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Introduction CHAPTER - I INTRODUCTION

Every educator needs to be concerned about motivation. It is a quality that students, teachers, Parents, school administrators, and other members of the community must have if our educational. System is to prepare young people adequately for the challenges and demands of the coming century. Of course, the way these various groups of individuals generate and use motivation differs greatly. Students need motivation to learn, parents need it to track the educational progress of their sons and daughters, teachers need it to become better teachers, and school administrators need it to ensure that every facet of the schools they manage continues to improve.

Despite much excellent research during the last two decades, there is still a great deal we do not know about motivation. It remains a mystery, because we all have it, but we all exhibit it at different times, in different degrees, in different ways, and in different contexts. One aspect of the school administrators job is to discover and nurture motivation among all the different individuals involved in the educational process. Define Motivation Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge. Meaning of Motivation Motivation is generally defined as the force that compels us to action. It drives us to work hard and pushes us to succeed. Motivation influences our behavior and our ability to accomplish goals.

Introduction Define Academic Motivation A child who is academically motivated wants to learn, likes learningrelated activities, and believes school is important. We want to help children develop a desire to do well in school because the children believe that learning is important and rewarding in their lives. Concept of Motivation

1) Motivation can be defined as the driving force behind all the actions of an individual. 2) Motivation is what stimulates all human behaviour. 3) Motivation is based on your emotions and achievement-related goals. 4) There are different forms of motivation including extrinsic, intrinsic, physiological, and achievement motivation 5) The level of involvement determines the degree of motivation a consumer had to buy that product. 6) The source of stimulation and the particular situation the consumer is in when he or she comes into contact with the product also determine the level of involvement. 7) With motivation being such a major influence on consumption pattern of the customer, there is a strong need to study it as part of marketing research Meaning of Academic Motivation A persons desire (as reflected in approach, persistence, and level of interest) regarding academic subjects when competence is judged against a standard of performance or excellence. Academic motivation is a students desire (as reflected in approach, persistence, and level of interest) regarding academic subjects when the students competence is judged against a standard of performance or excellence.

Introduction Define Academic Motivation

Academic motivation is a subtype of the general construct of reflectance motivation, which is defined as the need to be successful or effective in dealing with ones environment (Gresham, 1988).

Refer to Motivation The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward achieving a goal

Its Motivation, Not Discipline But what is discipline, really? Its mostly an illusion, in my experience. When people say that someone has discipline, as Ive written about before, they really mean he has the motivation to stick to something. So in the end, its not some vague quality (discipline) that allows him to stick to these habits, but rather the two secrets of motivation: positive public pressure and enjoyment.

Requisites to Motivate

We have to be Motivated to Motivate Motivation requires a goal Motivation once established, does not last if not repeated Motivation requires Recognition Participation has motivating effect Seeing ourselves progressing Motivates us Challenge only motivates if you can win Everybody has a motivational fuse i.e. everybody can be motivated Group belonging motivates

Components of Motivation

Introduction There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence and intensity. Activation involves the decision to initiate behaviour, such as enrolling in a psychology class. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist, such as taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy and resources. Finally, intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigour that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class.

Major Two Types Motivation 1) Intrinsic Motivation (Internal Motivation) Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

Attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy,

Believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs

Are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades

2) Extrinsic Motivation (External Motivation)

Introduction Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.

General Types of Motivation 1. Achievement Motivation It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. Here, accomplishment is important for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany it. It is similar to Kaizen approach of Japanese Management. 2. Affiliation Motivation It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation perform work better when they are complimented for their favourable attitudes and co-operation. 3. Competence Motivation It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform high quality work. Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and using their problem-solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles. They learn from their experience. 4. Power Motivation

Introduction It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so. 5. Attitude Motivation Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self-confidence, their belief in them, their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they react to the past. 6. Incentive Motivation It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is You do this and you get that, attitude. It is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little harder. 7. Fear Motivation Fear motivation coercions a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets the job done quickly. It is helpful in the short run.

