THE GAME OF

"LOGIC."

X
11

12

18

0/

15

COLOURS FOR
COUNTERS.
X
See, the

Sun

is

overhead,

Shining on us, FULL and

RED!
Now
And
the

/X

Sun

is

gone away,
is

the EMPTY sky

GREY!

THE GAME

LOGIC
LEWIS

CARROLL

PRICE THREE SHILLINGS

ILon&on

MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YORK
1887
[AH Rights
reserved.}

CO.

BC
135

RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LONDON AND BUNQAY.

31

cjjarm in bain
fceenlg
Sfflill

for netoer again,

an

a0

mg

glance

3(

benB,

jfglemorp, goBBe00 cop,

(ZBmboBg for

mg

jog

Departed Bage, nor

let

me

ca?e
!

Dn

ti)ee,

mp
face,

Jfairp JFrienti

Pet couiu

ti>2

in mgetic grace,
'ttooittti

3 moment

0mile on me,

/Far=Uarting rapa of

ltgl>t

/From C^eatoen
38g
tul)tcl)

atijtoart tfje

to

reati

in berg Been
!

spirit,

0toeete0t JFrienB

So ma?

tfje

stream of Hife'0 long Bream

JFloto gentlg ontnarB to it0 cnB,

22Hit!)

manp

a flotoeret gag,
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no

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toejc,

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no care perpler,
JFrienB
!

lotting

little

NOTA BENE.
With each copy
given
of this

Book

is

containing a Diagram (similar to the frontispiece) on card, and nine Counters, four red and five grey.

an

Envelope,

The Envelope, &c. can separately, at 3d. each.

The Author

be

had

for suggestions,

will be very grateful especially from be-

ginners in Logic, of any alterations, or further explanations, that may Letters should be seem desirable. addressed to him at "29, Bedford
Street,

Covent Garden, London."

PREFACE
" There
foara'd rebellious Logic, gagg'd

and bound."

PHIS Game
colour and
grey-

requires
five of

nine

Counters
say four

four
red

of

one
five

another:

and

Besides
at least.

the
I

nine Counters,

it also

requires one Player,

am

not aware of any

this

Game

that can be played

with

less

than
:

number

while there are several that

require more

take Cricket, for instance, which requires

twenty-two.

How much

easier

it is,

when you want

to play

a Game, to find one Player than twenty-two.

At

the

same time, though one Player is enough, a good deal more amusement may be got by two working at it together,
and correcting each
other's mistakes.
is

second advantage, possessed by this Game,

that,

besides being an endless source of

of arguments, that

amusement
it,

(the

number

may

be worked by
little

being

infinite), it

will give the Players a

instruction as well.

But

is

there any great

harm

in that, so long as

you get plenty

of

amusement ?

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.

PAGE

NEW LAMPS
1.

FOR OLD.

Propositions

......
..... ...
to
. ' . .
.

2.

Syllogisms
Fallacies

20 32

3.

II.

CROSS QUESTIONS.
1.
2.

Half
Do.

Elementary of Smaller Diagram.

to be

37
Propositions

represented

40 42

3. 4.

Symbols to be interpreted Smaller Diagram. Propositions

represented
.

be
.

5.

Do.

/Symbols

to be interpreted

6.

Larger

Diagram.
to be

Propositions

represented
7.

Both Diagrams

employed

... ...
to

44
46
48
51

be

III.

CROOKED ANSWERS.
1.

2.

Elementary Half of Smaller Diagram.

represented

55
Propositions

3. 4. 5. 6.
7.

Symbols interpreted Smaller Diagram. Propositions

Do.

Do.

...... ....

59
61

Symbols interpreted

Larger Diagram. Both Diagrams employed

Propositions represented.

.... ....
represented.

62
65

67

72 85

IV.

HIT OR MISS

CHAPTER

I.

NEW LAMPS FOR

"
Light come, light go."

OLD.

<

1.

Propositions.
are nice."

" " "

Some new Cakes

No new Cakes
All

are nice." are nice."

for

new Cakes

There are three 'Propositions'

three kinds
first

you

the
:

only

we

are going to use in this

is

Game

and the

thing to be done

to learn

how

to express

them

on the Board.

Let us begin with

"

Some new Cakes

are nice."

But, before doing so, a remark has to be made is rather important, and by no means easy so please to read this to understand all in a moment

one that

very carefully.

NEW LAMPS FOR

The world
contains
",

OLD.
(such
&c.)
;

[On.

I.

many Things
"

as

"

Babies

"
",

Beetles
"

Battledores
Attributes

",

"Buns", and these

"baked", whatbelong

Things
"

possess
"

many
",

(such
:

as in

beautiful ",

black

"

broken ", &c.

to
",

fact,

ever can be

attributed
is

that

is

"

said

to

Whenever we wish to", any Thing, a Substantive when we to mention a Thing, we use wish to mention an Attribute, we use an Adjective.
an Attribute).
:

People have asked the question "Can a Thing exist " It is a very without any Attributes belonging to it ? puzzling question, and I'm not going to try to answer
it

us turn up our noses, and treat it with contemptuous silence, as if it really wasn't worth noticing.
:

let

But,

if

Attribute
to
? ",

they put it the other way, and ask "Can an exist without any Thing for it to belong
" say at once

no more than a Baby could go a railway-journey with no one to take care " of it You never saw " beautiful " floating about in
: !

we may

No

the

air,

or

littered

about

on the
did you
?

floor,

without any

Thing

to be beautiful,

now
I

And now what am

It
is

driving

at,

in

rigmarole? between the names of two

this.

You may put

Things
(for

long "is" or "are"

"

all

this

some example, are fat or between the names of Pigs two Animals"),
Attributes
(for
it

example,

"pink

is

light-red"),

and in

each case
" "
is

will
"

or

"

are

you put between the name of a Thing and the

(for

make good

sense.

But,

if

name

of

an Attribute

example, "some

Pigs

are

!]
pink"), you do not

PROPOSITIONS.

Thing

be

make good sense (for how can a an Attribute?) unless you have an under-

standing with the person to whom you are speaking. the simplest understanding would, I think, be this that the Substantive shall be supposed to be at the end of the repeated sentence, so that the sen-

And

tence,

if

written
(Pigs)".

out

in

full,

would be "some
the word

Pigs

are

pink

And now

"are"

makes

quite good sense.

Thus, in order to

make good
are nice",
in

sense of the Proposition

"some new Cakes

be written out in
are nice (Cakes)
"
".

full,

we must suppose it to the form " some new Cakes

two
"
'

Now

this contains

Terms

'

new Cakes
"
is

"

being one of them, and

the the
'

nice (Cakes)

"

the other.
about,
"
is

New
"

Cakes," being the one

' '

called

Subject
'

of
'.

nice (Cakes)
said to be a

Predicate
'

we are talking the Proposition, and Also this Proposition

it does not speak but of a Subject, only part of it. The other two kinds are said to be Universal because

Particular
its

one, since

of the whole of

'

',

they speak of the whole of their Subjects

the
it,

one
the

denying niceness,
whole
like
itself,

and the

other

asserting
Lastly,
if
'

of

class

of

"new Cakes".
a
definition

you would
'

to

have

of
"

the word

Proposition
stating

you
or

may
none,

take this
or
all,

a sentence

that

some,
certain

of

the Things belonging to a

are
also
'

class, called

its

'Subject',

Things bePredicate
'

longing to a certain other class, called its

".

B 2

NEW LAMPS FOR

You
will

OLD.

[Cn.

I.

find

these

seven

words

Proposition,

Attribute, Term, Subject, Predicate,

useful, if

Particular,

Universal

charmingly Mind you bring you have ever studied Logic. all seven words into your answer, and your friend will 'a sadder and a wiser go away deeply impressed
ask
if

any friend

should happen to

man

Now
all

please to look at the

smaller

Diagram on the

Board, and suppose it to be the Cakes in the world

large one, of course).

a cupboard, intended for

(it

would have to be a
let

good

And

us suppose

all

the

new
and

all

ones to be put into the upper half (marked ''), the rest (that is, the not-new ones) into the

lower half (marked '"). contain Cakes, elderly

Thus the lower half would

aged
:

Cakes,

ante-diluvian

Cakes
self

if

there
so
on.

are

and

any Let us

I haven't seen

many, mythe nice

also

suppose

all

Cakes to be put into the left-hand half (marked 'y'}, and all the rest (that is, the not-nice into the
ones)

right-hand half (marked must understand x to

'y").

At

present,
sc'

then,

we

mean "new",

"not-new",

y "nice", and

y' "not-nice."

And now what

find in

kind of Cakes would you expect to compartment No. 5 ?

It is part of the

upper

has any Cakes in

it,

you see so that, if it they musr- be new: and it is part

half,
;

!]

PROPOSITIONS.

5
nice.

if

of the left-hand half; so that they there are any Cakes in this
' '

have the double Attribute

letters,

Hence compartment, they must " new and nice " or, if we use
:

must be

they must be

"
sc

y."

Observe that the

the

very

edges convenient
to
for

of this

y are written on two of This you will find a compartment.

letters x,

rule

for

knowing
any

what

Attributes

belong No. 7,

the

Things
1

instance.
",

" x y they must be

Take compartment. there are any Cakes there, that is, they must be " not-new
in

If

and

nice."

Now
cupied
',

let

counter in

make another agreement a compartment shall mean

us
is,

that a red

that

it

is

'ocit.
'
:

that
'

that
in

there are
Logic,

some
'

Cakes
one or

in

(The
so

word

some,'

means

more

that a single Cake in a compartment would be " there are some Cakes quite enough reason for saying us agree that a grey counter in a compartment shall mean that it is 'empty', that is, In the following that there are no Cakes in it.
here").

Also

let

1 (meaning one put where you are to put a red counter, and none ') where you are to put a grey one.

Diagrams, I

shall

'

'

'

or
'

more

')

'

(meaning

'

As

the

Subject of

our Proposition

is

to

be

"new

Cakes", we are only concerned, at present, with the where all the Cakes have upper half of the cupboard,
the attribute
x,

that

"
is,

new."

NEW LAMPS FOB

Now,
fixing
it

OLD.

[Cn.
half,

I.

our attention on this upper

sup-

pose

we found

marked

like this,

that

is,

with a red

counter in

No.
"

5.

What would
"
?

this tell us, with regard to the class of

new Cakes
some

the

Would it not tell us that there x ^-compartment ? That is,

are some of

that

of

them in them

(besides having the Attribute x,

which belongs to both

is,

compartments) have the Attribute y (that This we might express by saying " some
y- (Cakes)
", or,

"nice").

-Cakes are

putting words instead of letters,

are nice (Cakes)",

"

Some new Cakes

"

or, in a shorter form,

At
first

last

Some new Cakes are nice ". we have found out how to represent the
of
this

Proposition

Section.

If

you

have

not

clearly understood all I have said, go no further, but read it over and over again, till you do understand it.

