DISTORTION AND POWER FACTOR OF NONLINEAR LOADS

Tristan A. Kneschke, P.E. LTK Engineering Services Two Valley Square, Suite 300 5 12 Township Line Road Blue Bell, PA 19422 Telephone: 2 15-542-0700 Facsimile: 2 15-542-7676 E-mail: tkneschke@ltk.com

Abstract. In recent years some electrical power utility companies have experienced a significant increase in the quantity and magnitude of nonlinear loads being connected to their systems. Loads such as fluorescent lights, rectifiers, microprocessor-driven equipment, power supplies, and variable speed drives are often relatively small and well dispersed to cause a major negative impact on the power system. However when large nonlinear loads, in the order of tens of megawatts, are connected to utility systems, significant harmonic voltages and currents are produced. These loads include static frequency converters serving 25 Hz and 16Y3Hz intercity and commuter rail systems. The converter harmonics cause increased heating of the utility and other customer equipment and can lead to system resonance. Therefore, the harmonics need to be taken into account in various system evaluations. The difficulties in dealing with nonlinear loads encountered by the author include the following: Calculation of the harmonic distortion. Calculation of power factor. The IEEE method of harmonic distortion calculation is compared with an alternative method proposed in technical literature. The alternative method resolves the intuitive difficulty of visualizing harmonic distortion of over 100% when one or more of the frequencies in the harmonic spectrum is higher than the fundamental frequency, but introduces other difficulties, such as understating the magnitude of distortion. The complexity of determinationof power factor for distorted voltage and current increases as more harmonics are included in the calculation. Due to distorted waveforms, the true power

factor is always lower than the power factor calculated when, as often is the case, the harmonics are ignored. In this paper the concepts of nonlinear load and harmonic are reviewed first. Subsequently, calculation of the harmonic distortion and power factor are discussed in mathematical terms and supplemented with practical examples.

1.

LINEAR AND NONLINEAR LOADS

Linear loads have the following characteristics: Linear loads, when connected to a system with sinusoidal voltage, draw sinusoidal currents. 0 The supply voltage remains sinusoidal. e Voltage and current waveforms are of the same shape and contain only fundamental frequency.
0

In comparison, nonlinear loads have the following characteristics: Nonlinear loads, when connected to a system with sinusoidal voltage, draw nonsinusoidal currents. The supply voltage becomes nonsinusoidal. The voltage and current waveforms are not of the same shape and contain fundamental frequency as well as nonfundamental frequencies, so-called harmonics. FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY AND HARMONICS

2.

Power system analysis, design procedures, and calculation methods are developed for voltages, currents, and power demands having purely sinusoidal, i.e., undistorted waveforms. To enable analyses and designs of systems with nonsinusoidal waveforms, the nonsinusoidal (distorted) variables must be represented by sinusoidal (undistorted) waveforms.

0-7803-55334/99/S10.00 6 1999 JEEE

47

Using Fourier analysis, each periodic distorted waveform can be represented by a fundamental frequency and number of harmonics. Any required system studies can then be performed separately at each frequency and final results obtained by subsequent superposition of the results at individual frequencies. The IEEE defies and the industry recognizes the following types of harmonics: Characteristic harmonics or integer harmonics whose harmonic order is equal to an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. Noncharacteristic harmonics or noninteger harmonics whose harmonic order is equal to a noninteger multiple of the fundamental frequency. Two types of noninteger harmonics are identified: Sub-harmonics - the fundamental frequency multipliers are less than I, and therefore, the harmonic frequencies are lower than the fundamental frequency. Inter-harmonics - the fundamental frequency multipliers are larger than 1, and therefore, the harmonic frequencies are higher than the fundamental frequency. The frequencies of inter-harmonics are between the frequencies of characteristic harmonics. The characteristic harmonics are the conventional harmonics produced by semiconductor converter equipment in the course of normal operation. The noncharacteristic harmonics are a result of abnormal operation, and are caused by beat frequencies, demodulation, and unbalance of the electrical power supply network. The noncharacteristic harmonics are are also produced by cycloconverters in the course of their normal operation. Regardless of the harmonic type, it can be uniformly stated that all harmonics, characteristic and noncharacteristic, are potentially harmful to electrical equipment and should be limited to the lowest practical level. Harmonics add to the fundamental current already present in the equipment and increase the apparatus heating, could be a source of electromagnetic interference, and, under particularly onerous conditions may cause system resonance.
3.