General Principles of Motivation 1. Needs My problem with using needs as motivation is that I dont have many needs. Back in the day, I used to work for 15 hours a week and honestly, I was just fine. I had money for food, rent, and clothes. Sure, there were times when money was really tight but I never went hungry. When youre a single person, needs dont always work that great for motivation. I think that most of you would agree, however, that when youre really in a jam, motivation comes a lot more easily. This principle didnt help me this

Introduction morning I dont need to run on the treadmill and I dont need to work today. I will eat, breathe, and have fun with my friends whether I am productive today or not. 2. Interest Going to college was probably the most boring experience of my life. I would sit down in class and most of the time I would snap out of my mind-daze right about when my classmates started getting up to leave. I have no problem at all day-dreaming for 50 minutes, or for an hour and 50 minutes for that matter. Learning about concepts that dont matter to me is really difficult. I simply dont care. On the other hand, I am obsessive about learning about things that Im interested in. I can read about business, sales, or marketing all day long and it will stick. It sticks because I care. It comes naturally. The problem with interest is that its more useful for learning than it is for producing. I know TONS about fitness I know how to change my body. That doesnt mean that Im interested in running on the treadmill. I hate running on the treadmill. Its really boring. For that reason, interest didnt help me today. 3. Values This one is really interesting and is a lot more helpful to me. Being a hard worker is really important to me and this is what causes me to feel like a piece of junk after Im not productive. I know that I will feel crappy if I sleep through my workout. I know that I will feel crappy if I dont work hard during a day. In order to let values work for you, you have to clearly define them.

Working hard has become a very clearly defined value for me in fact its something that Im known for among family and friends. However, let me be

Introduction clear. I wasnt born to be a hard worker. I love being lazy. I want to be a hard worker and I have learned how to be one. 4. Self-actualization A motivation that works extremely well for me is self-actualization. I want to be a better, stronger, more productive person. For me, its really helpful to think about what kind of person I want to be when my motivation is lacking. This morning, my physical body didnt want to hit the treadmill it wanted to sleep. I was also having a moment of mental weakness. When this happens to me, I have to start thinking about what I want my life to look like. I want to be fit and more importantly I want to work hard. I like being a hard worker its one of my values. Im a better person if Im a hard worker and I believe that Im a better person if I take control of my fitness. For me, thinking about these concepts helps me to overcome my moments of weakness. 5. Ego Ego is huge, at least it is for me. For that reason, when I committed to hit the treadmill every morning, I found a friend who had the same goals. We made a friendly wager a few weeks ago. We usually bet like $100 but neither one of us actually cares about the money. We care about the competition. We dont want to lose to the other person. This morning when I didnt want to get on the treadmill, I thought about our bet. I dont want to lose that dang bet. I dont want to lose to my buddy. Competition for me is a huge motivator, one that I personally use well for growth. 6. Acceptance

Introduction Everyone wants to be accepted we want the approval of others. I have to admit that part of the reason that I work so hard is so that others will respect me. Im not sure if they do, but I want them to. Social acceptance is something that can motivate you if other methods fail. When people find out how I make my money, they seem to like it. Its impressive to them. I like that. I also have to work really hard to make it work and it doesnt hurt to think about your social circle if your motivation is failing if thats something that motivates you. While acceptance does provide me with some motivation, I have learned that it isnt a good motivator for me. My parents liked to use approval and shame to motivate me growing up and ultimately, it didnt work. Its not a powerful enough motivator for me.

The Ten Principles of Motivation to Students

Motivating students is a complicated business no matter what age they may be. When students want to complete their work and want to succeed, things will go well in your classroomthey will learn and you will have a rewarding day at school. Here are ten very brief ideas that I find useful in my teaching practice. 1. All learning must have a purpose Teachers and students should work together to establish long-term goals so that the work is relevant to students lives and driven by a purpose. I have rarely met a student who wanted to work just for the sake of working.

2. Students need the skills and knowledge necessary

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Introduction To complete their work and achieve their goals Help students achieve short-term goals to develop the competencies they need to be successful. Keeping binders in order, learning to listen carefully, paying attention these are just some of the skills that students need to make learning accessible. 3. Specific directions empower students When students know exactly what they must do to complete assignments, they will approach their work with confidence and interest. Giving good directions is an art form. Keep them simple, brief, and logical. 4. Students want to have fun while they work. Teachers who offer enjoyable learning activities find that students are less likely to be off task. (Teachers also want to have fun when they work!) 5. Offer activities that involve higher-order thinking skills Students find open-ended questions and critical thinking more engaging than activities involving just recall of facts. Rote drills do have a place in any learning environment, but few kids are really inspired by them. Work that requires higher-level thinking skills will move your students in the right direction. 6. Curiosity is an important component of motivation When students want to learn more about a topic, they will tackle challenging assignments in order to satisfy their curiosity. Even something as simple as asking a provocative question to get students thinking in a new way can spark curiosity.

