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By Alfred Gessow Lr~lgleyAeronautical Laboratory

T h i s paper is r e s t r i c t e d t o a p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e more important problems associated with t h e development of 'the mst successful type of and t o an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e rotating-wing a i r c r a f t - t h e h e l i c o p t e r present status of research of these problems.

The h e l i c o p t e r as thought of a t present i s an a i r c r a f t i n which l i f t , propulsion, and c o n t r o l a r e a l l provided by one o r more p r o p e l l e r l i k e r o t o r s turning about an approximately v e r t i c a l axis. The fundamental advantage of such an ar-ement is t h a t t h e means f o r obtaining is separated from t h e t r a ~ n s l a t i o n a lspeeds of t h e and c o n t r o l l i n g f l i g h t In s p i t e of t h e many advantages afforded by t h i s feat-me, fuselage. notably t h a t of v e r t i c a l f l i g h t , it w a s only during t h e last decade t h a t helicopters having s a t i s f a c t o r y performance and handling q u a l i t i e s have been b u i l t and flown. Their success can be a t t r i b u t e d t o improved sower plants, an increased knowledge of general aerodynamics as well a s the aerodynamics of rotating-wing f l i g h t , and t h e backlog of experience gathered from t h e hundreds of unsuccessful h e l i c o p t e r b u i l d e r s since t h e time of D a Vinci. The present-day h e l i c o p t e r is s t i l l i n an e a r l y s t a g e of development. I t s performance, handling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , safety, and r e l i a b i l i t y , however, though s t i l l poor when judged by modern a i r p l a n e standards, a r e already acceptable f o r a number of important applications where i t s s p e c i a l c a p a b i l i t i e s are at a premium. Prospects f o r f u r t h e r improvement a r e good and a wide f i e l d of application, both military and commercial, is assured.

DISCUSSION
The general h e l i c o p t e r r e s e q h f i e l d is, f o r the present discussion, divided i n t o f o u r broad c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s : performance, v i b r a t i o n and f l u t t e r , s t r e s s e s , and s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l . A d e s c r i p t i o n of the problem encountered i n each of these f i e l d s i s given, and l i n e s of f u t u r e research a r e pointed out. Performance The problem of determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l i f t i n g r o t o r f o r purposes of design o r performance estimation i s comp l i c a t e d by the l a r g e number of variables involved. Consequently, t h e approach could not be wholly empirical, and some t h e o r e t i c a l frame work was required t o c o r r e l a t e experimental data. The performance problem has

been attacked t h e r e f o r e by t r y i n g t o develop a method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade a i r f o i l sections. The method is similar t o t h a t of c a l c u l a t i n g p r o p e l l e r charac t e r i s t i c s by blade element o r s t r i p theory but is much more complicated because of t h e flapping motion of t h e hinged blades and because t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l (edgewise) component of v e l o c i t y i n forward f l i g h t , p a t a l s o be accounted f o r . & e t h e problem capable of p r a c t i c a l ~ o l u t i o n , c e r t a i n I n order t o m assunptions and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s had t o be incorporated i n t h e theory i n addition t o t h e primary one of using two-dimensional a i r f o i l characteri s t i c s i n summing up the forces a c t i n g on t h e blades of t h e r o t o r . A p r i n c i p a l assumption s p e c i f i e d t h a t t h e r o t o r induced v e l o c i t y could be calculated by t h e momentum theory and could be considered t o be uniform across t h e r o t o r disk. (See reference 1.) The r e s u l t i n g calculatione, which were extremely lengthy and comglicated, were simplified and condensed i n t o design c h a r t s t h a t give a good i n e i g h t as t o t h e e f f e c t s of changes i n r o t o r design parameters. (see reference 2 -) S u f f i c i e n t comparisons of t h e theory with experimental data have been obtained from f l i g h t and f u l l - s c a l e tunnel t e s t s t o prove t h e v a l i d i t y of theory. (See references 3 t o 9 f o r an experimental v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e theory i n various f l i g h t conditions. ) The accuracy of t h e theory is i l l u s t r a t e d by f i p 1 , which shows the good agreement between t h e calculated m d rmsasured c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a s obtained in f l i g h t , of a t e s t r o t o r i n terms of a p l o t of power against velocity. It might be mentioned t h a t model t e s t s in general a r e not s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r helicopter-performance work because of t h e e f f e c t s of s c a l e on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade elements.

0 miles p e r hour The t r a n s i t i o n region between hovering and about 3 shown in t h e f i g u r e represents a speed range i n which accurate d a t a could not be obtained i n f l i g h t because of i n s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l d i f f i c u l t i e s o r i n f u l l - s c a l e wind tunnels because of t h e l a r g e l y unknown interference corrections a t low airspeeds. Full-scale d a t a of a r e l a t i v e l y new were obtained i n t h i s region, however, by met h e h e l i c o p t e r t e s t tower. It was found t h a t t h e t e s t research t o o l tower r e s u l t s checked c l o s e l y with t h e o r e t i c a l calcuLations over most of the t r a a s i t i o n region.

As a r e s u l t of the experience gained through t h e use of %he theory and i t s experimental v e r i f i c a t i o n , s e v e r a l f a c t o r s were found t o influence considerably t h e performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s . One such f a c t o r was t h e importance of smooth, nondeformable blade surfaces i n reducing the power required by t h e r o t o r i n a l l f l i g h t conditions. (See r e f e r ences 9 and 10. ) The importance of w e l l - b u i l t blades a r i s e s from the f a c t t h a t i n c r u i s i n g and high-speed f l i g h t blade p r o f i l e drag accounts f o r from one-half t o two-thirds of t h e t o t a l r o t o r l o s s e s .

