat should sail perpendicular to the flow. C B vT If the width of river is d. v = the velocity of boat in V' still water, then, tJ-

the arc length is denoted by is a unit normal vector.

= k~ii where

i'

/
vr -

The position of boat at the other bank is C (not B). The displacement of the boat = OC = OB + BC OC = V(OB)2 + (BC)2 = Vi2 + (vrt)2 = Vd2
- - - >

ds (h) The derivative of vector of constant magnitude is perpendicular to the vector itself. (i) The derivative of a vector of constant direction is parallel to that vector. (j) y-x curve gives actual path of the particle. The tangent at a point o n y - x curve gives the direction of instantaneous velocity at that point, (k) When n number of particles are located at the vertices of a regular polygon of n-sides having side length a and if they start moving heading to each other, time t = they must collide at the centre of polygon after the 1 - COS 271 1 where v is speed of each particle. 13. Velocity of approach : If two particles A and B separated by a distance d at a certain instant of time move v2 with velocities Vi and v2 at / angles 0j and 0 2 with the b ~ direction AB, the velocity by which the particle A approaches B = Uj cos 0! - v2 cos 0 2 . The angular velocity of B with respect to A z > 2 sin 0 2 _ sin 0j =

(e) For crossing the river in shortest distance, the boat moves as such its horizontal component of velocity balances the speed of flow.

OB = the shortest path = d vr = v sin 0 cos 0 = V1 - sin 2 0 sin 0 = -

Example : Four particles are located at the corners of a square whose side equals a. They all start moving simultaneously with velocity v constant in magnitude, with the first particle heading continually tor the second, the second for the third, third for the fourth and fourth for the first. How soon will the particles converge?