7. A blend of praise and encouragement is effective in building selfreliance.

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Introduction Teachers who offer sincere praise and encouragement establish a positive, nurturing classroom atmosphere. When students know that they are on the right track, they will want to continue. 8. A combination of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards Increases student focus and time on task behavior when used separately, both types of rewards motivate students. However, when teachers combine them, the effect is much greater. 9. Involve students in collaborative activities When students work together, motivation and achievement both soar. 10. Students tend to work harder When they believe that their teacher likes them. This is probably the most important principle of motivation. Why should students work for a grouchy teacher? If your students know that they matter to you, then they will be much more inclined to stay on task than if they believe that you are not invested in their success.

Motivating Different People in Different Ways Motivation is not only in a single direction i.e. downwards. In the present scenario, where the workforce is more informed, more aware, more educated and more goals oriented, the role of motivation has left the boundaries of the hierarchy of management. Apart from superior motivating a subordinate, encouragement and support to colleague as well as helpful suggestions on the right time, even to the superior, brings about a rapport at various work levels. Besides, where

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Introduction workforce is self-motivated, just the acknowledgement of the same makes people feel important and wanted.

Difference between Motivation, Satisfaction, Inspiration and Manipulation Motivation refers to the drive and efforts to satisfy a want or goal, whereas satisfaction refers to the contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. In contrast, inspiration is bringing about a change in the thinking pattern. On the other hand Manipulation is getting the things done from others in a predetermined manner. Hence, manipulation or external stimulus as well as inspiration or internal stimulus acts as carriers of either demotivation or motivation which in turn either results into dissatisfaction or satisfaction depending upon.

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Introduction

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Introduction Theories of Motivation Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

When motivation theory is being considered the first theory that is being recalled is Maslows hierarchy of needs which he has introduced in his 1943 article named as A Theory of Human Motivation. According to this theory, individual strives to seek a higher need when lower needs are fulfilled. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a source of motivation. Needs are motivators only when they are unsatisfied.

In the first level, Physiological Needs exist which include the most basic needs for humans to survive, such as air, water and food.

In the second level, Safety Needs exist which include personal security, health; well-being and safety against accidents remain.

In the third level, Belonging Needs exit. This is where people need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. It is about relationships, families and friendship. Organizations fulfill this need for people.

In the fourth level, Self-Esteem Needs remain. This is where people looks to be respected and to have self-respect. Achievement needs, respect of others are in this level.

In the top-level, Self-Actualization Needs exist. This level of need pertains to realizing the persons full potential.

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Introduction Need of Motivation in Life We know that we must have to achieve Success in life and we tend to not take action. We have many reasons for not achieving what we want. Many times though we know that logically we are right we tend to move away from it, the reason being Emotions. Emotions are what drive us every day, every moment. Imagine that you are on your bed and your mind knows that it is good to do exercise, you talk to yourself, and Do you want to do it today? Or shall I start tomorrow?" and you know this emotion that creeps in decides your fate. This small difference could create a huge impact in the quality of your Life. Firstly for success you need to set your goals. If you do not set your Goals, it is very difficult to achieve your outcomes. And you may have defined your goals; worked out a strategy too, but if you do not have motivation? You will not even take the first step. Its like owning the worlds best car with all the parts working perfectly, the car has the capabilities to go fast with the greatest fuel efficiency. But if there I no driver and or if the driver does not ignite the car and start it, the car does not even move. Motivation is like that spark for the engine. This is what makes the human engine move. You may have the best talents or acquired the best skills but it you do not have motivation you will not reach far. Motivation is the driver which drives you to do what you are doing.

"How soon not now' becomes never'" - Martin Luther King Motivation is the desire to achieve a Goal. Motivation with enthusiasm and energy really move us forward in life. Motivation comes to you in two ways.

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Introduction Factors of Motivation 1. External Factors When you see something happening you are motivated and you move by it. You succeed in some act of yours and as you see these results you are excited and more motivated to achieve. Yes this must happen always for you, however when you are wanting to achieve big, there is a possibility that you might fail and that's when you want the highest level of motivation so as to come over the failure and achieve more in life. Though this works you can't really enjoy this every time and you can't depend on this for motivation. 2. Internal Factors The most powerful form of motivation at any moment we have all needed resources and we need to tap in the right kind of resources. What creates the Motivation is the Passion or the Interest. The moment you Live with Passion you don't need anything else you drive you. You are just driven hard to achieve the best in life. Motivation is basically because of certain internal pictures that we run in our mind. Right now if I ask you to close your eyes and recall a time when you felt motivation and feel the same way as you did during that time and intensify the feeling, I am quite sure that you too would have felt the motivation inside you. As I said it is about giving your 100% in these exercises. When you set your Goals they must automatically motivate you. It must give a sense of Drive so that you could go about achieving more in life. And often Success in one field provides Motivation to Succeed in another endeavor.