Rotor theory and experiment have a l s o shown that r o t o r performance i s dependent t o an q p r e c i a b l e extent on the amount of t w i s t and t a p e r

b u i l t i n t o t h e blades of t h e r o t o r . Studies (reference ll) have indicated, f o r excunple, t h a t t h e r o t o r induced losses, which a r e the penalty t h a t mt be paid f o r t h e t h r u s t produced by t h e r o t o r , comprise approximately 75 percent of t h e t o t a l power l o s s e s i n t h e hovering condition and t h a t these l o s s e s can be reduced t o t h e extent of increasing t h e hovering pay load by approximately 20 percent i f t h e blades were designed with a moderate amount of t a p e r and twist, i n s t e a d of being untapered and untwisted

Theory and experiment have a l s o pointed out t h e values of design n example of t h i s variables t h a t would r e s u l t i n maximum performance. A is i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2, which shows t h e i q o r t a n c e of low r o t o r speeds and high blade l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r hovering and v e r t i c a l - f l i g h t performance. The top curve shows t h a t a reduction of t i p speed from 600 f e e t p e r second t o 400 f e e t p e r second would reduce t h e power required t o hover a t f i x e d t h r u s t by approximately 25 percent. The lower curve shows that a t a f i x e d power and thrust, t h e same reduction i n t i p apeed r e s u l t s in a s u b s t a n t i a l increase i n t h e v e r t i c a l r a t e of climb, namely from 200 f e e t p e r minute t o approximately 1150 f e e t p e r minute. The question might n a t u r a l l y a r i s e as t o what c o n s t i t u t e s a lower l i m i t t o t h e t i p speed and why t h e h e l i c o p t e r couldn't always operate a t t h a t l i m i t i n g condition. The m w e r l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t low t i p speeds a r e very undesirable a t high speeds and t h a t a good h e l i c o p t e r design must e i t h e r compromise between t h e two conditions o r must d e l i b e r a t e l y favor one at t h e expense of t h e other. (See reference 12. ) The choice of t h e proper t i p speed and o t h e r design parameters fox e f f i c i e n t high-speed f l i g h t must be investigated as p a r t of t h e general problem of rotor-blade s t a l l i n g . This problem has received and i s g e t t i n g a g r e a t d e a l of a t t e n t i o n , fnasmuch as it considerably reduces the e f f i c i e n c y of a h e l i c o p t e r f l y i n g a t high speeds and i s the decisive f a c t o r in l f m i t i n g t h e top speed of present-day h e l i c o p t e r s . Blade s t a l l i n g r e s u l t s from t h e f a c t that a s t h e l i f t i n g r o t o r moves forward, the advancing blades encounter progressively higher v e l o c i t i e s , whereas the r e t r e a t i n g blades encounter progressively lower v e l o c i t i e s . Thus, i n order t o maintain approximately equal l i f t on both s i d e s of t h e r o t o r so a s t o prevent t h e h e l i c o p t e r from r o l l i n g over, t h e low-velocity r e t r e a t i n g blade mst operate a t higher angles of a t t a c k than the high-velocity advancing blade. It follows that as the h e l i c o p t e r increases i t s forward &peed, t h e angles of a t t a c k of the r e t r e a t i n g blade w i l l increase proportionally u n t i l at some value of forward speed t h e angles of a t t a c k of the r e t r e a t i n g blade w i l l reach t h e s t a l l . As s t i l l higher speeds a r e reached, t h e s t a l l i n g becomes progressively more severe and spreads t o a l a r g e r p a r t of t h e r o t o r d i s k u n t i l the severe v i b r a t i o n s and the l o s s of c o n t r o l brought about by t h e s t a l l prevents t h e h e l i c o p t e r from f l y i n g f a s t e r . The e f f e c t of forward speed a.nd r o t o r t i p speed on s t a l l i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 3. The c i r c l e s represent plan views of the r o t o r disk, the d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t and d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n being a s R ~ O W T ~ .

The dark region at the center represents the swept area of the hub and blade s and the shaded crescents represent the regione where the direction of flow over the retreatfng blades i s reversed. For t h i s h e l i copter, a t 40 miles per hour and r o t o r rpm, stall is beginning t o occur near the t i p of the r e t r e a t i n g blade; When the q e e d i s increased t o 70 miles p e r hour, s t i l l keeping the same r o t o r rpm, the s t a l l e d area has Increased considerably= The reduction in s t a l l e d area brought about by incre the r o t o r speed t o 225 rpsn is shown on the bottom c i r c l e . A t the s onmrd speed, the higher r o t a t i o n a l speed reduces the d i f f e r e n t i a l i n speed between the advancing and r e t r e a t i n g blades and so cuts down the s t a l l e d area.
A c r i t e r i o n has been developed f o r predicting the Umiting q e e d due t o stallFng. (See reference 13. ) It lm.e been found t h a t the operational l i m i t can be considered as reached when t h e calculated angle of a t t a c k at the t i p of the r e t r e a t i n g blade exceeded the s t a l l i n g angle of" the blade a i r f o i l by approximately 4' . O n e use of t h i s c r i t e r i o n is illu~trated in f i g u r e 4 which shows the variation of the m-lnlrmnn allowable with f0maa-d speed. The m L d m m m t o r speed, as s e t by blade stall-, m$or weed w a s calculated f o r each value of folVElrd speed by s e t t i n g a 16 t i p of a t t a c k at the r e t r e a t i n g b3ade as the operational l l m i t . Thus, f o r a given fo& weed, a helicopter cannot be operated i n the hatched portion of the p l o t but rrmsf, iacreaee its r o t o r t i p q e e d u n t i l s1 @ o r less ( t h a t is, it must be operated t o the t i p angle of a t t a c k I the r i g h t of the curve. )

