1.

Avalanche
An avalanche (also called a snowstorm or snowavalanche) is a rapid flow of packed snow down a slope, that results from a mechanical failure in the snowpack when the forces on the snow exceed its strength. After the initiation avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in size as they entrain more snow. If the avalanche moves fast enough some of the snow may mix with the air forming a powder snow avalanche, which is a type of gravity current. Although primarly composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have the capability to entrain ice, rocks, trees, and other material on the slope, and are distinct from mudslides, rock slides, and serac collapses on an icefall. Avalanches are not rare or random events and are endemic to any mountain range that accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common during winter or spring but glacier movements may cause ice and snow avalanches at any time of year. In mountainous terrain, avalanches are among the most serious objective hazards to life and property, with their destructive capability resulting from their potential to carry enormous masses of snow at high speeds.

Organized rescue
Professional and volunteer rescue teams respond when a victim needs more help than their companions can provide. Traditionally, organized rescue responded after companion rescue efforts failed. However, today, thanks to mobile telephones, helicopters and snow-machines, the distinction between organized and companion rescue sometimes blur together as organized rescue can respond quickly to assist companions. In a some cases in recent years, organized rescue has even replaced companion rescue and saved lives when organized rescue teams reached the debris before the victim's companions. There are four primary goals of any rescue operation and in organized rescue the goals can be initiated simultaneously.

Immediate search: get rescuers to the site; find and uncover buried victims. Medical: care for victims and companions Transport/evacuation: transport rescuers in quickly and safely; get victims out and to advanced medical care; return rescuers safely Support/Logistics: care for rescuers in the field (food, shelter, rest and replacement)

Immediate search
The first teams travel fast and light to locate and uncover buried victims. These teams carry basic rescue equipment, including rescue dogs and RECCO detectors, and emergency-care gear. These rescuers are generally not equipped for prolonged operations.

Medical
While the immediate search teams carry some basic medical equipment, a special team that can provide advanced life-support follows quickly. This team usually includes paramedic, trauma nurse, or physician, and may also transport in a rescue toboggan and other equipment needed to revive, stabilize, protect and transport their patient.

Transport/evacuation
Upon the first alert of an avalanche incident the rescue leader will appoint a team to arrange transportation for both rescuers and patients.

Support/logistics

Rescue leaders will assess the complexity of the search and rescue operation to determine and anticipate the needs for support. Every incident is different depending upon the number of victims, avalanche danger, weather conditions, terrain, access, availability of rescuers, etc. Support includes getting appropriate resources of people and equipment, transporting the resources, caring for and replacing rescuers. In the United States all agencies are mandated to manage search and rescue operations, including avalanche, under the Incident Command System (ICS).

2. Tropical Cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low-pressure center surrounded by a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. Tropical cyclones strengthen when water evaporated from the ocean is released as the saturated air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air. They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows. The characteristic that separates tropical cyclones from other cyclonic systems is that at any height in the atmosphere, the center of a tropical cyclone will be warmer than its surroundings; a phenomenon called "warm core" storm systems. The term "tropical" refers both to the geographical origin of these systems, which usually form in tropical regions of the globe, and to their formation in maritime tropical air masses. The term "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise wind flow in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise wind flow in the Southern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of the wind flow is a result of the Coriolis force. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane (/hrken/, /hrkn/), typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone.

Be Prepared

It goes without saying that the better prepared you are before the storm hits, the better your odds of getting through it. Recommended preparations include trimming overhanging branches and removing all loose items from around your property that could become deadly projectiles. Metal window shutters will prevent blown-in windows that can cause serious injuries. Spare fuel should be kept in the event of an evacuation, as well as an emergency water supply. An item of major importance to have handy is an emergency kit with a radio, batteries, flashlights, nonperishable foods, candles, matches, any important documents, essential medications, waterproof bags and a first-aid kit. Having an evacuation plan, in the event that it becomes necessary, is something that should be considered by every household living in cyclone-prone areas.

During the Storm

If you have not been forced to evacuate or have decided to stay home and wait out the storm, the most important thing to remember is to stay indoors. Unplug all your appliances to avoid electrocution hazards if water begins to enter your home. Turn off all electricity, gas and water. Keep your emergency kit close and keep yourself and your family in the strongest part of the house, away from all windows and doors. Keep the battery-powered radio going to listen for any updates on the situation and if your home or building begins to break up, get under a strong bench or table to protect yourself from the elements and any falling debris that might collapse onto you. Remember that the eye of the storm is calm and could mislead you into thinking that the worst is over, when in fact it is still not safe to go outside. Wait for the official word that the storm is over, before leaving the safety of your home. If you have to evacuate ahead of the storm, be sure to lock up your home, turn off gas, electricity, and water, and be sure to take your emergency kit, cash and suitable clothing when you leave.