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Introduction Contemporary Theories of Needs The Need for Achievement: the drive to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards, strive to succeed. The Need for Power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships - By- McClellands Development of Academic Motivation Children are naturally motivated to learn when they are infants. A baby's struggle to reach a toy, learn to walk, or eat without help are examples of motivation to learn. This early motivation to learn is later applied to schoolrelated activities such as reading and writing. When children are not motivated to learn, it is because something has gotten in the way of their natural motivation. They believe that they cannot do well in school-related tasks, and they stop trying or do not try hard enough because they don't think that it will make a difference. They become easily frustrated and give up when learning is difficult. Since they stop trying, they do not learn successfully. They do not get to experience the thrill of learning something new. They believe that any success they have is due to luck or circumstance. Why do children develop these negative beliefs? Sometimes it is because of things that affect their ability to learn. Learning disabilities, difficult temperament, developmental delay, depression, or chronic life stress may make it harder for a child to learn in school.

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Introduction Children who have failed in school before are also very likely to stop trying to learn because they develop the belief that they cannot do so. The attitudes of adults can also influence children's beliefs about their academic success. Parents who have standards that are unrealistic can discourage their children's efforts. Competition in school (where someone always wins and someone always loses) can be very discouraging to children, especially those who may never be "the best" at school, even though they can learn a lot. Children who don't experience success or whose successes are not recognized may develop poor academic motivation. Children whose parents or peers do not think school is important or does not place importance on doing their best in school also can develop poor academic motivation. Increasing Motivation to Learn There are many things that parents can do to increase their child's academic motivation. Keeping good parent-child relationships and letting your child know that you think school is important can enhance academic effort. You can also help by teaching your child good study habits and providing recognition for his or her successes. Working as a partner with your child's teacher is also important. Here are some ideas to help you increase your child's motivation to learn: Be firm and fair when you discipline your child. Children need reasonable discipline to be independent and responsible. Teach your child to be responsible at home. Chores and expectations for proper behavior are ways of developing self-discipline that can transfer to school-related learning. Work hard to have a good parent-child relationship. Take time to do fun things with your child. Listen when your child talks to you, especially about school.

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Introduction Do family activities that encourage learning, such as visits to the library, museums or parks. Let your children know that you think learning is important and is the central purpose of school. Provide opportunities for successes. Children who feel successful are more likely to try new things. Talk with your children about your interests and likes. Help your children identify things that they enjoy and what they do well. Capitalize on their interests to build learning experiences. For instance, if your child likes baseball, you can encourage your child to read and write about baseball players or the history of baseball. Talk with your children about school and show an interest in their school activities. Talk with your children about their career interests and how school is related to a career. Be sure to praise your children for trying hard and for being successful. All children need to know when they are doing well. Balance praise and punishment when you are helping your child. Too much punishment can be discouraging. Make sure your child knows what is expected and gets some kind of recognition. Remember, rewards don't always mean getting money or privileges. Just telling your children that you are proud of them or you notice the effort they put into their work will make a big difference. Teach Habits that Encourage Learning Have a set routine for school work. Your child should know when he or she is expected to work on their school work each day. Set up a place to study where your children have the needed supplies and as much quiet as necessary. Make sure your children finish school work at home before doing things that could distract them from doing their school work.

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Introduction Work with Your Child's Teacher Show your child that you respect his or her teacher. Don't handle disagreement with the teacher in front of your child. Talk regularly with the teacher so that each of you know what is going on in school and at home. Waiting until report cards come out is often too late to make changes. Work with your child's teacher to make sure your child learns good study skills. Develop a system to give reinforcements at home for working hard in school. If Your Child is Already Having Problems with Academic Motivation Talk with your child about the problem. Is he or she feeling confused or frustrated by the work? Does your child feel that he or she is trying hard to do well? Talk with your child's teacher to identify areas in need of improvement. Let your child know that you are willing to help them do better. Help your child identify things he or she does well so that the focus is only on areas of difficulty. Help your child identify things that he or she likes that could be used to help with school work (for example, if a child is interested in animals, have him or her read books about animals, make up stories about animals, etc.). Reward effort and productivity. Provide increased rewards for improvement. Limit things that interfere with learning, such as excessive TV, video games, computer time, etc. Increase the amount of time your child studies each day by a small amount 5-10 minutes until you reach a reasonable goal (such as an additional thirty minutes per day).