Although a helicopter can be fluwn u n t i l the 4 ' tip-angle l i m i t is exceeded, the profile-drag l o s s due t o s t a l l begins as t i p s t a l l i n g aets in. It ha8 been found t h a t the p r o f i l e d r a g approximately doubles by the time the limiting top speed i s reached. (See reference 14.) The e f f e c t s of s t a l l i n g on r o t o r p r o f i l e d r a g can be seen in figure 5, in which the profile-drag power absorbed by two s e t s of blades are plotted against weed. The dashed l i n e s i n the figure represent the calculated power with no allowance f o r blade s t a l l i n g , whereae the s o l i d l i n e s include losses due t o s t a l l i n g and thw represent the a c t u a l p ~ oifl e power absorbed. Note t h a t s t a l l i n g losses are Lar@;e in comparison t o the profile-drag parer absorbed by the unstalled blades and that, therefore, the top speed of the helicopter is also reduced because of the additional stall power.

Once the e f f e c t s of blade stallFng were understood, means f o r a l l e v i a t i n g o r delaying these e f f e c t s were investigated. A s a t i s f a c t o r y way t o delay the s t a l l was t o t w i s t the r o t o r blades s o t h a t the t i p sections worhd a t lower angles of attack than they would i f the blades were untwisted. (The e f f e c t s of blade twist were investigated in f l i g h t end the r e s u l t s a r e reported i n reference 17.) The effectiveness of blade twist i n reducing the detrimental e f f e c t s of s t a l l i n g can be seen i n figure 5. The figure show t h a t an increase of about 10 percent in t h e limiting speed of the t e s t helicopter appears possible with the use of -8O of blade t w i s t . Alternatively, twist reduces the s t a l l i n g p r o f i l e drag losses by approximately 40 percent of the profile-drag power absorbed

by the r o t o m in t h e u n s t a l l e d condition once s t a l l i n g had developed on both r o t o r s . The use of blade twist is d e s i r a b l e inasmuch as, at t h e very least, it appears t o have no detrimental e f f e c t on r o t o r perfomnance fn, a.uy o t h e r f l i g h t condition. Another and s a n e w h a t o b v i o : ~ means f o r minimizing t h e e f f e c t s of blade s t a l l i n g I s by increasing t h e blade-section s t a l l i n g angle of a t t a c k . The b e n e f i t s t o be had by s o doing, in terms of an increase i n permissable load at a f i x e d t i p speed, is shown in t h e l e f t p a r t of f i g u r e 6. It can be seen From t h e f i g u r e t h a t t h e permissable h e l i c o p t e r e could load could be i n c r e y d by a f a c t o r of 3 if t h e s e c t i o n stall be increased from 12 t o 20'. The successful a p p l i c a t i o n of various highl i f t devices that would s u b s t a n t i a l l y increase t h e s e c t i o n s t a l l angle without p r o h i b i t i v e drag increases 16 t h e high-velocity low-angle-ofa t t a c k regions of t h e d i s k w f l l prove a f e r t i l e f i e l d f o r f u t u r e h e l i copter research. J u s t asr blade stalling p r e s e n t s a lower l i m i t t o t h e allowable r o t o r t i p speed, another l i m i t e x i s t s t h a t prevents operation a t extremely high t i p speeds. That l i m i t is c o q r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s on t h e highvelocity t i p s e c t i o n s of the advancing blade. For a given stalling angle, a higher s e c t i o n c r i t i c a l Mach number w i l l permit operation at l a r g e r gross weights because it permits t h e w e of U g h e r t i p 8peedsa It can be seen from t h e r i g h t p a r t of f i g u r e 6 that l a r g e increases in pay load can be r e a l i z e d by i n c r e a s h g t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s used in t h e blades. Although most r o t o r blades at t h e present time a r e composed of conventional w i n g sections, a t t e n t i o n i s befng gfven t o t h e development of a i r f o i l sectfons designed e s p e c i a l l y f o r r o t o r s as dist-ished f w m wings o r p r o p e l l e r s . In a d d i t i o n t o a high s t a l l angle and a high c r i t i c a l Mach nmiber, t h e d e s i r a b l e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a . i r f o i l s e c t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r use as rotor-blade sections are: (1) n e a r l y zero pitching moment, (2) low drag throughout t h e range of low moderate lifts, and (3) moderate drag at high l i f t s . Most of t h e NACA low-drag a i r f o i l s that have been developed have too high a pitching-moment c o e f f i c i e n t t o warrant consideration f o r use with current h e l i c o p t e r designs. (High pitching-moment c o e f f i c i e n t s lead t o undesirable periodic s t i c k f o r c e s and t o v i b r a t i o n s brought about by periodic blade twist.) Althorn t h i s objection is removed with t h e low-drag symmetrical s e c t i o n s these s e c t i o n s a r e not applicable because half of t h e low-drag 'bucket, 4, or, i n o t h e r words, h a l f of t h e l i m i t e d range of lift c o e f f i c i e n t s in which t h e important drag reductions a r e achieved, is below zero l i f t ; whereas t h e f a s t e r moving portions of t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade are nearly always operating a t p o s i t i v e l i f t coefficient^.