After that
quite easy.
It
will

is

once mastered, you will find

all

the rest

save
if

little

trouble,

in

Propositions,

we

agree
I find
for

to
it

leave

doing O the other out the word

call
is

"Cakes"
whole

altogether.

convenient to

the
in-

class

of Things,
'

which the cupboard

tended, the
this

Thus we might have begun business by saying "Let us take a Universe of

Universe'

Cakes."

(Sounds

nice, doesn't it

?)

1.]

PROPOSITIONS.

would have done just might make Propositions about " a Universe of Lizards ", or even " a Universe of Hornets". (Wouldn't that be a charming Universe
Things
as

Of

course any other well as Cakes.

We

to live in

So

far,

then,

we have

learned that

means

"

some x and y"

you

i.

e.

"

some new are

nice."

I think

will see, without further explanation, that

means

"

some x are
let

y' ,"

i.

e.

"

some new are

not-nice."

Now

us put a grey counter into No.

5,

and ask

ourselves the

meaning

of

This

tells

us that

the x ^-compartment
"
"
", or,

is

empty,

which we may express by no x are y

are nice
".

no new Cakes

This

is

the second of the three Propositions at

the head

of this Section.

In the same way,

would mean

"

no x are y ',"

"
or,

no new Cakes are not-nice."

NEW LAMPS FOR

What would you make
of this, I

OLD.

[On.
?

I.

wonder

hope you

will

not have

much

trouble

in
:

making
namely,

out that this represents a double Proposition "some x are y, and some are y'" i. e. "some
nice,

new

are

and some are

following
is

not-nice."

The

little

harder, perhaps

This means

"

no x are

y,

and none are

"
:

?/,"

i.

e.

"

no

new

are nice,

and none are not-nice

"

which leads to the

i.e.

rather curious result that

are new."

no new
nice
"

"

This
call
i.

is

because

"

and

exist," "

no Cakes
"

not-nice

what we
Cakes
class,

an 'exhaustive' division of the

between

class

make "new
whole

"
:

e.

them, they exhaust the

exist,

so that all the new Cakes, that found in one or the other of them.

must be

And now suppose you had to represent, with counters, the contradictory to " no Cakes are new ", which would be
"

"some Cakes some Cakes

are are x

new",
",

or,

putting letters for words,

it
?

how would you do

This will puzzle you a little, I expect. Evidently you must put a red counter somewhere in the cc-half
of

the cupboard, since you

know

there
it

are

some

new

Cakes.

But you must not put

it

into

the left-hand
:

compartment, since you do not know them to be nice

nor

may you put do not know them

into the right-hand one, since

you

to be not-nice.

1.]

PROPOSITIONS.
I think the

What, then, are you to do?

out of
the

best

way
the

the difficulty

is

to

place

the red

counter on

division-line

between the o^-compartment and

This I shall represent (as / always ^'-compartment. 1 where put you are to put a red counter) by the
'
'

diagram

Our ingenious American

cousins

have

invented

a
to

phrase to express the position of a

join one or other of two parties
'

man who wants

'

such as their two

parties

Democrats
his

'

and

'

make up
"

mind

which.

Republicans Such a man

that
is

but
is

ca'n't

said to be

sitting

on the fence."

Now
of

exactly the position

of the red counter you have just placed on the divisionline.

He
of
into.

likes the
6,

look

No.

5,

and he

likes the

look

No.

and he doesn't
there

know which
astride,

to

jump
fellow,

down

So
legs,

he

sits

silly
!

dangling his

one on each side of the fence

Now
make

am

out.

going to give you a What does this mean ?

much

harder one to

This

is

clearly

double

Proposition.

It

tells

us,

not only that "some x are y" but also that "no x Hence the result is "all x are y" i. e. are not y."
"
all

new Cakes

are nice

",

which

is

the last of the three

Section. Propositions at the head of this

10

NEW LAMPS FOR

OLD.

[On.

I.

We

see, then,

that the Universal Proposition

"

All

new Cakes

are nice

"

consists of two Propositions

"

taken together, namely,

nice,"

Some new Cakes are

and

"

No new

Cakes are not-nice."

In the same way

would mean "all x are

y'", that

is,

"All new Cakes are not-nice."

Now
as
"

what would you make of such a Proposition " Is it The Cake you have given me is nice ?
"

Particular, or Universal?
"

Particular,

of

course,"

you

readily
'

reply.

One

single

Cake

is

hardly worth calling

some,' even."
'

Universal '. impulsive Reader, it is Remember that, few as they are (and I grant you they it is ') couldn't well be fewer), they are (or rather

No,

my

dear

'

all

that you have given

me

Thus,

if

'

(leaving

red

'

the question) I divide my Universe of Cakes classes the Cakes you have given me (to which I assign the upper half of the cupboard), and those you haven't given me (which are to go below) out of
into

two

find

the lower half

fairly

full,

and

the upper one

as nearly as possible
told to put

the nice

then, when I am empty. an upright division into each half, keeping Cakes to the left, and the not-nice ones to

And

!]

PROPOSITIONS.

11

the right, I begin by carefully collecting all the Cakes

you have given me (saying to myself, from time to " Generous creature How shall I ever repay such time, kindness ? "), and piling them up in the left-hand com!

partment.

And

it doesn't

take long to do

it !

Here
zillai

another Universal Proposition for you. " Bar" Beckalegg is an honest man." That means All the
is

Barzillai Beckaleggs, that I am now considering, are honest men." (You think I invented that name, now

But I didn't. you ? somewhere down in Cornwall.)

don't

It's

on

carrier's

cart,

is

This kind of Universal Proposition (where the Subject a single Thing) is called an Individual Proposition.
'
'

Now

let

us take

"

nice

Cakes

"

as the Subject of our

Proposition: that is, let us fix our thoughts on the lefthand half of the cupboard, where all the Cakes have the
attribute y, that
"
is,

nice."

Suppose we

fird

it

marked
us
?

like this

What would
I

that

tell

hope that
I

it

is

horizontal oblong so fully, to spend

not necessary, after explaining the much time over the

this

upright one.

means

"

hope you will see, for yourself, that some y are x ", that is, " Some nice Cakes are new."

" we have had this case before. But," you will say, into No. 5, and you told us it meant You put a red counter
"

12
'

NEW LAMPS
'

FOR OLD.

[Cn.

I.

some new Cakes are nice

'

means some

nice

and now you tell us that it " Can it mean both ? Cakes are new
;
'
I

The question
great
credit,

is a very thoughtful one, and does you It does mean both. If you dear Eeader
!

choose to take x (that

"
is,

new Cakes ")

as your Subject,

and to regard No, 5 as part of a horizontal oblong, you " " may read it some x are y ", that is, some new Cakes are
" you choose to take y (that is, nice Cakes ") as your Subject, and to regard No. 5 as part of an upright

nice

"

but, if

oblong, then you

"

may

read

it

"

some nice

Cakes

are

new ".

some y are x ", that is, They are merely two

truth.

different

ways of expressing the very same

Without more words, I will simply set down the other ways in which this upright oblong might be marked,
adding the meaning in each case. By comparing them with the various cases of the horizontal oblong, you will,
I hope, be able to understand

them

clearly.

You

will find it a

this table,

the other,

good plan to examine yourself on by covering up first one column and then and dodging about as the children say.
'

',

Also you will do well to write

other tables

out for yourself two

one for the lower half of the cupboard,

for its right-hand half.

and the other

And now
larger one.

I think

we have

said all

we need

to

about the smaller

Diagram, and

may go on

to

say the

PROPOSITIONS.

13

Symbols.

Meanings.

Some y
i.

are x'

e.

Some

nice are not-new.

No

y are x
i.

e.

No

nice are new.

[Observe that this is merely another expressing "No new are nice."]

way

of

No

y are x'
i.

e.

No

nice are not-new.

Some y
i.

are x, and

some are

x'

e.

Some

nice are new, and

some are

not-new.

No

y are
i.

x,

and none are

are nice.

x'

i.

e.

No

exist;
e.

No Cakes
a>;

All y are
i.

e.

All nice are new.

All y are x' i. e. All nice are not-new.

;

H
This

NEW LAMPS FOR

may be taken
TO.

OLD.

[On.

I.

to be a cupboard divided in the

same way
for
"

as the last, but also divided into

two

portions,

the Attribute
"
:

Let us give to
let

TO the
all

meaning
wholesome

wholesome

and

us suppose that
that

Cakes are placed inside the central

the unwholesome ones outside
it,

Square,

and

all

is,

in one or other

of the four queer-shaped outer compartments.

We
Cakes

see
in

that, just

as,

in the

each

compartment

smaller Diagram, the had two Attributes, so,

here, the Cakes in each compartment have three Attributes: and, just as the letters, representing the two

Attributes, were

written on the edges of the compart-

ment,
that

so,
TO'

here, they are written at the corners.

is

(Observe

supposed to be written

at each of the four

outer corners.)

looking at a
to

the

tell in a moment, by what three Attributes belong compartment, in it. For instance, take No. 12. Things

So that we can

Here we

find

x,

y',
it,

TO,

at

the corners

so

we know

that the Cakes in

'

if

there are any, have the triple

" xy'm that is, new, not-nice, and wholesome." Here we find, at the corners, Again, take No. 16. so the Cakes in it are " not-new, not-nice, x', y', TO'

Attribute,

',

and unwholesome."

(Remarkably untempting Cakes

far

!)

It

would take

too

long to go through
y,

all

the
TO,

Propositions, containing

x and

x and

TO,

and y and

which can be represented on

ninety-six altogether, so I

this

diagram (there

are
!)

am

sure you will excuse

me

Mv]

PROPOSITIONS.

15

and I must content myself with doing two or three, as You will do well to work out a lot more specimens.
for yourself.

"

Taking the upper half by itself, so that our Subject is new Cakes ", how are we to represent " no new Cakes

are

wholesome"?
writing letters for words, "no

This

is,

are m."

Now

this tells us that

none of the Cakes, belonging to the half of the upper cupboard, are to be found inside the central Square: that is, the two compartments, No. 11 and No. 12, are empty. And this, of course, is represented by

And now how

"

are

we

to represent the contradictory

Proposition

some x are

m"
I

This

is

a difficulty I

think the best way is to have already considered. place a red counter on the division-line between No. 11

and No.

12,

and

to understand this to
'

mean

that one of

the two compartments

at present

is

know

which.

occupied,' but that we do not This I shall represent thus

:

16

NEW LAMPS FOR

Now
let

OLD.

[Cn. I

us express

"

all

are m."

This consists,

we know, of two Propositions, " Some x are m"

"

and

No

x are m'."

This tells us Let us express the negative part first. that none of the Cakes, belonging to the upper half of the cupboard, are to be found outside the central Square
:

that

is,

the two compartments, No. 9 and No. 10, are

This, of course, is represented

empty.

by

But we have yet

tells

to represent

"

Some x

are m."

This

us that there are some Cakes in the oblong conso we place our red sisting --of No. 11 and No. 12
:

counter, as in the previous example, on the division-line

between No. 11 and No.