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Introduction Get More Help if Necessary Talk with your child's teacher, school counselor or school psychologist for help and advice. If there is reason to suspect an educational disability, request a comprehensive assessment from your school's special education team. Often, there are parents groups or PTA groups that can help you or provide support. Find out if instruction in study skills is available at your child's school. Don't be afraid to seek counseling or other help outside of school if necessary. Individual Behaviour Is At the Heart of Human Motivation Why is individual behaviour so important in trying to understand and then influence motivation? Every individual has a set of needs and a different set of goals Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needs and fulfill their goals Therefore, individuals behave differently! E.g. - Relationships; sense of belonging; intellectual stimulation; mental & physical challenge; self-development Student Motivation and Investment in the Language Classroom Motivation is a key factor in language learning. The word motivation conjures up many related concepts, like attitude, enthusiasm, mood, and desire. In more recent years, we have replaced motivation with the word investment because investment emphasizes the students' contribution of interest and passion in their learning.

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Introduction We know that motivation, passion, enthusiasm, interest and desire all increase when a student makes an investment in his or her learning and learning related activities. Students who are invested more strongly in learning an SL will have more interest, particularly in oral communication, than students who just want good grades who will be pretty happy just doing reading and writing activities. Methods of Students Motivated When it comes to self-motivation and external motivation, we are in a difficult time right now. The fact is, a person can only be motivated about what they already know, and when they are introduced to something new, they then have the chance to be motivated about something new. If, in a students previous experience, they never had any opportunities to interact with other cultures or the second language culture or language itself, then the teacher and that class are playing a very significant role in introducing that student to something that they could become more motivated and interested in and then more willing to invest in. There are many strategies school leaders can use to reward motivation and promote academic achievement. For example, Huddle (1984), in a review of literature on effective leadership, cites a study in which principals in effective schools used a variety of methods to publicize the school goals and achievements in the area of academics. These included: Bringing in outstanding speakers for the National Honor Society meetings Placing names of special education students on the honor roll Publishing an annual report of academic achievement and mailing it to parents Displaying academic awards and trophies in the school trophy case

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Introduction Need for Motivation

Motivation must be rewarded, increased, and sustained at all levels. However, administrators must not forget about their own motivation. Like those around them, they must find ways to remain motivated in the face of obstacles, distractions, and what may sometimes seem like universal indifference. Literature is filled with images of schoolchildren joyfully hurrying away from school.

A long line of writers, including such notables as Blake and Shakespeare, have frequently described unhappy students at their desks and vividly portrayed their delight at escaping the boredom of the classroom. Fiction, poetry, and other forms of art provide us with literally hundreds of other similar images that, taken together, establish long cultural tradition learning is a profoundly boring activity. Fortunately, our received opinion about education as reflected in our cultural tradition can differ greatly from our actual experience of classroom learning.

Anyone who has participated in or closely observed the educational process has doubtlessly experienced and witnessed firsthand the excitement and joy that can be derived from learning or discovering something new.

While we cannot expect these experiences to occur every day, they are nevertheless meaningful and powerful experiences, and they provide us with a basis for our conviction that education can, on the whole, be a valuable, interesting, and pleasurable activity. Ultimately, because we know from experience that such moments exist, we can acquire a strong motivation to learn, a trait that offers lifelong rewards.

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Introduction Perhaps the primary job of principals, teachers, parents, and other educational stakeholders is to help students experience these moments as frequently as possible in an atmosphere where they can discover for themselves the pleasure of acquiring new knowledge. The goal of helping students acquire the self-motivation that leads to a perpetual desire to learn should be foremost in every educators mind.

One of the greatest frustrations mentioned by many teachers is that their students are often not motivated to learn. Teachers quickly come to recognize the warning signs of poor motivation in their classroom: students put little effort into homework and classwork assignments, slump in their seats and fail to participate in class discussion, or even become confrontational toward the teacher when asked about an overdue assignment. One common method for building motivation is to tie student academic performance and classroom participation to specific rewards or privileges. Critics of reward systems note, however, that they can be expensive and cumbersome to administer and may lead the student to engage in academics only when there is an outside payoff. While there is no magic formula for motivating students, the creative teacher can sometimes encourage student investment in learning in ways that do not require use of formal reward systems. An atmosphere or environment that nurtures the motivation to learn can be cultivated in the home, in the classroom, or, at a broader level, throughout an entire school. Much of the recent research on educational motivation has rightly centered on the classroom, where the majority of learning takes place and where students are most likely to acquire a strong motivation to gain new knowledge.