(FWS)of the harmonic under consideration to the RMS value

of the fundamental as shown in the following expression:
Harmonic Frequency IHD = Fundamental Frequency
'100

(1)

The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is defined as the ratio of the RMS sum of all harmonic frequencies to the RMS value of the fundamental frequency as shown below:
RMS Sum of all Harmonics

THD =

Fundamental Frequency

.loo

(2)

These definitions are accepted throughout the industry and one of their advantages is their linear relationship between the magnitude of the harmonic components and the IHD or THD values. For example, it is possible to say that the value of a harmonic in a waveform with IHD = 4% is mice as high the harmonic value in another waveform with IHD = 2%. For most nonlinear loads the magnitude of the fundamental frequency is much larger than the magnitude of any individual harmonic frequency and also much larger than the RMS sum of all harmonics. In such cases the IHD and THD are well below 100%. Alternative Definitions Loads such as cycloconverters have a very high content of low harmonic. For example, a 60 Hz to 25 Hz cycloconverter, such as the one used by SEPTA to supply a part of its commuter rail lines [2] produces the highest harmonics at 10 Hz, 40Hz, 110 Hz, 160 Hz. The magnitude of the 10 Hz frequency may, especially during light load conditions, exceed the magnitude ofthe fundamental frequency. In such an event, the individual and total harmonic distortion, if calculated by the IEEE method, would be higher than 100%. When expressing harmonic distortion with values over loo%, an intuitive feeling for how distorted a particular variable is may be lost. For example, when THD = 130%, does it make sense to say a waveform is 130% distorted? To avoid this disadvantage, the following alternative method for calculation of Total Harmonic Distortion was proposed [3]. The method expresses the THD relative to the RMS magnitude of the entire waveform, not relative to the magnitude of the fundamental frequency, as shown below:
RMS Sum of AN Harmonics
RMS Sum of AN Frequencies
~ ~ ~~~ ~

HARMONIC DISTORTION

IEEE Definitions In order to quantify the level of harmonic distortion, the IEEE Standard 5 19 [ 11 defines harmonic distortion with respect to the fundamental frequency. The Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD) at a particular harmonic frequency is the ratio of the root-mean-square value

THD =

'100

(3)

This method could also be extended for calculation of

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Individual Harmonic Distortion as shown in the following equation:

Harmonic Frequency IHD =

IEEE Limits It is acknowledged that the IEEE Std. 5 19 limits are severe for certain types of loads and particularly for cycloconverters. However, the approaches discussed in this paper appear to be designed to understate the distortion levels, and therefore are not recommended for general use. Instead, the following causes of action are proposed: The IEEE Standard limits could be modified to reflect characteristics of various types of equipment. This can be accomplished by participation at the appropriate committees, task force groups, or working groups. Parties associated with a particular project, including the power utility, owner, and manufacturer, could agree that the installation will not comply with the IEEE Standard limits which, after all, are only recommendations. A harmonic distortion study could be performed to demonstrate that any adverse effects due to harmonic distortion will be acceptable. Expressions for calculating the Individual Harmonic Distortion and Total Harmonic Distortion for voltages and currents using the IEEE and the alternative methods are provided in the Appendix.

RMS Sum of All Frequencies

.I O 0

(4)

Using the alternative definitions, the IHD and the THD would never be above 100%. However, the linear relationship between the magnitude of the harmonic components and the resulting IHD and THD would be lost as shown in Figure 1 .
450.00

I
I

s
v

2 .Y

400.00 350.00 300.00 250.00

IEEE Distortion a 1

.90

5 2

200.00
150.00 100.00 50.00 0.00
0

FT

' Alternative Distortion

50 100 150
200

4. POWER FACTOR
400

250

300

350

Magnitude of Harmonic Content

Prior to developing a method of power factor calculation for nonlinear circuits with harmonic voltages and currents, linear theory with sinusoidal variables is reviewed. Linear Circuits - Single Frequency Analysis Instantaneous values of voltage and current are given by:

Figure 1 - Relationship Between the Magnitude of the Harmonic Components and the Resulting Distortion Calculation of Harmonic Distortion in Practice The alternative methods of distortion calculation have one further disadvantage. Since the denominator of the alternative definition (fundamental and harmonics) is always higher than the denominator in the IEEE definition (fundamental only), calculations using the alternative definition would always understate the magnitude of distortion. Another example of harmonic distortion calculations used in practice is the method proposed in [4]. Here, the magnitude of the fundamental frequency of the waveform in the denominator is replaced with a value corresponding to the rating of a line or a supply transformer. The magnitude of harmonic distortion depends on the characteristics of the load and not on rating of the supply equipment. According to IEEE, the harmonic distortion is a measure of distortion of the fundamental waveform, and not of the equipment rating. Clearly, distortion values would not change in the event that the rating of the supply line or transformer is changed.