12,

and the result

is

Now
What

let

us try one or two interpretations.

are

we

to

make

of this, with regard to

x and y

S. 1

PROPOSITIONS.
This
i

17

that

us, with regard to the ^'-Square, that wholly 'empty', since loth compartments are so marked. With regard to the ,,-Square, it tells
it is
'

tells

'occupied'.
is

True,

that

so

marked;
be

whether

us only one compartment but that is quite

it is

the

enough

other

'occupied'
is

or

the fact that there

'empty'

to

something in the Square.

If, then, we transfer our marks to the smaller Diagram, so as to get rid of the m-subdivisions, we have a right to mark it

which means, you know,

all

x are

y."

would have been exactly the same, given oblong had been marked thus
result
^
:

The

if

the

to x

Once more and y ?

how

shall

we

interpret this, with

regard

This

tells

us,
is

as

to

the ^-Square, that one of

its
is

compartments

'empty'.

But

this

information

18

NEW LAMPS
useless,

FOR OLD.

[On.

I.

quite

as

there

is

no mark in the other combe

' '

partment.
'

If the
too,

other compartment happened to

'

empty
happened
'

the Square would be to be 'occupied', the

So, as

empty

and,

if it

Square would
is

be

occupied

'.

we do not know which

the case,

we can

say nothing about this Square.

;

The other Square, the

the previous example) to be
If,

y'-Square,

we know

(as in

'

occupied

'.

then,

we

transfer our
this
:

marks

to the smaller

Diagram,

we get merely

which means, you know,

"

some x are y'"

to
all

These principles may be applied For instance, to represent oblongs.

"
all y'

the

other

are m'

"

we should mark the

right -hand upright

oblong (the one that has the attribute y'} thus

:

and,

if

we were

told to interpret the lower half of

the

cupboard, marked

as follows, with regard to

x and

y,

1.]

PROPOSITIONS.
transfer it to the smaller

19

we should

Diagram

thus,

and read

it

"

all x'

are y."

Two more remarks

made.

about

Propositions

need

to

be

One
"

is

that,
"
all ",

in

every

Proposition
"

beginning with
'

some

"

or

the actual existence of the

all

'

Subject

is

asserted.

If,

for instance, I say

misers are

selfish," I

mean

that misers actually

this assertion,

exist.

If I wished to avoid
state the

making
"

and merely to
"

law that

miserliness necessarily involves selfishness, I

should say

no misers are unselfish

all,

which does not assert that any

if

misers exist at

but merely that,

any did

exist,

they

would be
"

selfish.
is

The other
some
"

that,

when a

Proposition begins with

or

"

these Attributes

no ", and contains more than two Attributes, may be re-arranged, and shifted from

For example, " some " abc are def" may be re-arranged as some If are acde" " each being equivalent to some Things are abcdef". Again
one

Term

to the other,

ad

libitum.

"

maybe re-arranged as " No rash old gamblers are wise and " No men are wise old reckless," each being equivalent to
rash reckless gamblers."

No

wise old

men

are rash and reckless gamblers

"

c 2

2.

Syllogisms.

in suppose we divide our Universe of Things three ways, with regard to three different Attributes.

Now

Out

of these three Attributes,

(for instance,

we may make up
if

three
c,

different couples

they were
ac,

a,
be).

b,

we

might make up the three couples ab, suppose we have two Propositions given
can
a
third

Also

us,

containing

two of these three couples, and that from

prove
Proposition
if

them we
the
third

containing

couple.

(For
;

example,

we

divide

our Universe for

and y and if we have the two Propositions " " no m are x' and " all m' are y ", congiven us, taining the two couples mx and my, it might be possible to prove from them a third Proposition, containing
m,
x,

x and

y.)

In such a case we
Premisses ',
'

call

the given Propositions

'

'the

the

third
'.

one

the

Conclusion

'

and

the

whole set a Syllogism

must occur in both Premisses; or else one must occur in one Premiss, and its contradictory in the other.

Evidently, one of the Attributes

CH.

I.

2.]

NEW LAMES
case

FOR

OLD..
th(e

21

In the
are

first

(when, for example,

Premisses

"some
it

are

x" and "no

is

are
'the

yijffY'ilie

Term,
Term',

which
because

occurs

twice,

called

Jmadle

serves

as

a sort of link between the other

two Terms.
In the second case (when, for example, the Premisses "no m are x'" and "all m' are y"} the Jwo Terms,
Attributes,

are

which contain these contradictory called the Middle Terms

'

may be
"

'.

Thus, in the
the Middle
classes
"

first
;

case,

the class of
the

"

m-Things

is

Term

and,
"

in
"

second
"

case, the two

of

?^-Thmgs

and

m'-Things

are the Middle

Terms.

The
be
"

Attribute,

which which

occurs

in

the

Middle

Term
said to

or Terms, disappears in the Conclusion,

and
"

is

eliminated-",
".

literally

means

turned

out

of doors

Now

let

us try to draw a Conclusion from

the.

two

Premisses
"

Some new Cakes

are

unwholesome

No

nice Cakes are unwholesome."

divide

In order to express them with counters, we need to Cakes in three different ways, with regard to
niceness,

newness, to

and to wholesomeness.

For
x

this

we must

use

the

larger

"new", y "nice", and

Diagram, making "wholesome". (Everything

mean

22

NEW
ra,

LAMPS FOR

OLD.

[Cn.

I.

inside the central

tribute
"
i.e.

atSquare is supposed to have the and everything outside it the attribute m',

not-ra ".)

You had
the

better

Attribute
(I
'

adopt the rule to make which occurs in the Middle

chosen
'

mean Term or
because

Terms.
'

have

m
the

as

the

symbol,

middle

begins with
in

'.)

Now,
to

representing

two
one

Premisses,
(the

prefer

begin with the negative with " no "), because grey

one

counters

can

always

beginning be

with certainty, and will then help to fix the position of the red counters, which are sometimes a
placed
little

uncertain where they wih be most welcome.

Let

us express, then, "no nice Cakes

are

unwhole-

some
This

(Cakes)
tells

y-Cakes are m'-(Cakes) ". us that none of the Cakes belonging to the
",
i.e.

"

no

y-half of the cupboard are in

its

??i'-compartments

(i.e.

the ones outside the central

compartments, No. 9

Square).

Hence the two

in

and
a

No. 15, are both 'empty';

each

and we must place

thus
:

grey counter

of them,

2.]

SYLLOGISMS.

23

" "

have now to express the other Premiss, namely, some new Cakes are unwholesome (Cakes) ", i.e.

We

some

some ic-Cakes are m'-(Cakes) ". of the Cakes in the re-half

This
of the

tells

us that

cupboard are

in its m'-compartments.

Hence
is

one of the two compart-

'occupied': and, as we are not told in which of these two comjoajteiovit'rj to pLtcc-.

ments, No. 9 and No. 10,

the red counter, the usual rule would be to lay it on the division-line between them but, in this case, the
:

other Premiss has settled the matter for us, by declaring No. 9 to be empty. Hence the red counter has no choice,

and must go into No.

10, thus

And now what

counters will this information enable

us to place in the smaller Diagram, so as to get some

Proposition involving x and y only, leaving out us take its four compartments, one by one.
First,

Let

No.
is

5.

All
:

we know about

this is that its outer

portion
portion.

empty but we know nothing about its inner Thus the Square may be empty, or it may have
it.

something in

Who

can

tell

So we dare not place

any counter in this Square.

24

NEW

LAMPS FOR

OLD.

Here we are a little better of No. 6 ? Secondly, what for there is a know that there is something in it, off. we do not true is It red counter in its outer portion. or occupied but whether its inner portion is empty

We

know

what does

that matter
is

One

solitary

Cake, in one corner

of the Square,

Square

is

occupied

excuse for saying "ttfc quite sufficient and for marking it with a red counter.
",

whether
not

as with No. 5 As to No. 7, we are in the same condition not know we find it partly 'empty', but we do so we dare is empty or occupied the other
:

part

mark

this Square.

And
The

as to No. 8,
result is

we have simply no information

at all.

Our Conclusion
'

',

then,

must be got out of the rather

is

meagre piece of information that there

in the

a red counter

" x /-Square. Hence our Conclusion is some x are " " some new Cakes are not-nice (Cakes) or, if y' ", i.e. you prefer to take i/ as your Subject, "some not-nice " but the other looks neatest. Cakes are new (Cakes)
:

We

will

now
.'.

write out the whole Syllogism, putting

the symbol

for "therefore",

and omitting "Cakes",

for

the sake of brevity, at the end of each Proposition.

2.]

SYLLOGISMS.
"

25
)

Some new Cakes

are

unwholesome

No

nice Cakes are unwholesome.

.'.

Some new Cakes

are not-nice."

And you have now worked out, successfully, your Permit me to congratulate you, and first Syllogism
'

'.

to express the

hope that

it

is

but the beginning of a

!

long and glorious series of similar victories

We

will

harder one than the

a rather work out one other Syllogism and then, I think, you may last

be safely left to play the Game by yourself, or (better) with any friend whom you can find, that is able and
willing to take a share in the sport.

Let us see what we can make of the two Premisses

"

All Dragons are uncanny All Scotchmen are canny."

;

Remember,
facts.

don't

In the

first

guarantee the Premisses to be place, I never even saw a Dragon

:

the slightest conPremisses are whether our sequence to us, as Logicians, we have to do is to make out all true or false
and, in the second place,
it

isn't

of

whether they lead logically to the Conclusion, so if they were true, it would be true also.

that,

You
our

see,

we must
will

give
of
',

up the
class

"

Cakes
us.

"

now, or

cupboards Universe take, as our

'

be

no use to

We

must
which

some

of
:

things

will
'

include
'

Animals

shall we say Dragons and Scotchmen " " is And, as evidently the Atcanny

26
tribute

NEW
stand
for

LAMPS FOR

OLD.

H L
-

the 'Middle Terms', belonging to

we

will

let

Scotchmen ".
"

and y for "canny", x for "Dragons", in full, So that our two Premisses are,
;

All Dragon- Animals are uncanny (Animals) All Scotchman- Animals are canny (Animals)."
these
:

And
thus

may be
"

expressed,

using letters for words,

All x are

m
as

All y are m."

The

first
:

Premiss
"

consists,

of you already know,

two parts

Some x

are m',"

and

"

No

x are m."

And

the second also consists of

"

two parts

Some y

are m,"

and

"

No

y are m'."

"

Let us take the negative portions first. We have, then, to mark, on the larger Diagram, first, " no y are m' ". I think no x are m ", and secondly,
will
see,

you two

without

further

explanation,

that

the

results, separately, are

2.]

SYLLOGISMS.

27

and that these two, when combined, give us

We
"

have now to
"

mark the two

"

positive
".

portions,

some x are m'

and

some y are

The
is

only two

compartments,
as
' '

available
10.

for

which are xm', are No. 9 and No.

already

Of
our

these,

Things No. 9
counter

marked

empty

so

red

must go into No. 10.

Similarly, the only two, available for ym, are No. 11

and No.
'empty';

13.