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Introduction But achieving the goal of making the individual classroom a place that naturally motivates students to learn is much easier if students and teachers function in a school culture where academic success and the motivation to learn is expected, respected, and rewarded. An atmosphere where students learn to love learning for learnings sake, especially insofar as it evolves into academic achievement, is a chief characteristic of an effective school. Now we will reviews some of the recent work on school culture and its relationship to student motivation.

The Effect of School Leadership on Motivation and Achievement

The work of Leadwood and Montgomery (1984) is especially helpful in understanding the relationship of motivation to effective leadership and school goals because it addresses the principals motivation to become a more effective leader as well as the students motivation to learn. They describe four stages that principals go through in the process of becoming more and more effective as school leaders. The first, and least effective, stage, administrator is characterized by the principals desire simply to run a smooth ship.

At the second stage, humanitarian, principals focus primarily on goals that cultivate good interpersonal relations, especially among school staff. Principals at the third stage, program manager, perceive interpersonal relations as an avenue for achieving school-level goals that stress educational achievement. At the fourth and highest stage, systematic problem solver, principals become devoted to a legitimate, comprehensive set of goals for students, and seek out the most effective means for their achievement One of the chief characteristics of highly effective principals at the systematic problem solver stage is the ability to transfer their own desire and motivation to achieve valued goals to the other participants in the educational process.

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Introduction As Leadwood and Montgomery Comment

Highly effective principals seek out opportunities to clarify goals with staff, students, parents and other relevant members of the school community. They strive toward consensus about these goals and actively encourage the use of such goals in departmental and divisional planning. Such behaviour can be explained by the principals knowledge of human functioning mind the actions consistent with such knowledge. Highly effective principals appear to understand that school improvement goals will only direct the actions of staff, students and others to the extent that these people also adopt them as their own. Increases in principal effectiveness can be explained as increases in opportunities, provided by the principal, for all relevant others to agree upon and internalize approximately the same set of school improvement goals.

According to Leadwood and Montgomery, as principals become more and more effective, they come to understand that people will not be motivated unless they believe in the value of acting to achieve a particular goal: People are normally motivated to engage in behaviour which they believe will contribute to goal achievement. The strength of ones motivation to act depends on the importance attached to the goal in question and ones judgment about its achievability; motivational strength also depends on ones judgment about how successful a particular behavior will be in moving toward goal achievement.

Motivation on the part of the principal translates into motivation among students and staff through the functioning of goals, according to Leadwood and Montgomery. Personally valued goals, they say, are a central element in the principals motivational structure a stimulus for action. In a related study, Klug (1989) describes a measurement-based approach for analyzing the effectiveness of instructional leaders and provides a convenient model for understanding the principals influence on student achievement and motivation.

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Introduction Klug notes that school leaders can have both direct and indirect impact on the level of motivation and achievement within two of the three areas. Although the personal factors differences in ability levels and personalities of individual students usually fall outside a school leaders domain of influence, the other two categories, situational factors and motivational factors, are to some degree within a school leaders power to control. Klugs summary of the model describes how these two areas can be a source of influence: School leaders enter the achievement equation both directly and indirectly. By exercising certain behaviors that facilitate learning, they directly control situational (S) factors in which learning occurs. By shaping the schools instructional climate, thereby influencing the attitudes of teachers, students, parents, and the community at large toward education, they increase both student and teacher motivation and indirectly impact learning gains.

Corporate Cultures and School Cultures Thus, a principal interested in establishing the motivation to learn and academic achievements central features of a schools culture must first persuade everyone students, teachers, parents, staff, and school board that goals related to those areas are desirable, achievable, and sustainable.

The goals can ultimately become important enough to take on a life of their own, to become invested with meaning that reflects the basic purpose of the school and its reason for being.

They can become part of the value system in which each participant in the school willingly and enthusiastically participates. Shaping a Schools Culture School leaders have a number of channels through which they can shape a schools culture or climate.

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Introduction Good communication is, of course, central to successfully achieving goals. But actions must demonstrate what the words convey. If motivation and academic achievement are to be a definitive part of a schools culture, they must be communicated and celebrated in as many forums as possible.

There are a variety of practical ways that goals related to motivation and academic achievement can be communicated. In his review of studies focusing on organizational culture in effective schools,

An extremely important component of the climate of the effective school is the presence of visible symbols which illustrate and confirm what is considered to be important in the school. Put another way, visible symbols manifest the schools underlying values and assumptions.