v(t) = Vm,sin(wt

+a )

(5)

The instantaneous power demand is a product of the instantaneous voltage and current:

p(t) = v(i). i(t) =

= Vm,sin(mt

+ a ) .I,,sin(cd

+p )

(7)

P = vm,lm, 2

c o s 4 = Vlcos4

(8)

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The apparent power is defined as:

p(t) = v(t).i(t) = = /VmmIsin(wt i al)+ Vm,2sin(20t + a2) + +Vm,3sin(3wt + a3)+...+V,,,,,sin(mwt + am)J. .[I,,Isin(wt + PI) + Im,2sin(2wt + p 2 ) + (15) +Im,3sin(3wt + p3)+.. .+l,,sin(not + p,)J
m
n

h=l

k=I

In any circuit; h e a r or nonlinear, regardless of the voltage and current waveforms, the power factor is defined as a factor by which the apparent power needs to be multiplied in order to obtain the real power [5] as shown in the following equation:

P = Power Factor * S

Using trigonometrical expansions, assuming that a,, - pk = hhk, and rewriting the above equation for Rh4S values yields the following expressions for real and reactive power. Since these expressions include harmonic terms, nomenclature for the real and the reactive power has been changed from P to SRea, and Q to SReact:
m n

From the foregoing equation, the power factor is equal to a ratio of real and apparent power. In linear circuits with sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms, the power factor is called displacement power factor (dPF) and is also equal to the cosine of angle between the voltage and current.

Nonlinear Circuits Harmonic Frequency Analysis Defming Rh4S values of voltage and current as: When a nonsinusoidal voltage containing fundamental frequency and harmonics up to the morder, as shown below
v(5)= p,,Isin(wt

+Vm,3sin(3wt

+ a ] )+ Vmm2sin(2wt + a2) + + a3)+...+V,,,sin(mwt + a,)

enables to write equation for apparent power. The designation for of apparent power for linear circuits S is changed to SApp nonlinear circuits:

h=I

is applied to a nonlinear circuit, then the resulting current will contain fundamental frequency and harmonics up to the nth order:

The P and Q are real and reactive values of power at fundamental frequency and are corresponding directly to the P and Q values in the linear system equations (8) and (9). The instantaneous power is again calculated as a product of the instantaneous voltage and current: The power factor is again defined as a ratio of real and apparent power. In nonlinear circuits with distorted voltage and current waveforms, the power factor is called true power

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factor (tPF) and is no longer equal to the cosine of angle between the voltage and current.

distortion power is defined using the following equation:

y=I a

x=l

Comparing the equation for displacement power factor and the equation for true power factor it can be concluded that latter power factor will always be lower.

y=l

r=l

The apparent power is defined as:

The difference between the true and displacement power factor increase with content of harmonics and can be substantial for variables with large harmonic content.

~~

and the true power factor is:

Distortion Power
When a nonsinusoidal voltage contains fundamental frequency and harmonics up to the mth order, two sets of voltage frequencies can be considered. One set, x = 1...p, is due to the nonsinusoidal voltage, and the other set y = l...q is due to the nonlinear load. Similarly, a current, containing harmonics up to n" order, will include two sets of frequencies, x = l...p due to the nonsinusoidal voltage, and the other set z = 1...r due to the nonlinear load. With this definition of harmonic content, power components due nonsinusoidal voltage and due to to nonlinear load can be identified and separated. Expressions for the real and reactive power due to nonsinusoidal voltage can be written in the form of equations (1 6) and (1 7). Since the variables have a different harmonic and SReact, the nomenclature for the power content than SRea, expressions has been changed from SReal to Spand from S,,,,, to s,:
I
~

The true power factor component are defined as follows:

P P

s$ =
x=l

v ; ' c I,'
x=l

cos2 4xx

(28)

x=l

r=l

I
y=l

:=I

x=I

x=I

Field Test Example A traction power substation for a light rail transit system with one transfonnerlrectifier unit rated at 1,000 kW and input voltage rating of 4.16 kV was tested using a BMI 303013060 Power Profiler measuring instrument. A short circuit was applied at the rectifier output terminals and the input voltage was increased only to a level permitting flow of full load current. Due to the fact that the load in the test circuit was