Of

these,

No. 11

is

already

marked
13.

as

so our red counter

must go into No.

The

final result is

28

NEW LAMPS
And now how much
Let us take

FOR OLD.

[CH.

I.

of this information can usefully

?

be transferred to the smaller Diagram

its

four compartments, one

is

by one.
'empty'.

As to No. 5? This, we see, it with a grey counter.) (So mark This, we see, As to No. 6?
mark
it

wholly

is

'occupied'.

(So

with a red counter.)

As

to to

No. 7

Ditto, ditto.

As

No. 8?

No

information.
is

The

smaller

Diagram

now

pretty liberally

marked

And now what

Well,
it is

Conclusion can

we read

off

from this

into one Proposition

this time.
First,

impossible to pack such abundant information we shall have to indulge in two,

:

by taking x as Subject, we get

"

"

all

x are y
:

",

that

is,

All Dragons are not-Scotchmen

"

"

secondly,

by taking y as Subject, we get

"

all

y are

x' ",

that

is,

All Scotchmen are not-Dragons

out, all together,

".

Let us now write

our two Premisses

and our brace of Conclusions.

2.]

SYLLOGISMS.
"

29

All Dragons are

uncanny

All Scotchmen are canny. ( All Dragons are not- Scotchmen

'

All Scotchmen are not-Dragons."

Let

me

mention, in conclusion, that you

logical treatises in

may perhaps
not assumed
"

meet with

which
"

it

is

that any Thing exists at all, but some x are y is under" stood to mean the Attributes x, y are compatible, so that

a Thing can have both at once ", and " no x are y to " mean the Attributes x, y are incompatible, so that nothing can have both at once ".

"

In

such

treatises,

Propositions

have quite different

'

meanings from what they have in our Game of Logic and it will be well to understand exactly what the
difference
is.

',

First
"

take
to

are

"

Here we understand some x are y ". " " mean are, as an actual fact which of
exist.

"

course implies that some ^-Things

writers of these other
to

But

they (the
"

treatises) only

understand
all

are

"

mean

"

can be

",

which does not at

less

imply that any

:

exist.

So they mean
le

than we do

our meaning

includes theirs (for of course

"some x

are

y"

includes
"

"some x can
For

y"}, but theirs does not

include ours.

" some Welsh hippopotami are heavy example, would be true, according to these writers (since the

30
Attributes

NEW LAMPS FOR

but
it

OLD.
are

Cn

"Welsh" and "heavy"

quite compatible

in a hippopotamus),

would be false in our

to be heavy).

Game

are (since there

no Welsh hippopotami

Here we only under" - which are, as an actual fact stand are to mean does not at all imply that no x can be y. But they understand the Proposition to mean, not only that none
Secondly, take
" "

"no x are y".

"

So they mean are y, but that none can possibly be y. more than we do their meaning includes ours (for of
:

course

"

no x can be y

"

includes

"

no x are y

"),

but

ours does not include theirs.

For example, "no Police-

men

high" would be true in our Game actual an as fact, no such splendid specimens are (since, ever found), but it would be false, according to these
are eight feet
writers (since

the Attributes
eight feet
"

"

Force
is

"

high nothing to prevent a Policeman from growing to that height, if sufficiently rubbed with Rowland's Macassar
Oil

and

"

are quite compatible

belonging to the Police : there

which
hair,

is

said to

make

on

and

so of course will

hair grow, when rubbed make a Policeman grow,

when rubbed on

a Policeman).

Thirdly, take

"all x are

y", which consists

are

of the

two
y'".

partial Propositions

"some x

Here, of course, the treatises

y" and "no x are mean less than we

do in the

first part, and more than we do in the second. But the two operations don't balance each other

2.]

SYLLOGISMS.

31

any more than you can console a man, for having knocked down one of his chimneys, by giving him an
extra door-step.
If you meet with Syllogisms of this kind, you may work them, quite easily, by the system I have given you you have only to make are mean are capable of being', and all will go smoothly. For "some x " are y will become " some x are capable of being y ",
' '
' :

no y are compatible ". And * are y will become no x are capable of being y ", that is, "the Attributes x, y are incompatible". And, " of course, " all x are y will become " some x are capable
that
is,

"

the Attributes

"

x,

"

"

of
is,

x,

being y, and none are capable of being y'", that the Attributes x, y are compatible, and the Attributes In using the Diagrams for this y' are incompatible."
"

system, you

must understand a red counter

to

mean

may possibly be something in this compartment," and a grey one to mean " there cannot possibly be anything in this compartment."

"there

3.

Fallacies.

And
in

so

real

use of Logic, you think, do you, that the chief workable from is to deduce Conclusions life,

Premisses, and to satisfy yourself that the Conclusions, I only wish it deduced by other people, are correct?

were

Society would be

much

less

liable

to

panics

and other delusions, and political life, especially, would be a totally different thing, if even a majority of the
arguments, that are scattered broadcast over the world, But it is all the other way, I fear. For were correct
!

one workable Pair of Premisses (I

to a logical Conclusion) that

mean a Pair

that lead

you meet with

in reading

your newspaper or magazine, you will probably find Jive that lead to no Conclusion at all: and, even when the
Premisses are workable, for one instance, where the writer

draws a correct Conclusion, there are probably ten where he draws an incorrect one.

In the
fallacious
"

first
:

case, you may say "the Premisses are in the second, " the Conclusion is fallacious."

CH.

I.

3.]

NEW LAMPS

FOR OLD.

33

The

chief use you will find, in such Logical skill as this

Game may
The
you
first

teach you, will be in detecting

'

'

Fallacies

of

these two kinds.

kind of Fallacy

'

Fallacious Premisses

'

will detect

when, after marking them on the larger

Diagram, you try to transfer the marks to the smaller. You will take its four compartments, one by one, and
ask, for each in turn,
"

What mark can

"
all.

I place here
!

"
?
;

and

in every one the answer will be

No information
\

",

showing

that there

is

no Conclusion at
"

For instance,
;

All soldiers are brave

Some Englishmen are brave. / Some Englishmen are soldiers."

.'.

a Syllogism, and might easily take But you are not to be in a less experienced Logician. such a trick You would caught by simply set out the
looks

uncommonly

like

Premisses, and would

Premisses

"
!

you

wouldn't

then calmly remark "Fallacious condescend to ask what

knowing that, must be wrong. You would be just as " safe as that wise mother was, who said Mary, just go up to the nursery, and see what Baby's doing, and tell him
whatever
it
is, it

Conclusion the writer professed to draw

not to do

"
it
!

The other kind

you
will

of Fallacy

'

Fallacious Conclusion

'

not detect till you have marked both and have read off the correct Conclusion, Diagrams, and have compared it with the Conclusion which the
writer has drawn.

34

NEW LAMPS

FOR OLD.

[On.

I.

But mind, you mustn't say "Fallacious Conclusion,"

it is not identical with the correct one simply because and so be quite it may be a part of the correct Conclusion,
:

correct, as

far as

it goes.

remark, with
Suppose, for
Syllogism
:

a pitying smile,

In this case you would merely " " Defective Conclusion

!

example,

you

were

to

meet

with

this

"

All unselfish people are generous

No
the Premisses of
letters
:

misers are generous. No misers are unselfish." .'.

which
"

might be

thus

expressed

in

All x are

|
)

No
Here the
"

y are

m"

correct Conclusion

would be
"

"

All

x'

are y'

"

(that

is,

All unselfish people are not misers

"),

while the

Conclusion, drawn
is

by the
x'

writer, is

No

y are x'" (which

the same as

"

No

are

y" and

so is
"

Here you would simply say The same thing would happen, if you were tioner's shop, and if a little boy were to come
y'."}

" part of All x' are " Defective Conclusion

!

in a confecin,

put down and march off with a twopence, triumphantly single pennybun. You would shake your head mournfully, and would

And chap perhaps you would ask the young lady behind the counter whether she would let you eat the bun, which the little boy had paid for and left behind him and perhaps she would reply " Shan't "
Defective Conclusion
!

remark

"

Poor

little

"

3.]

FALLACIES.
if,

35

But
y are

in the above example, the writer

"

had drawn
"
is,

the Conclusion
"),

All misers are

selfish

"

(that

All

this

rights (since it
"

would

would be going beyond his legitimate assert the existence of y, which is

Premisses), and
"
!

not contained in the

properly say

you would very

Fallacious Conclusion

Now, when you read other treatises on Logic, you will meet with various kinds of (so-called) Fallacies' which are by no means always so. For example, if
'

you were to put

Pair of Premisses

before

one

of

these

Logicians

the

"No honest men cheat No dishonest men are

trustworthy."

and were to ask him what Conclusion followed, he would

" None at all Your Premisses offend probably say against two distinct Rules, and are as fallacious as they
!

can well be
say

Then suppose you were bold enough to "The Conclusion is 'No men who cheat are trust!

"

worthy
hastily

',"

I fear

your Logical friend would turn away

:

in any perhaps angry, perhaps only scornful / advise you not to case, the result would be unpleasant.

try the experiment

"
tell

But why
us that
!

is

this

"
?

you

will say.

"

Do you mean
"

to

Far from it, these Logicians are wrong ? dear Reader From their point of view, they are perfectly But they do not include, in their system, anything right.
all

like all the possible forms of Syllogisms.

D 2

36

FALLACIES.

[On.

I.

3.

They have a
ginning with
"

sort

of nervous

dread of Attributes be-

a negative

Propositions as quite outside their system.

All not-aj are

particle. "

y"

Wo

For example, such x are not-?/," are

And

thus, having (from sheer

nervousness) excluded a quantity of very useful forms, they have made rules which, though quite applicable to the few

forms which they allow

consider
all possible

of,

are no use at all

when you

forms.

There is Let us not quarrel with them, dear Reader room enough in the world for both of us. Let us quietly
!

take our broader system

eyes to all these
"
all
!

and,

if

useful forms,

and to say
is

they choose to shut their " They are not

aside,

Syllogisms at

we can but stand

!

and

let

them

Rush upon
Fate.

their Fate
it

There

scarcely

anything of

yours, upon which

is

so dangerous to

Rush, as your

You may Rush upon your Potato-beds, or your Strawberry-beds, without doing much harm you may even Rush upon your Balcony (unless it is a new house,
:

built

by

contract,

may

survive

and with no clerk of the works) and the foolhardy enterprise: but if you
your Fate

once Rush upon consequences

!

why, you must take the

37

CHAPTER

II.

CROSS QUESTIONS.
" The Man
'

in the Wilderness asked of

me
'

How many

strawberries

grow in the sea

"

1.

Elementary.
'

1.

What

is

an

'

Attribute

Give examples.
" "
is

2.

When When
When
to

is it

two names?
o.

good sense to put Give examples.

not good sense
?

or

"

are

"

between

is it

Give examples.
the simplest agreegood sense ?
is
'

4.

it is

not good sense,

what

ment
5.

make,
'

in order to

make
'

Explain Proposition dicate'. Give examples.

6.

