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Total Quality Management Principles that Influence the Integration of Information and Communications Technology into the Classroom
Ng Wee Leng National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore weeleng.ng@nie.edu.sg

In light of the recent focus on applications of Total Quality Management (TQM) elements to bring about change in educational settings, a survey instrument was developed to examine teachers' perceptions of the degree to which TQM principles have the potential to influence their personal integration of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) into the classroom. The purpose of this study is to field-test this instrument which measures 70 Singapore secondary school teachers' perceptions on the impact of Deming's fourteen principles for quality in organization on ICT implementation and integration. The results show that teachers perceived that hy and large TQM principles, in particular constant training and upgrading as well as leadership responsibility, could positively influence ICT implementation and integration. The findings suggest that in order to promote quality ICT integration on the part of teachers, adequate training in addition to strong leadership needs to be provided. This is to our knowledge the first study which attempts to apply the principles of TQM in the context of integration of ICT in education. Keywords: ICT in education, total quality management, teaching, learning, Singapore

Integration of information and communications technology (ICT) into the classroom to improve quality of teaching and learning in schools has received increasing attention; both educators and policymakers see ICT as an important tool in bringing about changes in schools which could result in an improved education system to survive and prosper in a world that is increasingly competitive and interdependent (Bagley & Hunter, 1992; Becker, 1993; Dede, 1994). While the principles of Total Quality Management (TQM) have been applied in various educational settings to manage change systematically (Abemathy &

Serfass, 1992), and hence the application of TQM to ICT integration into teaching seems to be a logical step, to date there has been no study which explores some of TQM's potential benefits for the integration of ICT into education in Singapore. The purpose of this study is therefore to fieldtest the Total Quality Management in the Integration of ICT Survey (TQMICTS) that has been developed by the author to investigate Singaporean teachers' perceptions ofthe potential influence of Total Quality Management on ICT implementation and integration based on their observations. This is in keeping with the "continuous improvement"

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dimension (Schmidt, 1998) of "Total Quality Management in Education" as mentioned by Wiedmer and Harris (1997). The following section will detail the rationale behind instrument development and testing in addition to the theoretical framework that has shaped its development process.

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE The Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore has recognized the importance of equipping students with technological skills that will allow smooth transition into the workplace. In light of this, MOE developed its first Masterplan for Information Technology in Education (MPI), which came into effect irom 1997 through to 2002. As of this writing, MPI has moved into its third phase, the Masterplan 3 (MP3), which consolidates and builds on the achievements ofthe two previous phases. The four goals of MP3 are to (1) strengthen competencies for self-directed leaming, (2) tailor leaming experiences according to the way that each student learns best, (3) encourage students to go deeper and advance their leaming, and (4) leam anywhere. While the MOE Singapore's thrust in ICT integration in schools is extensive, it is not the only country to implement such policies. New Zealand and the island of Jamaica have taken measures to implement ICT into the educationalframeworkthat exists in their countries as they firmly believe that the quality of education may be improved by incorporating ICT into the school curriculum (Barrett, 2003; Education Review Office, 2000). Nonetheless, technology implementation has not been entirely successful at the school level, even globally, for a variety of reasons. Foreign research has shown that technology integration in other parts of the world has not been smooth due to inappropriate planning, lack of training, insufficient budget and shortage of resources (Butzin, 1992; Cafolla & Knee, 1999; Dias, 1999; OET, 1995). While Singapore's technological thmst in education has been implemented at a national level by the