In order t o place t h e low-drag "bucket" in a u s e f u l ra.nge of l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s and s t i l l r e t a i n zero o r almost zero moment c o e f f i c i e n t , a number of s p e c i a l a i r f o i l s have been derived. (See reference 16. ) One of these, t h e NACA 8-H-12, shows t h e most promise. A comparison of t h e

NACA 8-H-12 s e c t i o n with t h e conventional RACA 23012 a i r f o i l i s given in f i g u r e 7, which shows a reduction in drag over most of t h e l i f t c o e f f i

c i e n t range conibined with an e a r l i e r stall. Calculations of t h e p e r f o r mance of r o t o r s incorporating t h e new s e c t i o n have indicated t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of t h e s p e c i a l s e c t i o n over t h e conventional s e c t i o n s . Fulls c a l e t e s t s of practical-construction blades incorporating t h e NACA 8-H-12 s e c t i o n a r e needed, however, t o determine t h e t r u e worth of t h e a i r f o i l w d e r a c t u a l operating conditions. Vibration and F l u t t e r It is commonly accepted that where Large, ro$ating masses a r e involved, v i b r a t i o n s of some kind a r e l i k e l y t o appear - and the h e l i copter i s no exception. In f a c t , t h e designers of most of t h e e a r l i e r tries of h e l i c o p t e r s had as m h d i f f i c u l t y in reducing t h e v i b r a t i o n t o acceptable l e v e l s as they had i n obtaining adequate performance. A good d e a l of t h e trouble w a s caused by poorly b u i l t , unbalanced blades and w a s l a r g e l y eliminated with more accurate designs and an increased howledge of blade balancing and t r a c k i n g procedure. A second source of t h e v i b r a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered were inherent i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r a s i t s e l f and could only be avoided when t h e phenomenon t h a t caused it w thoroughly analyzed and understood. A n example of such a phenomenon i s a s e l f - e x c i t e d mechanical v i b r a t i o n known as "ground resonance, " which has been responsible f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of s e v e r a l autogiros cwd helicopters. E s s e n t i a l l y , "ground resonance " is a s e l f -excited mechanical v i b r a t i o n t h a t involves a coupling between t h e motion of t h e r o t o r blades about t h e i r drag hinges and t h e motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r as a whole on i t s landing gear. When t h e frequencies of t h e two motions approach each other, a v i o l e n t shaking of t h e a i r c r a f t occurs which, i f undamped, would r e s u l t in i t s complete destruction. This phenomenon was t h e o r e t i c a l l y investigated and a theory was developed which suggested means f o r avoiding "ground resonance." (see references 17 t o 19.) Ln order t o maZre t h e theory easy t o use, it was put i n t h e form of simple c h a r t s which predicted t h e range of r o t o r speeds in which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y occurred and t h e amount of dasrping necessary t o avoid dangerous f r e quencies. Another example of a v i b r a t i o n problem p e c u l i a r t o h e l i c o p t e r s w a s a s encountered i n t h e operation of two-bladed r o t o r s . The phenomenon w c a l l e d blade 'heaving " from t h e appearance of t h e wavy p a t h traced by t h e blade t i p s and w a s found t o be an aerodynamic i n s t a b i l i t y o r type of f l u t t e r . The problem w a s investigated t h e o r e t i c a l l y (reference 20) a s ~md a l s o by means of model t e s t s . The general r e s u l t of t h e study w t h a t a see-saw r o t o r with a coning angle i s more unstable than an a i r plane wing having corresponding parameters. The a d d i t i o n a l u n s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i s associated with t h e difference i n moments of i n e r t i a i n flapping and i31 r o t a t i o n . In f a c t , it was found t h a t with c e r t a i n combinations of coning angles and blade design p a r m e t e r s , f l u t t e r could occur even when