School newsletters, statements of goals, behavior codes, rituals, symbols, and legends are all part of the culture of the organization and convey messages of what the school really values. They articulate the essence of the organizations philosophy about how it goes about achieving success. He, too, points out that a schools values are communicated and disseminated through familiar means: leaders and heroes, the cultural network and rituals and ceremonies.

The dynamics and logistics of most schools are such that the principal cannot possibly oversee the motivational needs of each and every student. But groups of people can be affected by the culture in which they participate, and this domain is under the control and stewardship of the principal.

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Introduction Culture and Climate in Academically Effective Schools

The literature on school culture makes it clear those effective schools, that is, schools that demonstrate high standards of achievement in academics, have a culture characterized by a well-defined set of goals that all members of the school administration, faculty, and students value and promote.

If a principal can establish and clearly communicate goals that define the expectations of the school with regard to academic achievement, and if the principal can rally a constituency of teachers and students to support those goals, then the motivation to achieve the goals is likely to follow.

Most reviews of the effective school literature point to the consensus that school culture and climate are central to academic success. Typical of the findings is the summary of who in their review of the literature on effective schools found a close correlation between positive school culture and academic quality. The literature indicates that a students chance for success in learning cognitive skills is heavily influenced by the climate of the school. A schoollevel culture press in the direction of academic achievement helps shape the environment (and climate) in which the student learns.

An academically effective school would be likely to have clear goals related to student achievement, teachers and parents with high expectations, and a structure designed to maximize opportunities for students to learn.

A press for academic success is more likely to realize that goal than would a climate that emphasizes affective growth or social development.

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Introduction Grade-Related and Age- Related Changes in Levels of Motivation

It is generally recognized that motivation and academic achievement among younger children are contingent to some degree on grade and agerelated factors. Research on the relationship between a students age and his or her achievement beliefs and motivational orientation indicates that childrens confidence in their achievement generally declines as they grow older.

Although the results of their studies were confounded by age-related changes among their student subjects, they reported a causal link between grade-related Changes in educational environments and age-related student attitudes Their suggestions for managing these changes include some criticism of current school environment practices and some suggestions for school restructuring to eliminate these weaknesses.

As children mature they become more skillful, knowledgeable, and competent; they become better able to take responsibility, make decisions, and control their lives. They also feel more able to take responsibility and to make academic decisions. One would hope that with increasing grade level, students would assume greater autonomy and control over their lives and learning.

In addition, one would hope that schools would provide an environment that would facilitate task involvement rather than ego involvement, particularly as children enter early adolescence. Unfortunately there is evidence that just the opposite is true. As students proceed through the grades, the classroom is characterized by a decrease in student autonomy and an increase in processes which enhance ego involvement at the expense of task involvement.

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Introduction Psychological Environment

Maehr (1990) has turned his attention to the relationship between motivation and the organizational culture of schools. His work centers on what he terms the psychological environment of the school. School administrators, he asserts, are in the best position to shape a schools psychological environment. Drawing parallels between the school environment and the classroom environment to the similarities between teachers and principals leadership roles.

The Dimensions of the Psychological Environment of the School Accomplishment: Emphasis on excellence and pursuit of academic challenges Power: Emphasis on interpersonal competition, social comparison, achievement Recognition: Emphasis on social recognition for achievement and the importance of school for attaining future goals and rewards Affiliation: Perceived sense of community good interpersonal relations among teachers and students Strength/Saliency: The perception that the school knows what it is about and that students know what is expected.

The schools psychological environment shapes a students motivation: Motivation can be characterized by a students personal investment in a given task. The magnitude of motivation is influenced by the psychological environment of a school, that is, by the meaning given to the overall education experiences.

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Introduction The Importance of Implicit Motivation

Makes a strong case for strengthening the degree of intrinsic motivation students feel for learning While she does not argue for the complete elimination of extrinsic reward systems, she believes that there are many benefits to maximizing intrinsic motivation and many ways to foster it .

She identifies four perspectives from which intrinsic motivation can be viewed competency motivation, curiosity, autonomy, and internalized motivation. Competency motivation assumes that individuals engage in tasks, in part, for the purpose of developing competence and experiencing the positive feeling of efficacy associated with successful mastery attempts. The second perspective, curiosity, assumes that individuals are innately curious about novel events and activities that are somewhat discrepant with their expectations. Autonomy involves the idea that humans have a natural need to feel self-determining.

