Nursyazmin Binti khairuddin (12273208031) Pathogenic Microbiology (HLB 22303)

Objectives 1. To observe the histopathology of the prepared slides. 2. To identified the different between the normal histology slides and the abnormal histology (histopathology) slides of various types of diseases. Introduction: Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is performed by examining a thin slice of tissue under a light microscope or electron microscope. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains. Histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestations of disease. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. The defect tissue is removed from the body, and then placed in a fixative which stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin (10% formaldehyde in water). The tissue is then prepared using histology procedures for viewing under a microscope using one of two method of fixation - chemical fixation or frozen section. This can be done to slides processed by the chemical fixation or frozen section slides. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. The most commonly used stain in histopathology is a combination of hematoxylin and eosin. Hematoxylin is used to stain nuclei blue, while eosin stains cytoplasm and the extracellular connective tissue matrix pink. There are hundreds of various other techniques which have been used to selectively stain cells. Other compounds used to color tissue sections include safranin, Oil Red O, congo red, silver salts and artificial dyes. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. A commonly performed histochemical technique is the Perls Prussian Blue reaction, used to demonstrate iron deposits in diseases like Hemochromatosis. The histological slides are examined under a microscope by a pathologist, a medically qualified specialist. This medical diagnosis is formulated as a pathology report describing the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. In the removal of cancer, the pathologist will indicate whether the surgical margin is cleared, or is involved (residual

Nursyazmin Binti khairuddin (12273208031) Pathogenic Microbiology (HLB 22303)

cancer is left behind). This is done using either the bread loafing or CCPDMA method of processing. In this experiment, the prepared histopathology slides will be observed and compared with the normal histology slides to see the different between the normal and diseases human cell. Materials: 1. Normal histology slides 2. Histopathology slides 3. Oil immersion 4. Lens paper 5. Light microscope Method: 1. A slide of normal histology of stomach was observed and draws. 2. Then a slide of chronic peptic ulcer was observed and draws. 3. Step 1 and 2 were repeated using other slides according to the list of histopathology given earlier. Discussion: The results showed the microscopic view at different magnification of objective lens of microscope for different types of abnormalities in human cells and at different location which showed uncontrolled division of cells on most slides due to cancer. Cancer is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth, invasion and sometimes metastasis. These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited, and do not invade or metastasize. Most cancers form a tumor but some, like leukemia, do not. The branch of medicine concerned with the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer is oncology. Cancers are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material of the transformed cells. These abnormalities may be due to the effects of carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents. Other cancer-promoting genetic abnormalities may randomly occur through errors in DNA replication, or are inherited, and thus present in all cells from birth. The heritability of cancers is usually affected by complex interactions between carcinogens and the host's genome.

Nursyazmin Binti khairuddin (12273208031) Pathogenic Microbiology (HLB 22303)

Genetic abnormalities found in cancer typically affect two general classes of genes. Cancerpromoting oncogenes are typically activated in cancer cells, giving those cells new properties, such as hyperactive growth and division, protection against programmed cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability to become established in diverse tissue environments. Tumor suppressor genes are then inactivated in cancer cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system. Cancers are classified by the type of cell that resembles the tumor and, therefore, the tissue presumed to be the origin of the tumor. These are the histology and the location, respectively. Examples of general categories include: Carcinoma: Malignant tumors derived from epithelial cells. This group represents the most common cancers, including the common forms of breast, prostate, lung and colon cancer. Sarcoma: Malignant tumors derived from connective tissue, or mesenchymal cells. Lymphoma and leukemia: Malignancies derived from hematopoietic cells. Germ cell tumor: Tumors derived from totipotent cells. In adults most often found in the testicle and ovary; in fetuses, babies, and young children most often found on the body midline, particularly at the tip of the tailbone; in horses most often found at the base of the skull. Blastic tumor or blastoma: A tumor that usually malignant which resembles an immature or embryonic tissue. Many of these tumors are most common in children.

Malignant tumors (cancers) are usually named using -carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ of origin as the root. For instance, a cancer of the liver is called hepatocarcinoma; a cancer of the fat cells is called liposarcoma. For common cancers, the English organ name is used. For instance, the most common type of breast cancer is called ductal carcinoma of the breast or mammary ductal carcinoma. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of the cancer under the microscope, resembling normal breast ducts.

Nursyazmin Binti khairuddin (12273208031) Pathogenic Microbiology (HLB 22303)

Benign tumors (which are not cancers) are named using -oma as a suffix with the organ name as the root. For instance, a benign tumor of the smooth muscle of the uterus is called leiomyoma (the common name of this frequent tumor is fibroid). Unfortunately, some cancers also use the -oma suffix, examples being melanoma and seminoma. Conclusion: As a conclusion, from this experiment, the defect of normal histology slides that was observed earlier when compared to normal histology slides showed that human cell are multiplying so, it is not impossible for normal histology of human cell to become as such in the histopathology slides.