t h e chordwise c e n t e r of mass of t h e blades w a s w e l l ahead of t h e 23percenk -chord p o i n t Proposed r e m d i e s f o r t h e f l u t t e r investigated included decreasing t h e coning angle of t h e blades, designing t h e blades s o that t h e i r mass tends t o be confined t o t h e p h e of r o t a t i o n , h c r e a s i n g t h e control-system s t i f f n e s s and forward p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r of mass, and adding mechanical damping t o t h e r o t o r system. The h e l i c o p t e r is subjected t o a t h i r d type of v i b r a t i o n t h a t caxmot be eliminated i n m c h as it is a forced v i b r a t i o n inherent in t h e aerom c s of t h e r o t o r i t s e l f . This type of v i b r a t i o n is encountered, f o r e q l e , with two-bladed h e l i c o p t e r s i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n region between hovering arnd forward f l i g h t wherein c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n s of induced and p r o f i l e drag give r i s e t o h o r i z o n t a l hub v i b r a t i o n s or, f o r e x q l e , when blade s t a l l i n g i s encountered in high-speed f l i g h t . (See reference 21. ) Although inherent v i b r a t i o n s of these types casnot be eliminated, they caa be i s o l a t e d by s u i t a b l y shock mounting t h e r o t o r system, and by wb.g i r r e v e r s i b l e controls t h a t cannot trmsm3-t vibratory f o r c e s t o t h e p i l o t 's controls. A g r e a t d e a l of work remains t o be acconrplished i n reducing t h e over-alll v i b r a t i o n l e v e l of t h e h e l i c o p t e r so that it can be flown f o r long periods of t b without unnecessarily adding t o p i l o t fatigue. Stresses Although t h e achievement of maximum h e l i c o p t e r performance a.nd r e l i a b i l i t y c a l l s f o r a thorough knowledge of t h e s t r e s s e s imposed on t h e r o t o r and fuselage of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n a l l steady and accelerated f l i g h t conditiom, t h e general f i e l d of h e l i c o p t e r stress a n a l y s i s has ~ problems. L i t e r a t u r e on been comidered secondary t o t h aerodynamic helfcopter stress analysis does e x i s t , but, in t h e main, comentional znethods have been applied in analyziw the fuselage and r o t o r blades. Blade analyses, f o r example, have been made by p r o p e l l e r s t r i p methods although an a d d i t i o n a l complication t h a t has been taken i n t o account is t h e spanwise bending of t h e blades, which tends t o change t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l loading on t h e blades. (See references 22 t o 26 Tor i n f o m a t i o n on blade s t r e s s a n a l y s i s . ) A s yet, however, a c t u a l s t r e s s values, and t h e various asslxtqptions regarding blade loading t h a t a r e Fncorporated i n these methods, have not been d i r e c t l y v e r i f i e d by r e l i a b l e f u l l - s c a l e t e s t measurements. Aside from a d i r e c t check on t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s e s , t h e significance of these c a l c u l a t i o n s would be g r e a t l y strengthened i f experimental d a t a were obtained on t h e induced flow i n f o m d f l i g h t , s o t h a t t h e aero-c loading can be more accurately calculated. (Tlae induced flow h hovering has been d i r e c t l y v e r i f i e d by B r i t i s h f l i g h t t e s t s . )

In connection with induced-flaw measurements, it might be mentioned t h a t t h e o v e r - a l l magnitude and general d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y have been v e r i f i e d by rotor-blade-motion and performance t e s t s made i n f l i g h t . The induced v e l o c i t y a c t u a l l y appears t o vary nonlinearly i n magnitude across t h e disk, however, and would t h e r e f o r e be e q e c t e d t o

influence considerably l o c a l s t r e s s values along the blade. The problem of dete induced v e l o c i t i e s is amenable t o t h e o r e t i c a l solutionj and although same work ha^ been done along these lines ( r e f e r a c e 27), a good deal & i l l remains t o be done before rotor-blade s t r e s s e s can be predicted with confidence S t a b i l i t y and Control The infomation t h a t h a s been ax;cunnilated on the s t a b i l i t y asd control of helicopters during the past years has been r a t h e r L-lmited. In t h e i r desire t o e s t a b l i s h the p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of tb hellcopter as a f Q b g machine, designers have concentrated on in~roving the performance and mducing the vibrations of the helicopter, w h i l e accepting mmginal s t a b i l i t y and control characteristics. AEJa r e s u l t , the helicopter in its present stage of development is different aJld more d i f f i c u l t t o f l y than mst fixed-wiq airplanes. Ln response t o the increasing demands placed upon the helicopter by the armed services and by commercial oyeratom, however, the improvement of the s t a b i l i t y asd control c h m a c t e r i s t i c s of the helicopter and of its f l y i n g and -ling q u a l i t i e s is perhaps the most important helicopter research problem a t the present t i m e .
A nuni$er of t h e o r e t i c a l papers have been written on the subject of helicopter s t a b i l i t y and control. (See references 28 t o 32.) Although the theories presented i n t h e ~ e papers are somewhat different and s o w times contradictorg, it is generally agreed t h a t (1) i f the helicopter is disturbed while hovering, asd i f the control s t i c k remaizlEI fixed, the helicopter w i l l describe an o s c i l l a t i o n about i t s o r i g i n a l hovering position, eLnd (2) the amplitude of the osciUation w i l l increase with time. According t o definition, the helicopter i s thus dynamically unstable in hovering. Calculations indicate t h a t the period of the o s c i l l a t i o n of a two-place, 2700-pound helicopter is of the order of 10 secon&s and that the r a t e of divergence is small. Limited f l i g h t data, obtahed in t h i s country (reference 33) and in England, have roughly checked the calculatione asd have indicated t h a t the Fnstability of the hovero s c i l l a t i o n is not a problem t o the p i l o t .

The helicopter does have some handling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in hovering t h a t me frequently objectionable, especially t o the novice p i l o t . One of the handling problems t h a t the trainee m a t overcome with the smaller sized helicopter a r i s e s from the high control s e n s i t i v i t y of the h e l i copter i n m l l or, i n other words, the high r a t e of r o l l per inch of s t i c k displacement. This s e n s i t i v i t y frequently leads t o over-controlling, which may r e s u l t in a short-period pilot-induced l a t e r a l o s c i l l a t i o n . Control s e n s i t i v i t y becomes lesa of a problem with large machines because f o r a given s t i c k displacement the r o l l i n g velocity obtained w i l l vary inversely a s the diameter. Prequently, undesirable stick-force gradients are additional f a c t o r s t h a t add t o the control problem of the unexperienced heUcopter p i l o t .