Aftermath

Just because the storm is over does not mean that all of the danger has subsided. Remember that you can still be injured or killed by falling debris from damaged buildings or downed power lines in the streets. If you left your home to seek shelter or due to an evacuation, take only the recommended routes home. These routes have either been checked and cleaned up, or otherwise deemed safe for passage. Check on your neighbors to make sure they are not hurt or in need of assistance, but avoid careless sightseeing. Do not use any wet appliances until they have been checked and boil all your water until you receive official word that the water supply is clean and safe to drink. Do not wade through flood waters. Remember that all sorts of unseen hazards can be lurking underwater, from downed power lines to sharp objects or sinkholes.

3. Famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food,[1] caused by several factors including crop failure, population unbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Nearly every continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. Some countries, particularly in sub-Sahara Africa, continue to have extreme cases of famine. The famine relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, as is often required by law (for example U.S. law requires that food aid money be spent on food grown in the U.S.), as it wastes money on transport costs,[2][3] but more importantly, it perpetuates the cycle of dependency on foreign imports rather than helping to create real local stability through agricultural abundance. Emergency measures in relieving famine include providing high calorie ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF), through fortified sachets of peanut-based paste such as Plumpy'nut that are given primarily to children.

Prevention
The effort to bring modern agricultural techniques found in the Western world, such as nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides, to Asia, called the Green Revolution, resulted in decreases in malnutrition similar to those seen earlier in Western nations. This was possible because of existing infrastructure and institutions that are in short supply in Africa, such as a system of roads or public seed companies that made seeds available.[50] Supporting farmers in areas of food insecurity, through such measures as free or subsidized fertilizers and seeds, increases food harvest and reduces food prices.[6][51] The World Bank and some rich nations press nations that depend on them for aid to cut back or eliminate subsidized agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, in the name of privatization even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers.[6][52] Many, if not most, of the farmers are too poor to afford fertilizer at market prices.[6] For example, in the case of Malawi, almost five million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid. However, after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as production leaped to 3.4 million in 2007 from 1.2 million in 2005.[6] This lowered food prices and increased wages for farm workers.[6] Malawi became a major food exporter, selling more corn to the World Food Program and the United Nations than any other country in Southern Africa.[6] Proponents for helping the farmers includes the economist Jeffrey Sachs, who has championed the idea that wealthy countries should invest in fertilizer and seed for Africas farmers.[6]

Relief
Deficient Micronutrient can be provided through fortifying foods.[53] Fortifying foods such as peanut butter sachets (see Plumpy'Nut) and Spirulina have revolutionized emergency feeding in humanitarian emergencies

because they can be eaten directly from the packet, do not require refrigeration or mixing with scarce clean water, can be stored for years and, vitally, can be absorbed by extremely ill children.[4] The United Nations World Food Conference of 1974 declared Spirulina as 'the best food for the future' and its ready harvest every 24 hours make it a potent tool to eradicate malnutrition. What is recommended by WHO and other sources for malnourished children or adults who also have diarrhea is drinking rehydration solution, continuing to eat, antibiotics, and zinc supplements.[54][55][56] There is a special oral rehydration solution called ReSoMal which has less sodium and more potassium than standard solution. However, if the diarrhea is severe, the standard solution is preferable as the person needs the extra sodium.[55] Obviously, this is a judgment call best made by a physician, and using either solution is better than doing nothing. Zinc supplements often can help reduce the duration and severity of diarrhea, and Vitamin A can also be helpful.[57] The World Health Organization is quite emphatic on the importance of a person with diarrhea continuing to eat, with a 2005 publication for physicians stating: Food should never be withheld and the child's usual foods should not be diluted. Breastfeeding should always be continued."[54] There is a growing realization among aid groups that giving cash or cash vouchers instead of food is a cheaper, faster, and more efficient way to deliver help to the hungry, particularly in areas where food is available but unaffordable.[2] The UN's World Food Program (WFP), the biggest non-governmental distributor of food, announced that it will begin distributing cash and vouchers instead of food in some areas, which Josette Sheeran, the WFP's executive director, described as a "revolution" in food aid.[2][3] The aid agency Concern Worldwide is piloting a method through a mobile phone operator, Safaricom, which runs a money transfer program that allows cash to be sent from one part of the country to another.[2] However, for people in a drought living a long way from and with limited access to markets, delivering food may be the most appropriate way to help. Fred Cuny stated that "the chances of saving lives at the outset of a relief operation are greatly reduced when food is imported. By the time it arrives in the country and gets to people, many will have died." US Law, which requires buying food at home rather than where the hungry live, is inefficient because approximately half of what is spent goes for transport. Fred Cuny further pointed out "studies of every recent famine have shown that food was available in-country though not always in the immediate food deficit area" and "even though by local standards the prices are too high for the poor to purchase it, it would usually be cheaper for a donor to buy the hoarded food at the inflated price than to import it from abroad."

4. Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in Japan in 2011 (as of October 2012), and it was the largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal. Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a

specific day or month.[59] However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated.[60] Earthquake warning systems have been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the system's range to seek shelter before the earthquake's impact is felt. The objective of earthquake engineering is to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to minimize the risk of damage. Existing structures can be modified by seismic retrofitting to improve their resistance to earthquakes. Earthquake insurance can provide building owners with financial protection against losses resulting from earthquakes. Emergency management strategies can be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences.

5. Volcanic eruptions
During a volcanic eruption, lava, tephra (ash, lapilli, volcanic bombs and blocks), and various gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure. Several types of volcanic eruptions have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series. There are three different metatypes of eruptions. The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma, the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The last eruptive metatype is the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of existing rock. Prepare for the worst. Listen for radio or TV advisories when an eruption occurs. Leave the area promptly if told to do so.
Get to high ground. Protect yourself from pyroclastics. Avoid breathing poisonous gases Get and stay inside. Receive medical treatment promptly for burns, injuries, and gas/ash inhalation.

6. Wildfire
A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area.[1][2] Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire, desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, vegetation fire, and veldfire may be used to describe the same phenomenon depending on the type of vegetation being burned. A wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive size, the speed at which it can spread out from its original source, its potential to change direction unexpectedly, and its ability to jump gaps such as roads, rivers and fire breaks.[3] Wildfires are characterized in terms of the cause of ignition, their physical properties such as speed of propagation, the combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire.[4] Wildfires occur on every continent except Antarctica. Wildfires are a common occurrence in Australia especially during the long hot summers usually experienced in the southern regions such as Victoria, Australia. Due to Australia's hot and dry climate, wildfires (commonly referred to as bushfires in Australia) pose a great risk to life

and infrastructure during all times of the year, though mostly throughout the hotter months of summer and spring.[5] In the United States, there are typically between 60,000 and 80,000 wildfires that occur each year, burning 3 million to 10 million acres of land depending on the year.[6] Fossil records and human history contain accounts of wildfires, as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals.[7][8] Wildfires can cause extensive damage, both to property and human life, but they also have various beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction,[7] although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects. Prevention! Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods of reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread.[125] Effective prevention techniques allow supervising agencies to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources,[84] and to limit the effects of future uncontrolled fires.[126] North American firefighting policies may permit naturally caused fires to burn to maintain their ecological role, so long as the risks of escape into high-value areas are mitigated.[127] However, prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement.[128] Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or the uncontrolled use of fire in landclearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia.[129] A new and ecologically evolutionary practice, termed "Hydro-Pyrogeography", promises and claims to bound wildfire from passing through any such wildland-urban interface anywhere on earth that the practice is put into place, and thereby diminishing, even eliminating the above-referred oppositions and concerns to traditional fuel management techniques. In the mid-19th century, explorers from the HMS Beagle observed Australian Aborigines using fire for ground clearing, hunting, and regeneration of plant food in a method later named fire-stick farming.[130] Such careful use of fire has been employed for centuries in the lands protected by Kakadu National Park to encourage biodiversity.[131] In 1937, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign, highlighting the role of human carelessness in forest fires. Later posters of the program featured Uncle Sam, leaders of the Axis powers of World War II, characters from the Disney movie Bambi, and the official mascot of the U.S. Forest Service, Smokey Bear.[132] Wildfires are caused by a combination of natural factors such as topography, fuels, and weather. Other than reducing human infractions, only fuels may be altered to affect future fire risk and behavior.[34] Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns.[1][133][134] Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.[135] Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity, and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation, thereby reducing the risk of crown fires.[136][137] Using strategic cuts of trees, fuels may also be removed by handcrews in order to clean and clear the forest, prevent fuel build-up, and create access into forested areas.[138] Chain saws and large equipment can be used to thin out ladder fuels and shred trees and vegetation to a mulch.[139] Multiple fuel treatments are often needed to influence future fire risks, and wildfire models may be used to predict and compare the benefits of different fuel treatments on future wildfire spread.[34] However, controlled burns are reportedly "the most effective treatment for reducing a fires rate of spread, fireline intensity, flame length, and heat per unit of area" according to Jan Van Wagtendonk, a biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station.[140] Additionally, while fuel treatments are typically limited to smaller areas, effective fire management requires the administration of fuels across large landscapes in order to reduce future fire size and severity.[141] Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure.[142][143] Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 ft) wide

between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather.[144] Fuel buildup can result in costly, devastating fires as new homes, ranches, and other development are built adjacent to wilderness areas. Continued growth in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism.[145] However, the population growth along the wildland-urban interface discourages the use of current fuel management techniques. Smoke is an irritant and attempts to thin out the fuel load is met with opposition due to desirability of forested areas, in addition to other wilderness goals such as endangered species protection and habitat preservation.[146] The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life.[147] For example, while fuel treatments decrease the risk of crown fires, these techniques destroy the habitats of various plant and animal species.[148] Additionally, government policies that cover the wilderness usually differ from local and state policies that govern urban lands.