Frequencies due to nonlinear load, y = 1...q for voltages and z I...r for currents form so-called distortion power SD. The

51

formed by the highly reactive transformer windings, low power factor results were expected. The magnitude of the phase voltages and currents, true and displacement power factors, as well as the total harmonic distortion data are shown in Figure 2.
POWERPROFILER SITE Sep 17 1998

Sinusoidal Voltages - Nonlinear Load sp= VIcosq5 = P S, = VIsinq5 = Q

S,#O

(Ihu)
0

BMI 3838 METERS

Uclt.age: Phase A-E: Phase B-C: Phase C-A: Imbalance: Current: Phase A: Phase 8: Phase C: Imbalance: Power: UOlt-AlbpS:
UA React.iwe:

11:29:32 AM 292 Urrtis 389 U r m s 284 Urms 284 Urnis 5,6% 241,3 A tli\S 141.4 A rms 144,8 I? rms 132.5 A rms 4,9%

W 8.83 k
78.61 kUA
69 88 kUAR
I

S, cannot be fully compensated by capacitors due to cross products at different frequencies. Therefore, tPF< 1 even if S, is completely compensated. Nonsinusoidal Voltages - Linear Load sp= CVCICOSq5 # P S, = CVCIsin4 * Q S,=O S, cannot be fully compensated by capacitors due to cross products at different frequencies. Therefore tPF< 1. Nonsinusoidal Voltages - Nonlinear Load s, = p c 1 c o s 4 + P S, = CVCIsinq5 Q SD#o S, and So cannot be fully compensated by capacitors due to cross products at different frequencies. Therefore tPF< 1.

Power Factor: Displacement Factor: Voltage THD: A-Nm Volt: E-Nm Volt: c-th Volt: Current THD : A Current: B Current: C Current:

8.12 PF 8,15 dPF 4 . 4 % THD 4 , 4 % THD 3.2% THD 5.5% THD

It should be noted that for linear and nonlinear circuits with sinusoidal voltage S, = P and S, = Q, SI, exists only for nonlinear loads, for linear loads So is zero. The above evaluation presents an interesting proposition that in systems with distorted voltages andor nonlinear load, the power factor cannot be compensated to unity with capacitors.
5.

8.1% THD 8.5% THD ~ 7 THD % 8.9% THD

APPENDICES

List of Symbols

a
Figure 2 -Harmonic Distortion and Power Factor Measurement It is interesting to note that for overall voltage THD of 4.4% and current THD of 0.7% the true power factor, when harmonics are considered, is 0.12 in comparison with the displacement power factor of 0.15 at fundamental frequency. This represents a change of 25%. Compensation of Reactive Power Examining the above equations for various voltage and load conditions, the following four circumstances can arise: Sinusoidal Voltages - Linear Load s, = VIcosq5 = P S, = VIsinq5 = Q S,=O S, can be completely compensated with capacitors and in that case tPF = dPF = 1.

Voltage phase shift Current phase shift Difference between voltage and current phase shifts 4 0 Angular velocity 1,2, 3, h, k, n, x, y, and z are harmonic frequency indexes Displacement power factor Instantaneous value of current RMS value of current for single frequency Maximum value of current Maximum value of current at fundamental frequency Maximum value of current at frequency 2 Maximum value of current at frequency h Maximum value of current at frequency n RMS value of current at fundamental frequency RMS value of current at frequency 2 RMS value of current at frequency h RMS value of current at frequency n Individual Harmonic Distortion of current at frequency h Individual Harmonic Distortion of voltage at frequency h

52

Instantaneous value of power RMS value of real power for single frequency RMS value of real power for harmonic frequencies RMS value of reactive power for single frequency RMS value of reactive power for harm. frequencies RMS value of apparent power for single frequency Distortion power RMS value of apparent power for all frequencies RMS value of real power for fundamental frequency and all frequencies due to nonsinusoidal voltage RMS value of reactive power for all frequencies RMS value of real power for all frequencies RMS value of reactive power for fundamental frequency and all frequencies due to nonsinusoidal voltage Time Total Harmonic Distortion of current Total Harmonic Distortion of voltage True power factor Instantaneous value of voltage RMS value of voltage for single frequency Maximum value of voltage Maximum value of voltage at fundamental frequency Maximum value of voltage at frequency 2 Maximum value of voltage at frequency h Maximum value of voltage at frequency n RMS value of voltage at fundamental frequency RMS value of voltage at frequency 2 RMS value of voltage at frequency h RMS value of voltage at frequency n