nation's leadership, the main implementers of technology, as Wiburg (1997) pointed out, are teachers. They are the first to experiment with instmctional technology and products and also the first to suffer should there be any inappropriate planning. To implement technology successfully, teachers need to master the instmctional techniques and technologies and integrate them into the curriculum (Dockstader, 1999). As teachers have the best understanding of what needs to be taught, and the advantages and difficulties encountered in the integration of technology into instmction (Bagley fe Hunter, 1992; Cuban, 1993; Novak & Berger, 1991; OET, 1995), it is imperative that their concerns and feedback be considered and addressed adequately, where every member ofthe school organisation needs to be committed towards achieving excellence in ICT competency. The involvement of teachers in the decision-making process empowers them and creates a basis for good teamwork. Teachers also need to be convinced of technology's role in the classroom in order to want to harness it and are required to be part of the transformation and evaluation processes. Authorities in education have generally defined quality in education as observable improvement in student leaming (Nixon, Helms & Williams, 2001). As a result ofthe focus on student leaming as the indicator of educational quality, the factors that affect student learning must be considered. One ofthe key factors that need to be looked at as a contributing factor, though not independent of other factors, is the quality of instruction. Gaide (2005) suggested that the move towards leamercenteredness in education is the key to improving educational quality, and learnercenteredness, as Bagley and Hunter (1992) found, and which can be achieved by harnessing ICT in the classroom along with appropriately planned teaching strategies. However, unlike industries such as manufacturing, quality of education is inherently difficult to measure as it is a service and not a manufactured product. The factors that affect quality of instruction are numerous, which increases complexity in terms of

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measurement and subsequent improvement (Nixon et al, 2001). TQM provides a conceptualfi-ameworkfor the achievement ofquality of teaching and learning in schools. Indeed, the attributes of school excellence are interdependent: achievement of one quality attribute maybe at the expense of another. TQM is not simply a set of tools and techniques but a holistic quality approach combining human and technical elements. A review ofthe literature reveals that TQM has not been applied to ICT integration to achieve quality of teaching. Given the lack of understanding ofthese basic concepts, it is useful to study the key elements of TQM. One ofthe most infiuential theories for achieving quality in organizations, TQM originated in the manufacturing sector but is increasingly being applied to other sectors such as the service industries, health, government, and education (Dean & Bowen, 1994). It is an evolving theory based on the work of Crosby (1979), Deming (1986), Feigenbaum (1983), Ishikawa (1985) and Juran (1979) which combines the quality control theory, systems, tools and organizational models developed over the last 40 years in the United States and Japan. A holistic theory which uses a multi-disciplinary approach to quality, TQM uses statistics to improve work processes, managerial skills to improve the human components of production, and a customer-centred focus to deliver the product the customer wants or needs. Although TQM arose from the need for customer satisfaction in the business sector, Deming (1989) asserts that TQM can be implemented in almost every environment, including education. TQM has also recently made its way into the management practices of higher education, which have customized its principles and commitment as outlined by Brigham ( 1994). The principles provide a structured system for complete participation based on the plarming and implementation of a continual improvement process. The basis for this is that 90 percent of the problems within the organisational environment are process problems and not employee problems (Coate, 1992). An example ofthe successful implementation of TQM

in a high school setting is Mt Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, Alaska which has had knowledge ofthe system since 1987 and implemented it subsequently with complete staff consent. Both students and stafevaluations showed that students demonstrated an inclination towards greater understanding and expression of subject matter. In addition, the school saw both low dropout rates and high attendance rates, attesting to the success brought about by their TQM programme. They have since refined their TQM system to include other elements from futurists and analysts, hence attesting to theflexibilityofthe programme (Cotton, 1994). Since the present study is a first attempt to apply TQM to the integration of ICT into the classroom, it is useful to examine the applicability ofthe principles as advocated by Edwards Deming, widely recognized as the founder of TQM, to ICT integration. Deming (1986) encapsulated his philosophy into 14 principles which lay out a fi-amework for organizations to build around when establishing and maintaining a quality organization that can achieve continuous improvement. The 14 principles of Deming (1986) are highly adaptable to any management environment and may be updated on a regular basis or when required. Many proponents of TQM in education have in fact modified Deming's principles to fit the needs of educational institutions as pointed out by Vazzana, Winter & Waner (1997). The present study has adapted these 14 principles in ICT integration as its theoretical fi-amework. Deming (1986) states that for TQM to be successil, it is crucial that every single member of the school organisation has a sense of ownership towards the programme. However, many teachers and students have not acquiesced to be a part ofthe ICT enhancement programme and all that it entails, having instead beeri swept into the flow of ICT use as opposed to being keenly aware of the need for the use of technology to enhance the quality of education in the current technological age. This study thus aims to gamer a clearer picture of what the most crucial factors that influence the integration of

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ICT into the classroom from the perspective of the teachers are.