Another control d i f f i c u l t y that might be mentioned has been encountered in the partial-power vertical-descent region between approximately 500 and PfSOO fee& per minute. In this vertical-descent raage, the s i b r a t i o n of the helicopter Becomes quite pronounced. Rather violent, random yawing motions then occur with some r o l l ; the r a t e of descent apparently increases rapidlyj the rotor rotational speed varies noticeablyj q d more often than not the helicopter eventually pitches nose down a.nd recovers by gaining speed, despite application of conaiderable rearward control. There is rrmch t o be learned about thi8 regime of operation, but prel9mlnaz-y indications are t h a t the fundamentd cause of the phenomenon is an unsteady, mixed flow of a i r through the rotor* ZmeguLar flaw i n t h i s intermediate f l i g h t condition might logic be erpected i m c h as air is blown downward through the rotor i n hovering, whereas in completely power-off descent an,upward flow of a i r vering place. Although p i l o t s have exgerienced no d i f f i c u l t y i n erous the maneuver at any stage desired, the phenomenon could be i f it occurred at very l a w altitudes.

n d control eh;aracThe helicopter has certain undesirable s t a b i l i t y a t e r i s t i c s in forward f l i g h t as well as i n hovering a.nd in v e r t i c a l descents. The major complaint reported by p i l o t s is t h a t they find it quite d i f f i c u l t t o hold steady conditions in forward f l i g h t bemuse of a strong tendency of the machine t o diverge in pitch. Investigation has shown that t h i s tendency res~+lts from the f a c t t h a t the helicopter 191 general is matable with angle of attack. There ase two logical sources f o r t h i s Instability. The f i r s t source i s the usual unstable fuselage, and the second r e s u l t s f r o m the flapping of the rotor. When a flapping r o t o r LEI subjected t o an angle-of-attack chmge i n forward her f l i g h t , the respaatchange i n blade flapping w i l l , be such as t o fncrease the r o t o r angle change.
Theoretical izalculations indicate that the i n s t a b i l i t y of t b r o t o r and fuselage with angle of attack, i f not overcome by a ~ t a b i l i z i n g m e a m such as a t a i l surface, r e s u l t s in an unstable dynamic oscillation. Flight t e s t r e s u l t s of stick-f ixed oscillations, reported in ref ereme 34, qualitatively checked the calculations. A n example of an oscillatfon obtained a t 40 miles per hour is shown i n figure 8. The o s c i l l a t i o n w a s i n i t i a t e d by a momentary aft motion of the stick. The period of the motion i s about 14 seconds, which is long enough so t h a t the p i l o t does not have trouble controlling the oscillation. The motion doubles In amplitude in about 1 cycle. Results obtained a t higher speeds, however, have indicated t h a t the motion following a disturbance i s a divergence, ra-bher than an oscillation. Ae you can well imagine, a divergent raotion t h a t could be brought about by a sudden gust i s a dangerous maneuver i f co~ctive action is not immediately inftiated.

An exanple of such a maneuver obtained a t 65 miles per hour frs shown in figure 9. Again the helicopter was disturbed by an intentional s t i c k motion, a f t e r which the s t i c k was held fixed a t the trim position. The n d then nosed down. It w a s s t i l l nosing down helicopter nosed up mildly a a t an increasing rate, as the acceleration curve indicates, about 4 seconds

a f t e r the 1 g axis w a crossed, ~ and recovery had t o be made by control application. In f a c t , considerable d i f f i c u l t y was encountered i n recovering from the maneuver because the acceleration continued t o build a s at its forward stop. The up 2 seconds a f t e r the cyclic control s t i c k w p i l o t had t o reduce the t o t a l p i t c h and had t o roll the machine as i n a -oTer before steady f l i g h t could be reached.

Ln general, it was found t h a t though the helicopter i s unstable over the e n t i r e speed range, its i n s t a b i l i t y is l e a s t in the 40 t o 63 miles per hour region. A t higher q e e d s , the p i l o t has progressively l e s s asd the w h i m becomes time t o i n i t i a t e recovery from a d i ~ t u r b a n c e rapidly mre unstable.
It should be unde'mtood t h a t the undesirable s t a b i l i t y and control c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s just discussed do not prohibit the present-day helicopter from being a useful t o o l f o r specialized purposes. Qarioue meass f o r eliminating these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e under coneideration in order t o u t i l i z e all the potentialiti'es of the helicopter, but the choice and application of these solutions depend upon continued research and development.
Future Research Deeds
AD a t t e q t has been made herein t o acquaint t h e reader with the present statw of helicopter research. It may therefore be appropriate t o conclude with a sta%ement on future reseamh needs.

Requirements f o r satisfactory f l y i n g q u a l i t i e s of helicopters should be established, similar t o those already s e t up f o r the airplane, asd m a n s f o r meeting these requirements should be investigated. In particuPar, methods should be found t o give the helicopter stick-fixed and s t i c k f r e e s t a b i l i t y i n hovering and i n forward f l i g h t . With t h i s in mind, automatic-flight devices should be investigatedj and the effectiveness and application of aerodymmlc servocontrols and other conltrol mrmgements, including power controls, should be studied. Also., t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental studies are needed t o e q l a l n and correct th& control d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered by p i l o t s in the t r a n s i t i o n region between hovering m d cruising f l i g h t a;nd when descending v e r t i c a l l y at pmtial-power conditions.
The trend toward large-diameter load-carrying helicopters c a l l s f o r a mom extensive knowledge of rotor-blade aerodynamic loading and blade Induced veloci-ty and s t r e s s measurements should, therefore, stresses be made and thoroughly analyzed. The w e of more than one l i f t i n g r o t o r on the large load-carrying helicopters c a l l s f o r a thorough investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of' the various d t i r o t o r arrangements t h a t are being proposed. In particular, induced flow studies should be made f o r the various configurations t h a t are now being used. Such studies would be useful f o r s t a b i l i t y work and, also, f o r performance inasmuch as induced power requirements appear t o be the primary unknown in computing the performance characteristics of multirotor configuration%.