Total Harmonic Distortion of Current

(34)

Alternative Definitions of Harmonic Distortion Individual Harmonic Distortion of Voltage

I C
h= I

Individual Harmonic Distortion of Current

IEEE Std. 519 Definitions of Harmonic Distortion

Individual Harmonic Distortion of Voltage Total Harmonic Distortion of Voltage
I H h =&-I00

VI

(31)
THDv =

J
Jv:+v22+vj2+

Individual Harmonic Distortion of Current

...+v,2

IHDI,, =

k. I00 II

(32)

(37)

Total Harmonic Distortion of Voltage

(33)

53

Total Harmonic Distortion of Current

(NCS) upgrade, the NJT Newark to Elizabeth Rail Link (NERL) light rail transit project, and on several system studies for Amtrak, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation. His responsibilities include studies and engineering of traction power, catenary, trolley, corrosion control, signaling, communication, and fare collection systems, as well as of light rail vehicles, yards, and shops. His assignments for mainline railroads include work on the Northeast Corridor Improvement Project for the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) and a major investigation on behalf of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) into the feasibility of electrification of 10,000 miles 0fU.S. freight railroads. Also, he worked on traction power supply system designs for Michigan DOT, Missouri-Kansas-Texas (MKT) freight railroad, and Quebec Cartier mining railroad. Projects for commuter railroads include implementation of the first static frequency converter for traction power application on behalf of the southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA), NJTs North Jersey Coast Line electrification, and upgrade of Metro-North Commuter Railroad Harlem & Hudson lines. Relevant transit projects include the Hennepin County Twin Cities Corridor LRT, the Walt Disney World monorail, the Portland Banfield, Westside, and Vintage Trolley, the SEPTA Broad Street Subway, and the Market-Frankford Subway/ Elevated line systems. He also performed studies and designs on the Los Angeles, Buffalo, San Diego, and Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) light rail transit system projects. Mr. Kneschke has numerous technical publications to his credit with topics including power supply and distribution system design, substation design, catenary system design, alternativesystem analyses, power utility interfaces, harmonics and power quality issues, corrosion control issues, and electrification system design optimization and cost effectiveness. He is the Chairman of Subcommittee No. 6 - Power Supply and Distribution of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA), the Chairman of the American Public Transportation Association (APTA) Power, Signals and Communications Committee, and he also served as the Chairman of the IEEE Vehicular Technology SocietysLand Transportation Division Executive Committee. He is a registered Professional Engineer in eight states and is a Recipient ofthree IEEE Industry Applications SocietysLand Transportation Committee and Vehicular Technology Committee Awards.

6.

REFERENCES

1. IEEE Std. 519, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1992.
2.

T. Kneschke, Traction Power Augmentation of SEPTAS Wayne Junction Converter Station, IEEE Paper No. CH2020-6/84/0000-0007, IEEE Publication No. 84CH2020-6, 1984 Joint ASME/IEEE Conference, Chicago, 11. T. M. Gruzs, Uncertainties in Compliance with Harmonic Current Distortion in Electric Power Systems, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 27, No.4, July/August 1991. R. F. Chu, J. J. Bums, Impact of Cycloconverter Harmonics, IEEE Trans. On Industry Application, Vol. 25, No.3, MayIJune 1989.

3.

4.

5. W. Shepherd, P. Zakikhani, Suggested Definition of Reactive power for Nonsinusoidal Systems, Proc. IEE, Vol. 119, No. 9, September 1972.
7.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Tristan A. Kneschke (SM82) graduated from the University of Sussex, UK, where he also received his Ph.D. Both degrees were in electrical engineering. Earlier in his career he was responsible for conducting a variety of studies and designs of power utility systems and industrial plants for clients in many countries. Since his arrival to the U.S. in 1977,. he concentrated on analyses and design activities for mainline railroads, commuter railroads, and urban transit systems. Since joining LTK, he participated in more than 80 project assignments of varying lengths and complexities. Currently, he is serving as a Project Manager on the Ohio-KentuckyIndiana (OKI) Cincinnati 1-71 Corridor light rail transit project, the New Jersey Transit (NJT) Newark City Subway

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