METHODOLOGY A field test of the survey instrument, TQMICTS, was conducted with teachers of a randomly-selected secondary school in Singapore in order to ascertain teachers' perceptions of the influence of TQM principles on personal integration of ICT into the curriculum. A total of 70 teachers were surveyed and their responses compiled. Anonymity was assured so that the teachers would not hesitate to reflect their frank observations and perceptions in the survey. Survey participants were not discriminated according to teaching subjects, experience, stream or level taught before the survey was administered. The purpose was to field-test the TQMICTS and at the same time obtain a clear picture of the applicability of the TQM principles to the implementation and integration of ICT in Singapore secondary schools. Thefive-pageTQMICTS used in the study was constructed with the intent to acquire as much background information as possible regarding the teachers' demographics in addition to their professional designations and the extent to which they perceive the influence of each TQM principle pertinent to ICT integration into the classroom at the time of the survey. Apart from the introduction to the survey which details its intent and some basic instructions, the instrument is divided into two parts: (a) background information, and (b) perceptions of the TQM principles that influence ICT integration. Part A was designed to obtain the demographic data of the survey participants such as age, academic qualifications, and years of teaching experience. In the second section. Part B, statements are divided according to the 14 principles of TQM (Deming, 1986), that are presumed to influence teachers' integration of ICT into the classroom. Each of Deming's 14 principles have been adapted to give rise to 3 items within

the survey instrument for a total of 42 items that survey the attitude of secondary school teachers towards the factors that might affect teachers in their personal approach to integration of ICT into the classroom. The numbers assigned to each statement are in the order that they appeared in the survey to ensure objective feedback from the participants. The score for each item is determined by the participant's response to the statement in a 4-point Likert scale. That is, for each item, participants are asked to indicate whether they "strongly disagree," "disagree," "agree" or "strongly agree" that what is described in the statement positively influences teachers' integration of ICT into the classroom. Each response category is assigned a score with "strongly disagree" being assigned 1 point; "disagree," 2 points; "agree," 3 points; and "strongly agree," 4 points. The score for each TQM principle is obtained from the mean of the scores of the three items classified under the principle. After the completed surveys were collected and the results compiled, a number of analyses were performed to ascertain the degree to which each TQM principle affects secondary school teachers' integration of ICT into the classroom. In particular, the rank of individual TQM principles in terms of its perceived influence on ICT integration was ascertained through the mean score of each principle.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For the purpose of summarising the data obtained and for ease of discussion, the 14 TQM principles adapted for the ICT implementation and integration have been abbreviated (see Table 1 ). The results of the statistical analyses show that Singapore secondary schoolteachers perceive that TQM principles do positively influence teachers' integration of ICT into the classroom. With a mean score of 3.76,3.64 and 3.59 respectively out of a possible total of 4, the perceived influence of the TQM principles Constant Training and Upgrading followed by Leadership Responsibility and

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Table 1 Scores on the 14 TQM principles and Total Score Principle Constancy of purpose Leadership responsibility Cease dependence on inspection Stakeholder participation Constant technical service improvement Constant training and upgrading Constant leadership Drive out fear Departmental support Eliminate slogans and idealistic statements Eliminate set aims and requirements Quality not quantity Education and self-improvement Total participation Total Mean Score 3.59 3.64 1.62 2.41 2.88 3.76 2.91 1.73 3.33 1.98 2.23 3.27 3.41 3.09 2.97 Standard Reliability Deviation 0.66 0.51 0.57 0.87 0.92 1.13 0.72 0.62 1.37 0.89 0.77 0.61 0.53 0.71 1.22 0.86 0.72 0.77 0.69 0.74 0.84 0.78 0.81 0.73 0.85 0.79 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.93