',

Term
'

',

Subject

',

and

'

Pre-

What

are

'

Particular

'

and Universal Propositions

'

Give examples.
7.

Give a rule

for

Diagram, what Attributes belong

knowing, when we look at the smaller to the things in each

"

compartment.
8.

What

does

"

some

mean

in Logic

[See pp. 55, 6]

38
9.

CROSS QUESTIONS.
In what sense do we use the word
'

[Cn. II.

Universe in this

'

Game?
10. 11.

What

is

'

Double

'

Proposition

Give examples.

When
?

divided
12.
13.

is a class of Things said to be 'exhaustively' Give examples.

Explain the phrase "sitting on the fence."

What two
"
all

partial Propositions
"
?

make

up,

when taken

together,
14.

x are y
'

What are

Individual Propositions

'

Give examples.

15. What kinds of Propositions imply, in this the existence of their Subjects ?

Game,

16.

When

a Proposition contains

more than two Attri-

butes, these Attributes

may

in

and shifted from one Term to

some cases be re-arranged, the other. In what cases

may

this be

done

Give examples.

Break up each of the following into two partial

Propositions
17. All tigers are fierce. 18. All hard-boiled eggs are 19. I
20.
:

unwholesome.

am

happy.
is

John

not at home.

[See pp. 56, 7]

1.]

ELEMENTARY.
Give a rule
for

39

21.

knowing, when we look at the

to

larger Diagram,

what Attributes belong

'

the

Things

contained in each compartment.

22.

Explain Premisses

'

',

Conclusion

',

and Syllogism

'

'.

Give examples.
23.

Explain the phrases 'Middle Term' and 'Middle

'.

Terms
24.

In marking a pair of Premisses on

the larger
Propositions

Diagram,

why

is it best to
?

mark

negative

before affirmative ones

25. Why is it of no consequence to whether the Premisses are true or false ?

26.

us, as

Logicians,

How
"

can

we work
"
is

that
"

some x are y
x,

Syllogisms in which to be understood to

",

Attributes x, y are compatible

and

"

no x are
"
?
'

we are told mean " the " y to mean

the Attributes
27. 28.

y are incompatible
'

What

are the two kinds of

Fallacies

?
'

29.
30.

How may we How may we

detect

'

Fallacious Premisses
'

?
'

detect a

Fallacious Conclusion
offered

Sometimes the Conclusion,

'

to

us,

is

not

identical with the correct Conclusion,

fairly called

and yet cannot be

Fallacious

'.

When does this happen ?

to such a Conclusion
?

And

what name may we give

[See pp.

5759]

40

CROSS QUESTIONS.

[On. II.

2.

Half of Smaller Diagram.

to be represented.

Propositions

x
II

1.

Some x
All

are not-?/.

2. 3. 4.
5. 6.

are not-y.
are y, and

Some x

some are

not-y.

No No

ic

exist. exist.

Some x
a?

are not-?/. are not-?/, and

7.

Some #

some x
"

exist.

Taking x
8.
9.

"judges

"

"just

No judges

are just. are unjust.

Some judges

10. All judges are just.

Taking x
11.

"

"

plums

"

wholesome

"
;

Some plums
Plums
are

are wholesome.

12.
13.

There are no wholesome plums.

some

of

them wholesome, and some

not.

14. All

plums are unwholesome.

[See pp. 59, 60]

2.]

CROSS QUESTIONS.

41

X'

-Taking y 4" diligent students

15.

"
;

x = " successful

"
;

No No

diligent students /are unsuccessful.diligent students are successful.

17. 18.
19.

students are diligent.

diligent,

There are some

but unsuccessful; students.

Some

students are diligent.

Ooe

[See pp. 60, 1J

42

CROSS QUESTIONS.

[CH. II.

3.

Half of Smaller Diagram.

Symbols
to be interpreted.

x
y
y

\.

2.

" Taking x = good riddles

"
;

y=

hard

"
:

5.

0.

7.

[See pp. 61, 2]

3.]

CBOSS QUESTIONS.

43
"

Taking x =

"

lobsters

"
;

y=

selfish

"
;

9.

Taking y =

"

"

healthy people

x = " happy

"
;

13.

44

CBOSS QUESTIONS.

[Cn. II.

4.

Smaller Diagram.

Propositions to be represented.

-y-

1.

All y are

x.

2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7.

Some y

are not-z.

No

not-a; are noi-y.

Some x
Some

are not-?/.
x.

not-y are
are
y.

No

not-

Some

not-a? are not-t/.

8.
9.

All not-# are not-y.

Some

not-y exist.

10.
11.

No

not-a; exist.

Some

y are
y,

x,

and some are not-.

all

12. All

x are

and

not-y are not-x.

[See pp. 62, 3]

4.]

CROSS QUESTIONS.
"

45
"

Taking

nations

"

as Universe

x=
"
;

civilised

"
;

y
13.

"

warlike
is

No

uncivilised nation

warlike.
uncivilised.

14. All 15.

un warlike nations are

nations are

Some

un warlike.
and
all

16. All warlike nations are civilised,

civilised

nations are warlike.

17.

No

nation

is

uncivilised.

Taking

"

crocodiles

"

as Universe
"

x = " hungry
;

"
;

and y =
18. All
19. 20.

amiable

"

hungry

crocodiles are unamiable.

No

crocodiles are amiable

crocodiles,

when hungry.
are amiable
;

Some

when not hungry,

but

some are
21.

not.

No

crocodiles are amiable,

and some are hungry.

are amiable
;

22. All crocodiles,

all

when not hungry,

and

unamiable crocodiles are hungry.

crocodiles are amiable,

23.

Some hungry
are not

and some that

hungry are unamiable.

[See pp. 63, 4]

46

CROSS QUESTIONS.

II.

5.

Smaller Diagram.
to

Symbols

be interpreted.

1.

2.

3.

" Taking "houses" as Universe; x = built of brick"; " " and y = two-storied interpret
;

5.

6.

7.

[See p. 65]

5.]

CSOSS QUESTIONS.

47
"
"

Taking boys as Universe x = " and y = " active interpret

; ;

"

"

fat

9.

11.

48

CROSS QUESTIONS.

[On. II.

6.

Larger Diagram.

Propositions to be represented.

my
x

1.

No
All

x are m.
are m'.
as'.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Some y

are

No

m' are

y'.

No m are

as

All y are m.
6.

Some x are

m
;

No
7.

y are m.

All

m are
as'

as'

8.

No m are y. No are m No y' are m'.

[See pp. 67, 8]

6.]

CROSS QUESTIONS.

49

Taking rabbits as Universe " " and y = " black x = " old
;

"

"

m = " greedy "

;

represent

9.

No

old rabbits are greedy.

10.

Some

not-greedy rabbits are black.

11. All white rabbits are free

from greediness.

12. All greedy rabbits are young.

13.

No

old rabbits are greedy

All black rabbits are greedy. /

14. All rabbits, that are not greedy, are black
;

No
Taking

old rabbits are free from greediness.

" "

birds

as Universe
"
;

m = " that
"
;

sing loud

"
;

x="

well-fed

and y=" happy

;

represent

15. All well-fed birds sing loud

No
No

birds, that sing loud, are

unhappy.
;

16. All birds, that

do not sing loud, are unhappy

well-fed birds fail to sing loud.

"
"

" = " in the house Taking persons as Universe m " " " " and y = having a tooth-ache x = John represent
;

17.

John

is

in the house

Everybody in the house is suffering from tooth-ache.

18.

There

is

no one in the house but John

Nobody, out of the house, has a tooth-ache .}

[See pp.

6870]

50
"

CROSS QUESTIONS.
"

[On. II.
;

6.

Taking

persons

as Universe
"
;

m=" I "

x=" that
19. I

has taken a walk

y=

"

that feels better

"
;

represent

have been out for a walk

\
;

I feel

much

better.

Choosing your own

20. I sent

'

Universe

'

&c., represent
;

him

to bring

me

a kitten

He

brought

me

a kettle by mistake.

[See pp. 70, 1]

CH. II.

7.]

CROSS QUESTIONS.

51

7.

Both Diagrams

to be

employed.

-x

m
x

In each Question, a small Diagram should be drawn, for x and y only, and marked in accordance with the given large Diagram and then as many Propositions
:

KB.

as possible, for

x and

y,

should be read off from this small

Diagram.

1.

[See

52

CROSS QUESTIONS.

[On. I]

S.

7.]

BOTH DIAGRAMS TO BE EMPLOYED.

;

53

16. All pigs are fat

17.

No skeletons are fat. / No monkeys are soldiers

All

monkeys

are mischievous.
;

18.

None

of my cousins are just No judges are unjust.

19.

Some days
Rainy

are rainy

20. All

medicine
\^)
9

days are tiresome. a (3

is

Senna
21.

nasty a medicine.
;

is

>

Some Jews are rich All Pa tagonians are

Gentiles.
;

/-ALL

ESfraWDO
riue

22. All teetotalers like sugar No nightingale drinks wine.

23.

No No

muffins are wholesome

All buns are unwholesome.

24.
fat creatures

run well

Some greyhounds run

25. All soldiers

well. /

march

Some youths
26.

are not soldiers.

;

Sugar
Salt
is

is

sweet

not sweet. /
;

27.

Some

No
28.

eggs are hard-boiled eggs are uncrackable.

There are no Jews in the house

There are no Gentiles in the garden.

[See pp.

7582]

54
29.

CROSS QUESTIONS.
All battles are noisy
;

[On. II.
|

7.

What makes no
30.

noise
;

may

escape notice.

No Jews

are

mad

All Eabbis are Jews.

31.

There are no

fish that
fish.

cannot swim

Some

skates are

32. All passionate people are

unreasonable

Some

orators are passionate.

[See pp.

8284]

55

CHAPTER

III.

CROOKED ANSWERS.
I
'

answered him, as

thought good,

As many

as red-herrings

grow

in the

wood'

1.

Elementary.

Whatever can be "attributed to", that is "said to For example, belong to ", a Thing, is called an Attribute " " baked ", which can (frequently) be attributed to Buns ",
1.
'

'.

and "beautiful", which can (seldom) be attributed to

"

Babies
2.

".

When they are the Names

of

two Things

(for

example,

"

these Pigs are fat Animals"), or of two Attributes (for " example, pink is light red ").
3.

the

When one is the Name of a Thing, and the other Name of an Attribute (for example, " these Pigs are
"),

pink
4.

since a

Thing cannot actually

shall
(for

be

an Attribute.

That the Substantive

be supposed to be repeated
"

at the

end of the sentence

example,

these Pigs are

pink (Pigs)").
Proposition is a sentence stating that some, or none, or all, of the Things belonging to a certain class,
'

5.

'

[See p. 37]

56
called the
'

CROOKED ANSWERS.
Subject
',

[On. III.

are also Things belonging to a certain

'

other

class, called

the

Predicate
",

'.

For example,

"

some some
"

new Cakes new Cakes

Cakes
"
is

are not nice

that

is

(written in full)
;

"

are not nice

Cakes

"

where the
"

class

new
"
is

the Subject, and the class

not-nice Cakes

the Predicate.
6.