The application of j e t propulsion t o helicopters has long been considered as a desirable mef o r increasing the s b n ~ l i c i t y and the load -carcying a b i l i t y of the helicopter. Several helicopters u t i l i z i n g the j e t p r h c i p l e have already been b u i l t and flown. A great deal of research, however, is s t i l l needed t o establfsh the aerodynamic requirements of jet-driven helicopters and t o produce an e f f i c i e n t j e t s y s t m . The use of j e t s a l s o brings a3out additian&l problems Involving blade design, vibration, asd s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r b t i c s t h a t should be asticipated and solved

It is hoped t h a t an early and successful solution of these problem will make the helicopter a truly dependable asd indispensable a i r c r a f t .

1 . Bailey, F. J., Jr.: A Simplified Theoretical Method of Determining the Characteristics of a L i f t i n g Rotor i n Forwud Flight. NACA Rep. No. 716, 1941.
2. Bailey, F. J., Jr., and Gustafson, F. B. : C h a r t s f o r Estimation of the Characteristics of a Helicopter Rotor in Forward FHght. I P r o f i l e Drag-LiftRatio f o r Untwisted Rectangular Blades. IlACA ACR Do. ~4rn7, 194-4I

3. Gwtafson, F. B : Flight Tests of the Sikomlgy BNS-1 ( ~ r m y YR-4~)

Helicopter. I Experimental Data on Level-FUght Performance with Origlnal Rotor Blades. NACA M E 3 no. L s 1 0 , 1945

4. Gwtafson, Fb B e , and Gessow, Alfred: Flight Tests of the Sikorsky IDTS-1 (Army Y R - 4 ~ Helicopter. ) I1 - Hovering and Vertical-Flight Performance with the Original and an Alternate Set of Main-Rotor
Blades, Including a Comparison with Hovering Performance Theory. XACA MR No. L5DOga, 1945.

5. Gessow, Alfred, and Myers, G-arry.C., Jr.: Flight Tests of a Helicopter in Autorotation, Including a Compwiaon with Theory.
NACA

TN No. 1267, 1947.

6 . Dingeldein, Richard C

4Schaef er, Rapmnd F : FuLl-Scale Lnvesti ga%ion of the Aerodymmic Characteristics of a Typical Single-Rotor I ? No. 1289, 1947. Helicopter i n Forward Flight. NACA T

.,

7 . Myers,

Garry C . , Jr.: Flight Measurements of Zelicopter Blade Motion with a Co~l~parison between Theoretical and Experimental Results. rnmA TN NO. 1266, 1947

8. Migotsky, Eugene:

Full-Scale Investigation of the Blade Motion of the W-2 Helicopter Rotor. NACA TN Xoi 1521, 1948.

9. Gustaf son, F. B

, and Gessow, Alfred: Psalysis of Flight-Performance Measurements on a Twisted, Plywood-Covered Helicopter Rotor in Various Flight Conditions. NACA Tm No. 1595, 1948.
'

10. Gustsfson, F. B.:

Effect on Helicopter Performasce of Modifications in P r o f i l e -Drag Characteristics of Rotor -Blade A i r f o i l Sections. NACA ACR NO L4H05, 19440

1 1 . &s%ow, Alfred: Effect of Rotor-Blade Twist asd P h - F o r m Taper on 3ACA Tm No. 1342, 1948. Eelicopter Hovering Performance 12. Gustafsoa, F. B . , and Gessow, Alfred: Effect of Rotor-Tip Speed on Eelicopter Hovering Performance asd Maximum Forward Speed. NACA ARB No. L6~3.6, 1946.

13. Gustafson, F . B., and Myers, G. C., Jr.: Blades. BXA L !% ' Roo 1083, 1946.

S t a l l i n g of Helicopter

3-4. Gustafaon, P o B., and Gessai, Alfred:

Effect of Blade Stal-llfng m the Efficiency of a Helicopter Rotor a~ M e m d i n FlfghL. N X A Tfa no. 1250, 1947.

15- Gessow, Alfred:

Flight Investigation of Effects of Rotor-Blade T w i s t %on Helicopter Performance in the High-Speed and VerticalAutorotative-Descent Conditions. RACA TI? Bo. 1666, 1948. Louis S., Jr., asd Rice, Fred J., Jr. : Aerodynamic Characteristics of Four NACA Airfoil Sections Designed f o r G l i copter Rotor Blades. M A RB Ro. LTg02, 1946.

l 6 . Stivers,

17. Coleman, Robert Po: Theory of Self-Ercited Mechanical O s c i U t i a n s of Hinged Rotor B l a h s . W A AN?Ro. 3G29, 1943.
18. Peingold, Arnold Me: Theory of Mechaelcal Oscillations of Rotors
with T w o Hinged Blades.

W A ARR No. 3113, 1 9 3

19. Coleman, Robert P . , and FeingoLd, Ax-n~Ld M . :

Theory of Grad Vibrations of a Two-Blade Helicopter Rotor on Anisotropfc Flexible SupporDe RACA 'I3 Ro. u&, 1947.