Constancy of Purpose were found to be particularly substantial (see Table 1). Responses to items within the Principle 6framework.Constant Training and Upgrading, show that teachers place great importance on the upgrading of professional and personal skills in the use of ICT in schools and that leadership's ready approval of such course attendance make a positive impact on teachers' implementation of ICT. This is indicative ofthe importanee of staff development in technology integration according to Wiburg (1997) that is also perceived by teachers. In order for teachers to utilise technology beyond rote tasks, teachers feel that they must be continually trained to use and master technological resources effectively in any teaching subject in accordance with findings by the OET (1995). For improvement in technology integration to progress continually, in addition to an increase of quality ICT integration into curriculum, this basic need as expressed by teachers need to be met. Leadership needs to be constantly aware of new technologies and provide

teachers with a viable avenue for the upgrading of crucial skills. As secondary schools in Singapore maintain a strong link with the National Institute of Education (NIE) which provides opportunities for teachers to enhance their pre-existing technological skills or to acquire new ones, it would be advantageous to harness this link in order to provide teachers with updated software, hardware and pedagogical training. Many schools also utilise external sources for the training of staff through workshops on a regular basis, which is another avenue by which training can occur at a school level that caters specifically to their needs. Principle 2, Leadership Responsibihty with a mean score of 3.64, is also an important consideration of Singaporean secondary school teachers with strong potential to influence ICT integration at a classroom level. Leaders need to provide an initial model for integration and subsequently demonstrate to teachers that any kinks in potentially smooth quality integration is being actively researched and ironed out. The

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fmdings of some researchers have deemed leadership, support, professional development and partnerships to be important factors that help teachers decide what extent ICT is implemented in their classrooms (e.g. CafoUa & Knee, 1999; Knapp & Glenn, 1996; Kozma & Schank, 1998; Stevens, 1992). School leadership needs to take up responsibility for the implementation and integration of ICT as perceived by local secondary school teachers. They also need to maintain a steady course on the path of implementation. The mean score of 3.59 for Principle 1, Constancy of Purpose, indicates that teachers feel that strong leadership and purpose are valuable in moving them forward in terms of personal ICT integration in the classroom. The reminders of purpose of integration might be a means to refocus teachers to the core of ICT integration, namely the provision of quality ICT-enriched learning environments for students, and not the quantity of ICT integration that teachers and the leadership might drift towards on occasion. Constant reminders ofthe specific purpose of ICT in the school, in addition to the maintenance of purpose, provide teachers with the security of a sturdy framework with which to carry out ICT integration. At the middle ofthe spectrum lie principles such as Total Participation, Constant Leadership and Constant Technical Service Improvement (mean scores of 3.09, 2.91 and 2.88 respectively). However, the teachers'perceptions ofthe influence of these principles on ICT integration differ in view ofthe standard deviations obtained (0.71, 0.72 and 0.92 respectively). Although Dias (1999) asserts that teachers can hardly be expected to utilise non-existent technology in their classroom, substantial improvements can be made in terms of the constancy of technical service improvement. If the TQM approach in ICT implementation and integration is to be successful, a reassessment of a number of principles is in order. With a mean score lower than 2, principles such as Cease Dependence on Inspection and Eliminate Slogans and Idealistic Statements need to be reassessed in schools. Clearly, these do not impact teachers' integration of ICT in curriculum as much as other

principles and hence, perhaps some realistic slogans might be permissible depending on individual school settings. It is surprising though that the mean score ofthe eighth principle of driving out fear of ICT through regular feedback is low (mean score = 1.73) as secondary school teachers in Singapore do seem to require a greater scope offi^eedomin terms of feedback expression. It is also worthwhile to note that although teachers tend to share the same views as evidenced by the standard deviation ofthe individual factors, some may perceive other factors as more important than others (e.g. Departmental Support has a standard deviation of 1.37). Table 2 also reports the reliabilities (Cronbach's alpha) for each of the subscales measuring the 14 TQM principles within the framework of ICT implementation and integration. The reliabilities ofthe 14 subscales of the TQMICTS are all within an acceptable range (0.69 to 0.86). The reliability ofthe TQMICTS was 0.93.