A Proposition, stating that some of the Things belong'

ing to its Subject are so-and-so, is called

Particular

'.

For

example, some are not nice."

"

new Cakes

are nice

"
",

some new Cakes

A
'

Proposition, stating that none of the

"

to its Subject, or that all of

Things belonging them, are so-and-so, is called

no new Cakes are nice
"
",

Universal

'.

For example,
".

all

new Cakes
7.

are not nice

The

Things

in

each

compartment

possess

two

Attributes, whose symbols will be found written of the edges of that

on two

compartment.

8. 9.

"

One

or more."

As a name
is

of the class of Things to

which the whole

Diagram
10.

assigned.

Proposition
"

example,
nice." 11.

For containing two statements. some new Cakes are nice and some are notthe whole

When
of

class,

thus divided,

is

"

exhausted

"

among member

the sets into which

it

it is divided, there being no which does not belong to some one of them.

For example, the

class

"new Cakes"

is

"exhaustively"
[See pp. 37, 8]

1.]

ELEMENTARY.

57

" " " " since every not-nice divided into nice and

new Cake
of

must be one
12.

or the other.

When

man

cannot

make up
is

his

mind which
"

sitting on the "fence not being able to decide on which side he will down. jump

two parties he

will join,

he

said to be

1 3.

"

Some x

are y

"

and

"

no x are

y' ".
is

14.

A
'

Proposition,
'.

whose Subject

a single Thing,

is

called
is

Individual

not at

home
"

".

" For example, " I am happy ", John These are Universal Propositions, being

the same as
Johns, that I

all

the

I's

that exist are happy

"

"
",

all

the

am now

considering, are not at

home ".
"
all ".

15. Propositions

beginning with
"
"

some
"

"

or

16. "
ple,

When they begin with

some abc are def
",

some

or

"

no

".

For exam"

may

be re-arranged as
"

some If

are acde
17.

each being equivalent to

tigers are fierce,

some alcdef exist ".

Some

No
18.

tigers are not-fierce.

Some

No
19.

hard-boiled eggs are unwholesome, hard-boiled eggs are wholesome.

I's

Some

are happy,

No
20.

I's

are unhappy. are not at home,

Some Johns

No
21.

Johns are at home.

in each

The Things,

Diagram, possess
[See pp. 38, 9]

three

compartment of the larger Attributes, whose symbols will be

58

CROOKED ANSWERS.
of.

[On. III.

corners found written at three of the

the compartment

not actually inserted case of m, (except in the to stand at each of its in the Diagram, but is supposed

which

is

four outer corners).

22. If the

Universe of Things be divided with regard

;

to three different Attributes

oiven, containing
if

and

if

two Propositions be
;

two different couples of these Attributes

from these we can prove a third Proposition, containand the two Attributes that have not yet occurred together
ing
'

the given Propositions are called the Premisses ', the third one 'the Conclusion', and the whole set 'a Syllogism'. For

example, the Premisses might be

"
;

"

no

are x

"

and

"

all

and it might be possible to prove from them a m' are y Conclusion containing x and y.
23. If

an Attribute occurs in both Premisses, the

it is

Term
",

containing
if

called
"

'

the Middle

Term
"

'.

For example,
"

the Premisses are

"

some
"
is
'

are x

and

no

are y

the class of

m-Things

the Middle Term.'

If an Attribute occurs in one Premiss, and its contradictory

in the other, the

Terms containing them maybe

called 'the

Middle Terms
are x'
"

'.

and

"

all

For example, if the Premisses are "no m " mf are y ", the two classes of " m-Things
"

and

"

m'-Things

may be

called

'

the Middle

Terms
:

'.

24.

Because they can be marked with certainty

is,

whereas

affirmative " "

some

those that begin with Propositions (that " or all ") sometimes require us to place a red
sitting

counter

'

on a fence

'.

[See

p.

39]

1-1

ELEMENTARY.

59

Because the only question we are concerned with is whether the Conclusion follows logically fron^the Premisses,
25.

so that, if they 26.

were

true, it also

would be

true.

" understanding a red counter to mean this com" partment can be occupied ", and a grey one to mean this compartment cannot be occupied" or "this compartment

By

must be empty
27. 28.
'

".
'

Fallacious Premisses
finding,

and

'

Fallacious Conclusion

'.

By
for

when we

try to transfer

marks from the

'

larger
'

Diagram

to the smaller, that there is

no informa-

tion
29.

any of its four compartments.

Conclusion, and then observing that the Conclusion, offered to us, is neither identical with

By finding the correct

it.

it

nor a part of
30.

When
'.

the offered Conclusion

is

Conclusion.

In this

case,

we may

call

part of the correct it a Defective

'

Conclusion

2.

Half of Smaller Diagram.

Propositions represented.

1.

2.

4.

[See pp. 39, 40]

KO

CROOKED ANSWERS
5.
6.

[On. III.

It

might be thought that the proper

1

Diagram would be
x
exist
"
:

in order to express "

"

some
y'."

but this

is

really contained in

some x are

To put a red counter on the

us
"

division-line
is

one of the two compartments

already, in

would only tell occupied ", which we

occupied.

know
8.

knowing that one

i.e.

is

No x are y.
Some x are
x are

9.

y'.

i.

e.

10. All

y.

i.

e.

11.

Some x

are

y.

i.

e.

12.

No

x are

y.

i.

e.

13.

Some x

are y, and

some are

y'.

i.

e.

14. All

x are

y'.

i.

e.

15.

No

y are

x'.

i.e.

[See pp. 40, 1]

2.]

PROPOSITIONS REPRESENTED.

61

16. All

y are

x.

i.

e.

17.

No

exist,

i.

e.

18.

Some y

are

x'.

i.

e.

19.

Some y

exist,

i.

e.

-1-

3.

Half of Smaller Diagram.

Symbols interpreted.

1. 2.

No

a;

are

y'.

No
All

a?

exist.
exist.
y'.
i.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Some x

are
a?

Some

are
y.

T/.

e.

Some good

riddles are hard.

All x are

i.

e.

All good riddles are hard.

No

exist,

i.

e.

No

riddles are good.

[See pp. 41, 2]

62
8.
9..

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[Cn. III.

No

x are

y.

i.

e.

No No

good riddles are hard.

Some x

are
y.
y'.

y'.
i.

i. e.

Some

lobsters are unselfish.

10.

No

x are x are

e.

lobsters are selfish.

11. All
12.

i.

e.

All lobsters are unselfish.

y'.
i.

Some x

are

y,

and some are

e.

Some

lobsters

are selfish, and

13. All y' are 14.
15.
x'.
i.

some are

unselfish.

e.

All invalids are unhappy.

e.

Some
Some

y' exist,

i.

Some

people are unhealthy.

x'.
i.

y'

are x,

and some are

e.

Some

invalids

are happy,
16.

and some are unhappy.

i.

No

y' exist,

e.

Nobody

is

unhealthy.

4.

Smaller Diagram.

Propositions represented.

2.

4.

[See pp.

424]

4.]

PROPOSITIONS REPRESENTED.

63

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

No

x'

are

y.

i.

e.

14.

All y' are

x'.

i.

e.

15.

Some

y' exist,

i.e.

[See pp. 44, 5]

64

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[Ch. III.

4.

CH. III.

5.]

CROOKED ANSWERS.

65

5.

Smaller Diagram.

Symbols interpreted.

1.

Some y are not-, or, Some not-a;

are

y.

2.

No No No

not-a? are not-y,

or,

No

not-?/ are
a?.

not-.

3. 4.
5. 6.

TLQi-y are

not-a? exist,

i.

e.

No

Things are not-#.

No

exist,
x'

i.

e.

No
i.

houses are two-storied.

Some

exist,

e.

Some houses

are

not built of

brick.
7.

No

x are

y'.

Or, no y' are

x.

i.

e.

No

houses, built

of brick, are other than two-storied.

Or, no houses,

that are not two-storied, are built of brick.

S.

All

x'

are

y'.

i.

e.

All houses, that are not built of

brick, are not two-storied.

9.

Some x

are y, and

some are

y'.

i.

e.

Some

fat

boys

are active,
10. All y' are x'.

and some are

i.

not.

e.

All lazy boys are thin.

all y'

11. All

x are
lazy,

y',

and
all

are

x.

i.

e.

All fat boys are

and

lazy ones are

fat.

[See pp. 46, 7]

66
12. All

CROOKED ANSWERS.
y are
fat,

[On. III.

5.

x,

and
all

all x'

are

y.

i.

e..

All active boys are

and

thin ones are lazy.

y' exist,
i.

13.

No

exist,

and no

e.

No

cats

have green

eyes, 14.

and none have bad tempers.

are
y',

Some x

and some
a?,

x' are y.

Or,

some y are

a?',

and some

y' are

i.e.

Some green-eyed

cats are

bad-tempered, and some, that have not green eyes,

Or, some good-tempered cats have not green eyes, and some bad-tempered ones have green eyes.
are good-tempered.
15.

Some x
no

are y, and no x' are

x'.
i.

y'.

Or,

some y are

x,

and

y' are

e.

Some green-eyed

cats are good-

tempered, and none, that are not green-eyed, are

bad-tempered.
Or, some good-tempered cats have and none, that are bad-tempered, have

green eyes, not green eyes.

16. All

x are

y',

and
i.

all x'

are y.

Or, all y are

x',

and

all

y' are x.

and

all,

All green-eyed cats are bad-tempered, that have not green eyes, are good-teme.

pered.

Or,

all

are not green,

good-tempered ones have eyes that and all bad-tempered ones have

green eyes.

[See

p.

47]

CH. III.

6.]

CROOKED ANSWERS.

67

6.

Larger Diagram.

Propositions represented.

I.

2.

1-

3.

4.

5.

6.

[See p. 48]

F 2

68

CROOKED ANSWERS.

9.

No

x are m.

i.

e.

10.

Some m'

are

y.

i.

e.

11. All y' are m'.

i.

e.

[See pp. 48, 9]

6.]

PROPOSITIONS REPRESENTED.

69

12. All

m are

x'.

i.

e.

13.

No

x are w; ) m;\
in.

All y are

\i.e. )

14. All

No

m' are y; x are m'.

i.

e.

15. All

x are

w;
y'.

No

e.

are

[See

p.

49]

70

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[OH. III.

16. All

m' are
a;

y' ;\
)

No

are m'.

$6.]
20.

PROPOSITIONS REPRESENTED.

71

had better take "persons" as Universe. We " " may choose myself as Middle Term in which case the Premisses will take the form

We

'

',

am a-person-who-sent-him-to-bring-a-kitten I am a-person-to-whom-he-brought-a-kettle-by-mistake.
I
;

Or we may choose

"

he

"

as

'

Middle Term

',

in

which

case the Premisses will take the form

He is a-person-whom-I-sent-to-bring-me-a-kitten He is a-person-who-brought-me-a-kettle-by-mistake.
;

The
clearly

latter

form seems

best, as the interest of the anecdote

to me.

depends on his stupidity Let us then make m

I sent, &c."
;

not on what happened

"

he

"
;

whom

and y
;

"

persons

who

persons brought, &c."

is

"

All

Hence,

All

m are x m are y.

and the required Diagram

[See

p.