20. Coleman, Robert P. asd Stempin, C a r l W. : A Preliminary Theoretical Study of Aemdynajmic I n s t a b i l i t y of a Two-Blade E e l i c q t e r Rotor. XAcA RM R o ~6~23 1946 ,

21. Seibel, Chmles:

F l f & t o

JOW*

Periodic derodynamfc Forces on Rotors Fn Fomaxd B e ~ o -% V I O. ~, . U, no. 4, Oct. 1944, pp* 339-3420

22= Owen, J. B e B e : The Stressing of Gyroplane Blades i n Steady ~Fllght. R. & M. no. 1875, B r i t i s h A.R.C., 1939.
23. Duberg, John E., and Luecker, Arthur R.: Comparisons of Methods of Computing Bending Moments i n Helicopter Rotor Blades in the Plane of Flapping. NACA ARR No. L5E23, 1945. 24. F k , Ale~a31derH . : The Bending of Rotor Blades. vole 14, IIO. 1 , J ~ s 1947; pp. 42-50. Jour. Aero. S c i . ,

25. Yuan, Shao Wen: Beanding of Rotor Blade in the Plane of Rotation. Jour. em. ~ c i . ,vol. lh, no. 5 , Mag 1947, pp. 285-29326. Horvay, Gabriel: Stress Analysis of Rotor Blades. vole 14, no. 6, June 1947, 315-336.
.DO

Jour. &roe Sci.,

27.

Coleman, Robert P . , Feingold, Arnold M., and Stenpin, C a r l W.: Evaluation of the Induced-Velocity Field of as. Idealized Helicopter Rotor. nACA ARR No. L5El0, 1945.

: Contributions t o the Dgnamic S t a b i l i t y of Rotary-Wing raft with Articulated Blades. P & I General P r i n c i ~ l e s . l a t i o n No. F-TS-690-RE, Air Materiel Command, July 29;

1946.
: The Dynamic S t a b i l i t y of He&icoptere with Articulated Rotors - Second P a r t i a l Report. Translation no. F-TS -1002-RE, Air Materiel command, Sept. 9, 1946.
30. Bohenemser, K.:

S t a b i l i t y in Hovering o f ' t h e Helicopter with Central Air Materiel Commasd, Rotor Location. Translation Ao. F-TS-~~T-HE, m* 1, 1946-

31. Hohenemer, K O : Longitudinal-Stability of the Helicopter in Forward Plight. Translation no. F-TS -688 -HE, Air Materiel Commasd, aug. 2, 1946.
32, Donovan, A. F . , and Goland, M . : The Response of Helicopters with Articulated Rotors t o Cyclic Blade Pitch Control. Jour. &ro. Sci. V O ~ . U, no. 4, ~ c t . 1944, pp. 387-398.

33. Gustafson, F. B . , and Reeder, J. P.:

m no.

Helicopter S t a b i l i t y .

NACA

L71104,

1948. .

34* Rseaer, John P., asd Gustafsan, 3'. B : Notes on the Fly1948=

Qualities of Helicopters. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Forum of the h r i c m Helicopter Society (Philadelphia, Perxla. ) April 22 -24,

ROTOR SH-AFT POWER, HP

v
CALCULATED 0

20 40 60 TRANSLATIONAL VELOCITY, M PH

80

Figure .l.

Comparison of rotor characteristics as calculate& and measured ' in flight.

MAIN-ROTOR SHAFT, HP

RATE OF CLIMB, FPM

ROTOR TIP SPEED, FPS

Figure 2.-

Effect of rotor tip speed on hovering and vertical flight performance of sample helicopter.

OF ROTATION
V = 40 RPM=210

V.70 R P M = 210

DIRECTION OF FLIGHT V = 70 RPM = 225

Figure 3.

Effect of forward speed and rotor tip speed on rotorcblade stall.

200

160

120 FORVVARD SPEED, MP

80

40
I

0 300

380 460 540 MINIMUM ROTOR TIP SPEED, FPS

620

Figure 4.-

Variation of minimum rotor tip speed, as s e t by rotor-blade stall, with forward speed.

ROTOR PROFILEDRAG POWER, HP 1207

BLADE

WITHOUT BLADE STALLINGA

TRANSLATIONAL VELOCITY, MPH

Figure 5.Effects of rotor-blade stall and blade twist on rotor profile-drag power.

EFFECT OF STALL ANGLE MACH NO. AT ADVANCING T I P = -75

EFFECT OF CRITICAL MACH NO. S T A L L ANGLE = 12

1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 20 ROTOR B L A D E - S E C T I O N STALL ANGLE

-7 .8 . 9 I-0 ROTOR-BLADE-SECTION LIMITING MACH N U M B E R

'

Figure 6.- Effect of rotor-blade-section stall angle and limiting Mach number on the permissible load carried by a sample helicopter,

SECTION DRAG COEFFICIENT, c d

.028i

I
.024

NACA 23012

\
NAGA 8-H-12

--C--

\ , -

REYNOLDS NO. --2.6~ lo6 3.0 x 1 o6

SECTION LIFT COEFFICIEMT, c,

Figure 7.-

Comparison of the profile-drag characteristics of the NACA 23012 and NACA 8-H-12 airfoil sections.

lo
DEG

PITCH ATTITUDE

-10
A

1.2

ACCELERATION

9 .8
I

1 0

20 SECONDS

Figure 8. - Time history of a helicopter oscillation obtained in flight a t 40 miles per hour.

,-STICK

POSITION

0
IN. Fw'D

ACCELERATION

SECONDS
Figure 9.Time history of the divergent motion of a helicopter obtained in flight a t 65 miles per hour.