Psychobiology 5/8 chapters 11 & 12 & 13 Development 1. internal anatomy 2. external 3. sexual behavior a. is driven in part by 1 4.

masculine/feminine brain Variations in sexual behavior Most people have a gender identity that matches their external that matches their external appearance Some people have a gender identity that is opposite their biological sex Current evidence suggest that biological factors especially prenatal hormones play a large role in gender identity Intersexes are people that have sexual anatomies intermediate between male or females Poorly developed or ambiguous genitalia can be caused by o Xy males have a mutation of the SRY gene o Chromosomal abnormalities An atypical hormone pattern occurs or a mutation of testosterone receptors occurs before birth Hermaphrodites are individuals whose genitalia do not match the usual development for their genetic sex An estimated 1 out of 100 children is born with some degree of genital ambiguity 1 in 2000 has enough genital ambiguity to make the sex uncertain Sexual orientation is not related to adult hormone levels May be influenced by exposure to testosterone during sensitive periods Chapter 12 emotion and behavior Emotion James-Lange theory: autonomic arousal and skeletal action occur before an emotion o Emotion is the label that we give our physical responses o Emotions have three components: cognitions, actions, feelings Pure autonomic failure: autonomic system gives no output to the body these people report normal (less intense) emotions Panic disorder Panic disorder condition marked by episodes of extreme sympatric nervous system arousal which is interpreted as fear Perception of our body reactions is important for interpreting emotions extream arousal is perceived as fear or panic Brain and Emotion Limbic system: a forebrain area which forms a bordered around the brain stem, critical for emotion

Contains: olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and cingulate Gryus Insular cortex identifies disgust right hemisphere responsive to emotion Serotonin and Aggressive Turn over: amount of release and resynthesis of a neurotransmitter by presynapic neurons Serotonin turnover can be inferred by measuring 5-hydroxyindolaoptic acid (5HIAA) a metabolite Social isolation induced a drop in serotonin turnover in male mice furthering aggression towards other male mice Monkeys with lowest serotonin turnover are most aggressive Humans: lower than normal serotonin turn over in those convicted of violent crimes Trytophan: made into serotonin diets low in trypophan impairs serotonin synthesis Tryptophan hydrooxyase convert trypophan into serotonin, less active genes may lower serotonin Low serotonin causes depression Escape, Fear. Anxiety Fear and anxiety are closely related Startles reflex: response one makes to a sudden loud noise 1. in infants but can reoccur later in life Amygdale enhances the startle reflex with axons to the hypothalamus ( autonomic fear response) and relaying info to central gray in the hindbrain (sending info to the pons-motor) Fear is immediate. Anxiety is more concerned with the future Anxiety is based on irrational thoughts Cognitive therapy can address the irrational thoughts that feed anxiety Stress general adaptation syndrome: generalized response to stress that includes: alarm, resistance and exhaustion hypothalamus-pituitary- adrenal cortex axis (HPA axis) stress activates hypothalamus send messages to anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocoticotropic hormone (ACTH), tells adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol, increase blood sugar and metabolism Prolonged stress causes: increased insulin levels caused by high cortiosl levels also makes you gain weight and interferes with memory consolidation Post Traumatic Stress Disorder PTSD: people who have had a traumatic experience of being severely injured or harmed or threatened or seeing other people harmed Frequent distressing recollections (flashbacks) nightmares about traumatic event avoidance of reminders of it, exaggerated startle response

PTSD people have smaller than average hippocampus and lower than normal cortisol Cortisol levels and memory consolidation must be in an ideal rage for consolidation too low and it will not consolidate to high and it will not consolidate to raise corisol levels you could jump in a cold pool off water or put your hand in a bucket of ice or work out. also applies to memory recall Learning and Memory chapter 13 Representation of memory Karl Lashley Engram: physical rerpresentation of learing Equipotentiality: all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors like learning and any part can substitute for another Mass action: the cortex works as a whole and the more cortex the better All memories are physiologically the same Types of Memory Short Term memory: memory of events that just occurred Long term memory: memory of previous events Memory that stays in short term memory long enough would be consolidated into a term memory (Hebb) Working memory: temporary storage of memory about a current task, 3 components: o Phonological loop: stores auditory info including words o Visuospatial scratchpad: stores visual info o Central executive: directs attention, determines what info will be used in working memory dependent on prefrontal cortex # Declarative memory: ability to state a memory in words *Procedural memory: development of a recent experience or behavior may not be conscious o Like motor memory: typing riding a bike etc #Explicit memory: deliberate recall of information *Implicit memory: influences of a recent experience on behavior may not be conscious Hippocampus and amnesia amnesia: memory loss Retrograde: loss of memory for events that occurred before brain damage Anterograde: loss of memory for events that happened after the brain damage