50]

72

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[On. III.

7.

Both Diagrams employed.

i.

e.

All y are

i.

e.

Some x

are

?/'

or,

Some

y' are x.

i.

e.

Some y

are x'

or,

Some x

are

i/.

i.

e.

No

#'

are y'

or,

No

y' are #'.

i.

e.

o.

All y are

x'.

i.

e.

All black rabbits

are young.

i.
ti.

e.

Some y

are

x'.

i.

e.

Some

black

rabbits are young.

[See pp. 51, 2]

7-]

BOTH DIAGRAMS EMPLOYED.

e.

73

i.

All x are
are happy.

y.

i.

e.

All well-fed birds

i.

e.

Some
or,

x' are

y'.

i.

e.

Some

birds,
;

that are not well-fed, are

unhappy
are

Some unhappy

birds

not

well-fed.

i.

e.

All x are
tooth-ache.

y.

i.

e.

John has got a

i.

e.

No

x'

are y.

i.

e.

No

one, but John,

has got a tooth-ache.

i.

e.

Some x

are y.

i.

e.

Some

one,

who

has taken a walk, feels better.

i.

e.

Some

x are

y.

i.

e.

Some

one,

12.

whom

I sent to bring

me

a kitten,

brought
[See p. 52]

me

a kettle by mistake.

74

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[On. III.

13.

-1-

Let

"

books

"

be Universe

m=
"
;

"

"

exciting

x=" that

suit feverish patients

"

that

make

one drowsy

".

No m
i.

are x

All m' are

e.

t
I. y.

.'.

No

y' 3

are

x.

No

books suit feverish patients, except such as make one drowsy.

14.

Let

"

"

persons

be Universe

m=

"

that deserve the fair

"
;

"
:

=
,.

that get their deserts Some are x )

"

"

y
are
#.

brave

".

JNo
i.

?/

are m.

}
)

:.

Some y

e.

Some brave

persons get their deserts.

[See
p.

52 J

7-]

BOTH DIAGRAMS EMPLOYED,

75

15.

Let

= persons be Universe " " = x = " children can that y

"
; ;

"

"

"

patient
sit still ".

No ^ No
i.

x are
,

TO

>
)

.'.

No

x are

TO are y.
e.

y.

No

children can

sit still.

16.
1

Let

"

"

things

be Universe

m = " fat "

11
.

"

"

pigs

"

skeletons ".
;

All x are TO
TVT No
i.

% are
e.

m.

f
)

.'.

All x are

All pigs are not- skeletons.

[See pp. 52, 3]

76

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[On. III.

17.

Let

"

creatures
"

"

be Universe
"
;

m=

"

"

monkeys

x-

= soldiers No m are x
.

"

mischievous ".
are
x'.

All
i.

1T

m are y.

\
)

.'.

Some y

e.

Some mischievous

creatures are not soldiers.

18.

Let

"

"

persons
"

be Universe
"
;

m=
y.

"

= my cousins No x are m
;

"just

"

judges ".

JMo y are
i.

AT

>
.

.".

No

x are

e.

None

of

my cousins

are judges.
[See
p.

53]

7.]

BOTH DIAGRAMS EMPLOYED.

77

Let

"

"

periods

be Universe
"
;

TO

"

"

days
".

"

rainy
are x are
e.
; '
,(

y=
/.

"

tiresome
are

Some in
All

xm
i.

Some x

y.

y.

Some

rainy periods are tiresome.

N.B.

These are not legitimate Premisses, since the

is

Conclusion
first

really part of the second Premiss, so that the

is

Premiss
:

superfluous.

This

may be shown, in

letters,

thus
"

All

xm
"

are y
"

"

contains
"

"

Some xm
"

are

y ", which

contains

Some x
"

are y".

Or, in words,

All rainy days

",

are tiresome

contains

Some

rainy days are tiresome

".

which contains

Some
first

rainy periods are tiresome

Premiss, besides being superfluous, is since it is equivalent to actually contained in the second
;

Moreover, the

"

Some

rainy days exist

"

",

which, as

we know,

is

implied in

the Proposition

All rainy days are tiresome

".

Altogether, a most unsatisfactory Pair of Premisses

[See p. 53]

78

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[OH. III.

20.

Let "things" be Universe " = x = " nasty y

;

m=
"

"

medicine
".

"
;

senna

All

are x

>

.'.

All y are m.
i.

All y are
is

x.

>

e.

Senna

nasty.
[See remarks on No.
7, p. 60.
]

21.

-1-

Let

"

"

persons

be Universe
;

m = " Jews "

are
y'.

x=

"

rich

"

y
,

= " Patagonians ".

;

Some

All y are
i.

m are x m
.

}
}

:.

Some x

e.

Some

rich persons are not Patagonians. [See p. 53]

<]

BOTH DIAGRAMS EMPLOYED,

79

Let

"

creatures

"

be Universe
"
; \
; ,

m = " teetotalers "

= " nightingales ".
No
y are
x'.

= " that
All

like sugar

y
.'.

are x

v*

i.

No y are m' e. No nightingales

dislike sugar.

23.

Let

"

food

"

be Universe
"

m = " wholesome "

y

x=

muffins

"
;

= " buns ".

;

No

x are

All y are

m m

There

is

'no information

'

for

the smaller Diagram

so

no Conclusion can be drawn.

[See
p.

53]

80

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[Cn. III.

24.

Let

"

creatures

"
"

be Universe
"

m = " that run well "

are
or.

x=

fat

= " greyhounds ".

v
.'.

No

x are
T/
i.

mi)

borne

are m.

Some y

e.

Some greyhounds

are not

fat.

25.

Let

"

= soldiers persons be Universe ; " " " x that march y = youths ". All are a?
"
;

"

"
;

Some y
There
is
'

are m'.
'

no information

for the smaller

Diagram
[See
p.

so

no Conclusion can be drawn.

53]

7.]

BOTH DIAGRAMS EMPLOYED.

81

26.

Let

"

food

"

be Universe
"
;

m=
salt ".

"

sweet

"
;

"

sugar

y
(
I

"

All x are

All x are All y are

y'.
a?'.

All y are m'.

i.e.

Sugar
I

is

not

salt.

Salt

is

not sugar.

Let

"

"

Things

be Universe
"
;

m=

"
".

"

hard-boiled

y
.'.

"

crackable
are

Some

m are 3 x
,

a;; ;

No m
i.

Some x

are y

e.

Some
53]

hard-boiled things can be cracked.

[See

p.

82

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[On. III.

28.

Let

= " Jews x = be Universe persons " " are in the house y = that are in the garden
" "
;

"

"

that

".

No m are x No m' are y.

;

.'.

No

x are

i.

e.

No

are also in persons, that are in the house,

the garden.

29.

Let

"

"

Things
battles
...

be Universe

m=

"

"

noisy

"

"
;

"

that
)

may

escape notice
y.

".

All x are

All
i.

\ .'.

borne x are

are

y.

e.

Some

things, that are not battles,

may

escape notice.

[See pp. 53, 54]

7.]

BOTH DIAGRAMS EMPLOYED.

83

30.

Let

"

"

persons

be Universe
"
;

TO

"

Jews

"
;

"

mad
\
;

"

Rabbis ".

No

TO are

All y are
i.

TO.

'>,*. All y are x.

All Rabbis are sane.

e.

31.

Let
#

"

"

Things

be Universe
"
;

TO

"

"
fish
".
;

= " that can swim No TO are x'

;

"

skates

I Some y are Some y are TO. i. e. Some skates can swim.

.

'.

x.

i.

[See p. 54]

G 2

84

CROOKED ANSWERS.

[On. III.

7.

32.

Let

"

"

people

be Universe
"
;

TO

"

"

passionate

"

reasonable

y
'
.

= " orators ".

Some y
are x
.

All

are x

>

borne y are m.
i.

e.

Some

orators are unreasonable.

[See remarks on No.
7, p. 60.

[See

p.

54]

CHAPTER

IV.

HIT OR MISS.
'

Thou Thou

canst not hit canst not hit

it,

hit

it,

hit

it,

it,

my

good man."

1.

Pain

is

wearisome

2.

No pain is eagerly wished for. No bald person needs a hair-brush No lizards have hair.
All thoughtless people do mischief ;
)

3.

No
4.

thoughtful person forgets a promise.

;
i

do not like John

of

Some
5.

my

friends like John.

;

No
No No
All

potatoes are pine-apples

All pine-apples are nice.

6.

/
|

pins are ambitious

needles are pins.

/
;
)

7.

my

friends have colds

No
8.

one can sing

who has a

cold.
;

All these dishes are well-cooked

Some

dishes are

unwholesome

if

not well-cooked.

86
9.

HIT OR

MISS.

[On. IV.

No

medicine
is

is

nice

Senna
10.

a medicine.
;

Some

oysters are silent

No
11.

silent creatures are

in. amusing.
;

All wise

All
12.
"

men walk on their feet unwise men walk on their hands.

;

Mind your own business This quarrel is no business of yours."

|
\

13.

No No

bridges are made of sugar; Some bridges are picturesque.

riddles interest

14.

me

that can be solved

All these riddles are insoluble.

15.

John

is

industrious

All industrious people are happy,

16.

No frogs
Some

write books

people use ink in writing books.

;

17.

No

pokers are soft | All pillows are soft. /

;

18.

No

antelope is ungraceful Graceful animals delight the eye.

uncles are ungenerous
;

19.

Some

All merchants are generous.

20.

/
|
)

No unhappy people chuckle; No happy people groan.

Inaudible music
is

21.

Audible music causes vibration in the

not worth paying

for.

air; | /

CH. IV.]
22.

HIT OR
gave

MISS.
;

87

He
I

me

five

pounds

was delighted.
old

23.

No
All

Jews are

fat millers

my

friends are old millers,

24. Flour is

good
is

for food

Oatmeal
25.

a kind of

flour.

Some dreams

are terrible

26.

No lambs are terrible. No rich man begs in the

All

/
street
;

who

are not rich should keep accounts

:

27.

No

thieves are honest

Some
28. All

dishonest people are found out.

;

wasps are unfriendly All puppies are friendly

29. All

improbable stories are doubted

None
30.
" "

of these stories are probable : i

He He

told

me you had gone away." never says one word of truth."

last

31.

His songs never

an hour;
is

A song,
32.

that lasts an hour,

tedious.
;

No No

bride-cakes are wholesome

Unwholesome
33.

food should be avoided.

;

old misers are cheerful

| J

Some
34. All

old misers are thin.

;

ducks waddle

Nothing that waddles

is

graceful.

88
35.

HIT OR

MISS.
;
i

[On. IV.