CONCLUSION The purpose ofthe present study has been to field-test the TQMICTS that has been developed to investigate teachers' perceptions ofthe influence of TQM principles on the implementation and integration of ICT in secondary schools in Singapore. The results of the study show that overall, teachers perceive that adherence to the tenets of TQM positively influence ICT integration. Ofthe 14 principles adaptedfromDeming's (1986) principles that have been examined previously, constant training and upgrading ranked the highest followed by leadership responsibility. If all the needs as outlined by analysis of these principles are addressed, taking into consideration the lack of focus on some of them, such as schools' dependence on inspection as well as an open feedback system, it is clear that the quality of ICT implementation and integration will be in greater alignment with the 14 TQM principles. The data obtained, while not representative ofthe entire Singapore secondary school teacher population.

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does provide a perspectivefi"omwhich key issues in the quality of education through the use of ICT may be addressed. For the four goals of MP3 as outlined by MOE (2008) to be realised in the light ofthe present study, measures need to be taken to ensure that the basic need for infrastructural support is strongly established such that teachers and students alike are steeped in a comfortable environment where they may employ ICT. Hence, the issues of leadership and support without establishment of lofty ideals and the creation ofa setting that is secure and open to suggestions need to be addressed as the results demonstrate. With the required foundation in place, teachers' professional and personal growth will likely increase owing to the current in-service development system that has already been established. With such improvement, it naturally follows that the overall school climate and use of ICT wlbe fiirther enhanced. TQM has therefore provided a useful framework with which to address the issues faced by teachers in the integration of ICT in schools. By assessing the various parameters within the stmcture ofICT implementation in terms of service quality as suggested by Parasuraman and Berry (1988), there has been progress in identifying the priorities that teachers place on the quality ofthe various components within their overall ICT experience. By considering teachers' perceptions that will influence the planning and implementation process, teachers are empowered, and as a result, more receptive toward continual improvement that may often be perceived as unnecessary changes (Schmidt, 1998). Hence, this approach towards teachers being internal customers that receive ICT products and services within the school system assists in the application of TQM within the ICT implementation framework at a constmctive level. However, while the results do give an indication as to what Singaporean teachers perceive are contributing TQM elements to ICT integration into the classroom, the results are not definitively conclusive. Further, although the survey instrument

provides an avenue for honest responses based on anonymity, participants may express more socially acceptable opinions and therefore conceal their tme attitudes (Oppenheim, 1992). Additional qualitative research is required in order to ascertain the details of teachers' perceptions for each ofthe 14 TQM principles specifically. Even then, the results would largely be subjective and it is difficult to obtain a "general" view of technology integration, as it is largely a personal classroom strategy issue. Nonetheless, research in this field would enable the leadership to take necessary steps towards applying appropriate TQM principles that teachers deem most crucial in the integration of ICT, thereby increasing its application and thus, useflihess in the classroom. The present study certainly has limitations of its own that are important to address in subsequent research. Possibilities for further enquiry could therefore include: (a) a wider sample of respondents (not just secondary school teachers); (b) conception ofthe 14 TQM principles in the ICT implementation and integrationframework,as well as (c) further identifying the constituents deemed important in each principle itself Future in-depth qualitative studies should also be conducted to achieve theoretical triangulation. For example, in-depth interviews could be conducted to provide fiiller explanation of the interesting patterns that have emerged from the quantitative data analysis. It is also acknowledged that while it is perhaps easier to make some links between some factors and cultures of change, given that the intricate relationships that exist between teachers and school culture are widely documented in the current literature, more work needs to be done to establish the links between these 14 principles and the integration ofICT into teaching. Moreover, it cannot be assumed that dispositions towards one area of change in a school would necessarily mean similar dispositions to all aspects of change. There is therefore a need to determine in future studies which feature of the change is infiuenced by practice pertaining to each ofthe 14 principles in the context of ICT integration.