They want to believe that they are engaging in activities by their own volition because they want to rather than to achieve some external reward or to avoid punishment Internalized motivation assumes that some children

engage in tasks in the absence of external reinforcement because they learn to value academic work

Some techniques that promote intrinsic motivation but suggest that they are rarely found in todays classrooms or schools: Students are intrinsically motivated to work when the threat of negative external evaluation is not salient and when their attention is not focused on extrinsic reasons for completing tasks.

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Introduction They will also feel more competent and proud, and thus more intrinsically interested in tasks, when they can take responsibility for their success. Allowing some student choice enhances intrinsic interest in school tasks, and it teaches self-management skills that are essential for success in higher grades and the workplace.

It is impossible for children to develop autonomy and a sense of responsibility if they are always told what to do, and how, and when to do it. She recommends challenging but fair task assignments, the use of positive classroom language, mastery-based evaluation systems, and cooperative learning structures to foster intrinsic motivation toward academic learning.

Motivation as a Personal Characteristic

Systematize the study of motivation by designing assessment procedures that would help identify the characteristics associated with highly motivated personalities.

Research required identifying the motives related to achievement behavior. Certain individuals, he found, could be characterized by their desire to be successful. These individuals demonstrated specific behaviors that identified them as achievers.

Motivation and affiliation motivation that individuals exhibit within groups or organizations Power motivation might be displayed in educational settings by students who are extremely competitive, who gain a sense of power by being recognized as the brightest student or as the student most likely to succeed.

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Introduction Motivation in Response to Situations Focus on personality as a cause of motivation. Perhaps more than we realize we are what we are expected to be and we do what the task and our significant others allow and demand A useful taxonomy for the study of situations that affect motivation.

Several of the sectors in the taxonomy are especially important in school settings. Normative expectations apply to all group members each member is expected to adhere to the established norms of the group.

Such expectations can exist in very basic social units, including the family, clubs, and schools. Because individuals are influenced by these social groups quite early in life, they can acquire at young ages basic attitudes about what is worth achieving and how it can be achieved.

The Challenge of School Restructuring

His argument goes hand in hand with the findings of motivation research. Few have seriously considered motivation vis--vis the current restructuring movement, he says, and few have considered that the school as an entity in its own right may have effects that supersede those of individual classrooms and the acts of individual teachers.

And so it is that we wish to make the argument that now is the time to consider school, as well as instructional, curricular, and classroom change. He notes that because school leaders can establish, promote, or ignore policies, they may have more effect on education than that generated at the classroom level.

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Introduction Tasks

Tasks refer to the nature of the work undertaken by students in the school. Such tasks should help students focus on the intrinsic value of learning. Goals in this area should reduce reliance on extrinsic incentives, emphasize the fun of learning, and be challenging to all students. Strategies for accomplishing these goals include initiating programs that take advantage of the students background, that stress goal setting and self-regulation/management, and that take students to non-school settings for learning experiences.

Authority

Schools should delegate responsibility by focusing on student participation in learning/ school decisions. Goals include providing opportunities for developing independence and leadership skills among students. Strategies include offering students choices in their instructional settings and supporting their participation in curricular and extracurricular activities.

Recognition

There should be extensive use of recognition and rewards in the school setting. Goals should be established that will provide opportunities for all students to be recognized, recognize progress in goal attainment, and emphasize a broad array of learning activities. Strategies include personal best awards and recognition of a wide range of school-related achievements.

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Introduction Grouping

Grouping refers to student interaction, social skills, and values. There should be goals that bring about an environment of acceptance and appreciation of all students, that broaden the range of social interaction among students, including at-risk groups, and that enhance social skills and humane values. Strategies should include programs that provide occasions for group learning and problem solving and that foster development of subgroups (teams, schools within schools, and so forth).

Evaluation

Goals regarding the nature and use of evaluation and assessment procedures include increasing students sense of competence and self-efficacy, increasing their awareness of their unique sets of talents, and encouraging them to understand failure as a natural part of learning and life. Strategies to accomplish these goals include a reduction in the emphasis on social comparisons of achievement by minimizing public reference to normative evaluation standards such as grades and test scores. It is also important to create opportunities for students to assess progress toward goals they have set.

Time

Time must be effectively managed to carry out plans and reach goals. Goals include improving the rate of work completion, improving skills in planning and organization, and improving self-management ability. Strategies include developing programs that teach time management skills and offering students the opportunity to progress at their own rate when possible.