No

Professors are ignorant

Some
36.

ignorant people are conceited. /

is

Toothache

Warmth
37-

is

never pleasant ; never unpleasant.

; )

Bores are terrible

You
38.

are a bore.

Some mountains

are insurmountable

All stiles can be surmounted.

39.

No Frenchmen No
idlers

like

plumpudding

|
J

All Englishmen like plumpudding.

40.

win fame

Some
41.

lot idle. / painters are not

No lobsters are unreasonable; No reasonable creatures expect No

kind deed
is is

impossibilities.

42.

unlawful

What
43.

lawful

may

be done without
;

fear.

No fossils can be crossed in love An oyster may be crossed in love.

"

/
\

44.

This

"

beyond endurance Well, nothing beyond endurance

is
!

"

has ever happened to me."

45. All

uneducated

men

are shallow

All these students are educated.

46. All

my

No judges

cousins are unjust are unjust.

j
J

CH. IV.]
47.

HIT OR

MISS.

89

No

country, that has been explored,

is

by dragons Unexplored countries are fascinating.

;

infested

48.

No

misers are generous ; Some old men are not generous.

49.

A prudent man
No
banker
is

shuns hyenas

|
J

imprudent.
is

50.

Some

poetry

original
is

No
51.

original

work

producible at
;

will. rill.

No

misers are unselfish

None but

misers save egg-shells. /

52. All pale people are

No

one,

who

is

phlegmatic not pale, looks poetical.

;

53. All spiders spin

webs

Some
54.

creatures, that do not spin webs, are savage.

None

of

my

cousins are just

All judges are just.

55.

John

is

industrious

No
56.

industrious people are unhappy.

;

Umbrellas are useful on a journey What is useless on a journey should be

left

behind.

57.

Some

pillows are soft

soft.

No
58. I

pokers are

am old and lame No old merchant is

a lame gambler.

90
59.

HIT OR

MISS.
;

[On. IY.
\

No

eventful journey is ever forgotten Uneventful journeys are not worth writing a book about.

60.

Sugar

is

sweet

Some sweet
61.

things are liked by children. /

;

Richard

is

out of temper

No

one but Richard can ride that horse.

62. All jokes are

meant

to

amuse
is

No Act of
63.
" "

Parliament

a joke,

saw

it

in a newspaper."
tell lies."

All newspapers

64.

No

pleasant ; Unpleasant experiences are not anxiously desired.

nightmare

is

65.

Prudent travellers carry plenty of small change

Imprudent
66. All

travellers lose their luggage.

;

wasps are unfriendly

called here yesterday
is

67.

68.

No He He No
No No

puppies are unfriendly.

;

no friend of mine.

/
;

quadrupeds can whistle

cats are quadrupeds,
is

|
j

Some
69.

cooked meat

sold
is

by butchers

uncooked meat
is

served at dinner.
\

70.

Gold

heavy ;
will silence him. im.
;

Nothing but gold

71.

Some

pigs are wild

There are no pigs that are not

fat.

CH. IV.]
72.

HIT OR
are dentists

MISS.
;

91

No emperors
who

|
J

All dentists are dreaded by children.

73. All,

are not old, like walking

old.

Neither you nor I are

74. All blades are sharp
;

Some
75.

grasses are blades.

;

No
She

dictatorial person is popular

is dictatorial.

76.

Some sweet

No
77.

things are unwholesome muffins are sweet.

No No

military

men

write poetry

civilians. generals are cr

;

78.

Bores are dreaded

A bore is never begged to

79. All owls are satisfactory
;

is prolong his

visit.

Some
80. All

excuses are unsatisfactory.

cousins are unjust
;

my

All judges are just.

81.

Some buns

are rich

All buns are nice.

82.

No medicine is nice No pills are unmedicinal.

;

>

83.

Some lessons are difficult What is difficult needs attention.

;

|
)

84.

unexpected pleasure annoys me Your visit is an unexpected pleasure.

;

No

92

HIT OR

MISS.
;

[Cn. IV.
>

85. Caterpillars are not eloquent

Jones
86.

is

eloquent.
;

/
}

bald people wear wigs All your children have hair.

Some

/
i

87. All

wasps are unfriendly

Unfriendly creatures are always unwelcome.

88.

No

bankrupts are rich

Some merchants are not

89.

bankrupts.
;

Weasels sometimes sleep | All animals sometimes sleep. /

;

90. Ill-managed concerns are unprofitable

Railways are never ill-managed.

91.

Everybody has seen a pig;

Nobody admires a

pig.

Extract a Pair of Premisses out of each of the following

and deduce the Conclusion,

if

there

is

one

The Lion, chased by them as

92.

"

as

any one can

tell

often as

I have, is

you who has been a very savage animal

and there are certain individuals among them, though I will not guarantee it as a general law, who do not drink
coffee."

93.

"

It

have known,

You might was most absurd of you to offer it if no old sailors had had that sense, you any
!

ever like gruel

"
!

On. IV.]
"
"
"

HIT OR

MISS.

93

But

An

I thought, as he was an uncle of yours " Stuff uncle of mine, indeed

! !

You may

call it stuff, if

you

like.

All I

know

is,

my
"
!

uncles are
"

all old

men and
:

Well, then your uncles are

"
!

they like gruel like anything "

94.

more.
well."
"

Do come away I can't stand this squeezing any No crowded shops are comfortable, you know very
who
expects to be comfortable, out shopping ? And I'm sure there are some do, of course
!

"

Well,
"

Why, I
"

shops,

further

down the

street,

that are not crowded.

So
95.
"

They say no
lets

doctors are metaphysical organists

and that
"

me

into a little fact about you,

that out
?

Why, how do you make

You

you know." never heard me

play the organ."

No, doctor, but I've heard you talk about Browning's poetry and that showed me that you're metaphysical, at
:

"

any

rate.

So

"

Extract a Syllogism out of each of the following

test its correctness
96.
"
:

and

Don't talk to
:

me

I've

known more
tell

rich

merch-

ants than you have

"

and I can

you not one of them

"

was ever an old miser

since the world

began

And what

has that got to do with old Mr. Brown

"
?

94
"

HIT OR
Why,
isn't

MISS.
"

[Cn. IV.

he very rich ? " " Yes, of course he is. And what then ? " Why, don't you see that it's absurd to call him a miserly " merchant? Either he's not a merchant, or he's not a miser
!

97.

"

It is so

kind of you to enquire

I'm really feeling

a great deal better to-day."

"

And

is it

Nature, or Art, that

"
?

is

to

have the credit

of

this
"

happy change
Art, I think.

The Doctor has given me some

of that

patent medicine of his." "Well, I'll never call him a

somebody, at "

humbug

again.

There's

any rate, that feels better after taking his

medicine
"

98.

with
"
silly

No, I don't like you one bit. And my doll. Dolls are never unkind."
like a doll better

I'll

go and play
little

So you
"
!

than a cousin

Oh you

"

Of course

do

Cousins are never kind

at least

no

cousins I've ever seen."

If Well, and what does that prove, I'd like to know that mean cousins aren't said who ever dolls, you they
!

"

were

"
?

99.

"

What

are you talking about geraniums for

You

can't tell one flower

from another, at this distance

:

I grant

you they're

all

red flowers

it

doesn't need a telescope to

know

that."

CH. IV.]
"

HIT OR MISS.
"

95

"

Well, some geraniums are red, aren't they ? And what then ? I suppose you'll be I don't deny it.

telling
"

me some

of those flowers are geraniums

tell

"
!

Of

course that's what I should

!

you,

if

you'd the
of
"

sense to follow an argument

But what's the good

proving anything to you,

should like to

know

100. "Boys, you've passed a fairly good examination, all

Now let me give you a word of advice things considered. before I go. Remember that all, who are really anxious
to learn,
"

work hard."
Sir, in

thank you,

the

name

of

my

scholars

And

proud

am

I to think there are some of them, at least, that

ire really anxious to learn." " Very glad to hear it " to be so ? "
:

and how do you make

it

out

Why,
is.

Sir,

that

Who

/know how hard they work " should know better ?

some of them,

or

Extract from the following speech a series of Syllogisms, arguments having the form of Syllogisms and test their
:

correctness.

It

is

to a friend's cautious suggestion that she

supposed to be spoken by a fond mother, in answer is perhaps a little

it,

overdoing
101.
"

in the

way

of lessons, with her children.

Well, they've

got their
leave

the

world.

We

can't

own way to make in them a fortune apiece

96

HIT OR MISS.
not
to

[On. IV.

And money's

be

had,

as
if

you

money's worth: they must work

know, without they want to live.

And how
thing
?

are

they to work,

if
it,

they don't
there's

know anyplace
for

Take

my

word
!

for

no

ignorance in these times the time to learn is when you're young.

And

all authorities agree that

One's got no
will

memory afterwards, worth speaking of. A child learn more in an hour than a grown man in five.
those, that
if

So

have to

learn,

must learn when

they're young,

ever they're to learn at all. Of course that doesn't do I quite allow that. unless children are healthy Well, the doctor tells me no children are healthy unless
:

they've got a good colour in their cheeks. And only just look at my darlings Why, their cheeks bloom like
!

Well, now, they tell me that, to keep children health, you should never give them more than six hours altogether at lessons in the day, and at least two
peonies
!

in

half-holidays in the week.

I can assure

And

that's exactly our plan,

you

We

every

Wednesday and
of
lessons
!

never go beyond six hours, and Saturday, as ever is, not one

syllable

do they do after their one o'clock

running
is

dinner

So how you can imagine I'm

risk in the education of

my

precious pets
"
!

any more than

can understand, I promise you

THE END.

WORKS BY LEWIS CARROLL.

PUBLISHED BY

MACMILLAN AND
THE GAME OF
Crown
N.B.

CO.,

LONDON.

LOGIC.

(With

an Envelope confour red and five grey. )

taining a card diagram and nine counters

8vo, cloth, price 3s.
etc.,

The Envelope,

may

be had separately at 3d. each.

ALICE'S

ADVENTURES UNDER GROUND.

by the Author.

Being a Facsimile of the original MS. Book, afterwards developed into "Alice's Adventures in "Wonderland." With Thirty-seven
Illustrations

Crown

8vo, cloth, gilt edges.

4s.

THE NURSERY

ALICE.

selection

of

twenty

of

the pictures in "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland," enlarged, and coloured under the Artist's superintendence, with explanations. [Jn preparation.

N.B. In selling the above-mentioned books to the Trade, Messrs. Macmillan and Co. will abate 2d. in the shilling (no odd copies), and allow 5 per cent, discount for payment within six months, and 10 per
cent, for cash.

In selling them to the Public

(for

cash only) they will

allow 10 per cent, discount.

MR. LEWIS CARROLL, having been requested to allow " AN EASTER GREETING " (a leaflet, addressed to children, and frequently given with
his books) to be sold separately, has arranged with Messrs. Harrison, of 59, Pall Mall, who will supply a single copy for Id., or 12 for 9d.,

or 100 for 5s.

3C 135

-Dodge ory, Char lee--

The game of logic

D64

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