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Statements from Part B ofthe TQMICTS classified under the 14 TQM principles. No. 1 15 24 Principle 1: Constancy of purpose The improvement of implementation and integration of ICT is one ofthe major foci ofthe school. The implementation and integration of ICT in the classroom receives constant emphasis in school. Teachers are reminded ofthe purpose of implementing and integrating ICT in the curriculum on a regular basis. Principle 2: Leadership responsibility The leadership in school provide direction for effective and productive change in implementing ICT enhanced curricula. Members ofthe school leadership are the first to utilise ICT to enhance the curriculum. Leaders often gather to troubleshoot any difficulties in the implementation and application of ICT. Principle 3: Cease dependence on inspection Electronic and technological resources such as computers, projectors and hardware are in excellent condition when installed in the school. Maintenance and upgrading of hardware and software are constantly performed. Teachers and students treat hardware and software with care to ensure that they retain their original capabilities. Principle 4: Stakeholder participation Installation of hardware and software is performed consistently by a small handful of companies. Servicing of hardware and software is carried out by external companies when required. In-house training occurs through a selected pool of external stakeholders. Principle 5: Constant technical service improvement Technical staff undergo training on a regular basis in order to improve the quality of technical service. Teacher trainers are constantly upgrading their skills and knowledge of new hardware and software as well as pedagogies. Members ofthe leadership are kept up to date with new improvements in technology. Principle 6: Constant training and upgrading Teachers are encouraged to attend ICT workshops to improve their computer skills and knowledge. The school plans in-house courses on a regular basis to cater to the needs of teachers based on their requests. Leadership readily approves teachers' applications for in-service ICT courses. Principle 7: Constant leadership Leadership frequently supervises teachers' use of technology. Members ofthe leadership frequently provide teachers with constructive feedback in order to improve the quality of ICT use in the classroom. The leadership often have conferences with teachers in order to provide suggestions for the use of ICT in their lessons. Principle 8: Drive out fear Teachers are frequently approached to share their experiences in the use of ICT with other colleagues. Students are encouraged to provide feedback to the leadership regarding school-related ICT products and services. Teachers are encouraged to provide feedback to the leadership regarding any aspect of implementation and integration of ICT in the classroom. Principle 9: Departmental support The departments within the school share ICT resources with one another on a regular basis. Interdepartmental sharing sessions are held regularly to communicate the recent developments in the use of ICT within their respective departments.

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Department members frequently provide constructive feedback regarding the quality of ICT use in other departments. Principle 10: Eliminate slogans and idealistic statements The school utilises slogans to encourage students to employ ICT in accomplishing school tasks. Teachers are expected to integrate ICT into their lessons through ways that are outlined by the school. Teachers are expected to integrate ICT seamlessly and successfully into their lessons each time they are carried out. Principle 11 : Eliminate set aims and requirements There is a specified amount of time in the teachers' teaching schedule that has been allocated to the use of ICT. The aims for the use of ICT in the classroom have been outlined clearly by the leadership and have to be followed strictly. The objectives of ICT implementation in school do not involve the use of ICT for a set number of hours per week. Principle 12: Quality not quantity School leadership encourages frequent use of ICT in the classroom. Members ofthe leadership frequently make requests for teachers to utilise the computer laboratories on a regular basis. Appropriateness ofthe integration of ICT in lessons is emphasised. Principle 13: Education and self-improvement The school premises houses a library of computer training resources such as books, CD-ROMs, VCDs, DVDs and videotapes to allow students and teachers to improve their ICT skills at their own time. Teachers are encouraged by the leadership to utilise school resources in order for self-improvement. Teachers often visit the school ICT resource library to upgrade their skills in the use of various hardware and software. Principle 14: Total participation All teachers and students are encouraged to use ICT whenever it is appropriate. Teachers encourage one another in the use of ICT in the classroom. Teachers and students are provided with appropriate materials to enhance the use of ICT.

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