Experience Gained During Construction

of the First RCC Dam in Bolivia

Francisco Ortega S. 1)
Principal
FOSCE, Germany

Christian Gross 2)
Department of Hydraulic Structures
CES - Consulting Engineers Salzgitter GmbH, Germany

ABSTRACT

"La Cañada Dam", constructed within the framework of the "Comarapa Irrigation
Project", will be the first RCC dam in Bolivia. With a height of 51.7 m it will be the
highest dam to have been constructed in this country so far.

A resume of the conditions found in the remote location of Comarapa and its
consequences on the implementation of the construction are given. Special difficulties
such as lack of experience, logistics and supply and quality of materials are described.

Some particular experiences gained during different stages of the Project are
discussed as they may be of interest for the implementation of similar Projects in the
region or elsewhere.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Framework of the Project

The ‘Comarapa Irrigation Project’ (Proyecto de Riego Comarapa - Saipina - San

Rafael), is presently the largest irrigation Project in Bolivia financed by German
development funds by means of KfW (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau). It is located
near the town of Comarapa, halfway between the cities of Santa Cruz and
Cochabamba. It forms part of the Bolivian policy of ‘Fight against poverty’ that is
supported by German development politics. The owner of the Project is the Prefecture
of Santa Cruz (Regional Authority).

The Project comprises the amplification and improvement of an existing irrigation

infrastructure by construction of hydraulic structures such as inlet structures, canals,
siphons etc. The main component is ‘La Cañada Dam’ with the intention to increase
water supply to the irrigated areas.

1.2. Implementation

Due to feasibility studies realised in the beginning of the 90's, KfW decided to co-
finance the construction of the irrigation system. A contract for Final Design and
Construction Supervision was awarded to CES-Consulting Engineers Salzgitter
GmbH, Germany. Malcolm Dunstan & Associates (MD&A) were contracted for
specific questions on RCC technology. Final design was realised in 1997/98.

As there was no experience of RCC construction in Bolivia, it was proposed to award

the construction to an experienced construction company. Accordingly a pre-
qualification process limited the number of invited construction companies. However,
bid prices of the first and second tendering process were 100% above the cost
estimates which originally led to an estimated cost of 7,5 Mio US$ in total, which
included the RCC dam. As this amount was not financially feasible for the Project, it
was decided to open the tendering to local Contractors. In order to compensate the
lack of experience in RCC and in construction of large Projects, the Contractor had to
include in his offer experienced international consulting personnel. Tender evaluators
considered the curriculum vitae of the proposed Consultants.

The third tender evaluation led to awarding the Project to a consortium of three local
Contractors (Tauro, S&L, Tai). RCC-Expert for the Consortium was Francisco Ortega
(FOSCE) from Germany. The budget amounted to 7,5 Mio US$.

2. TECHNICAL DATA

Figure 1. Isometric view of ‘La Cañada’ RCC dam

Geometry
Dam height 51,7 m
Crest length 155,0 m
Crest width 8,0 m
Spillway width 30,0 m
Upstream face vertical
Downstream face 1:0,20 to 1:0,75 (V:H)
Length of stilling basin 27,4 m
 Main hydraulic data
Design Flood, HQ10.000 320 m³/s
Maximum specific discharge at spillway 10,8 m³/s/m
Type of spillway channel stepped (h=0,60 m)
Reservoir volume 10,0 hm³
Bottom outlet DN 1200

Volume
RCC Volume 72.000 m³
Conventional Concrete Volume 5.000 m³

Main design criteria

RCC characteristic compressive strength 8 MPa @ 180 days
Shear strength across RCC joints 0,5 MPa

3. CONSTRUCTION

3.1. Particular conditions on site

The construction of La Cañada RCC dam had some specific conditions different from
those found in other Projects. Bolivia is among the poorest of the countries in South
America, but has great potential for civil engineering and construction. In many
regions the most basic necessities are still not covered and financial resources are still
very limited. For this reason, the construction of a large dam like this one has been a
great challenge for all parties involved.

As discussed above, the first obstacle the Project had to face was the limited financing
available. Only the use of national resources, including materials and equipment made
the construction of the dam economically feasible. An RCC alternative was found to
be the most economic solution for La Cañada site. However, the lack of experience
not only in RCC technology but also in construction of large Projects, has been one of
the most difficult challenges to deal with during the planning and construction of the
RCC dam.

Secondly, the lack of availability of required equipment and plants for the Project
throughout the whole country created further problems. For example, some capacity
units larger than usual were required. Such equipment is seldom in Bolivia and more
often than not, second or third hand re-conditioned equipment is operated by less
skilled personnel. However it was found more economic to work with the existing
resources in the country and allow for a large list of stand-by equipment, than to
import equipment from abroad. Now, at the final stage of the construction, this is still
our thinking even after having suffered problems during the production of aggregates.
However, for further Projects the decision for every case must be analysed in detail at
the planning stage and is likely to depend mostly on the size of the dam and the daily
cost of non-production.

Long distances and transport are important limitations in the Bolivian economy; the
road system is still poorly developed. Even interconnections between major cities are
still without pavements. This is due, on one hand, to geological instabilities of some
zones of the Andean mountains, and on the other hand to the relatively high costs of
maintenance.

3.2. Programme of construction

The site-installation and preparation of the job prior to the start of placing RCC in the
main dam has taken one year; from August 2000 to July 2001. During the first three
months of this period, the general planning and design of the main equipment ran in
parallel with the installation of the auxiliary plants and camp, including the
construction of a 9 km-long access road from the closer town to the dam site. The
main activities developed during this year period were the following:
mix design, installations of main plants, production and stockpile of 30% of the
aggregates, excavation and foundation treatments, river diversion, structural concrete
on the foundation, and finally, the training programme of the personnel on site.

The RCC started in the dam in the middle of August 2001, and has taken seven
months to complete, including three long breaks of two months in total. Two of those
breaks were necessary to recover the aggregate production and the third one was over
Christmas. If the aggregate production had not been a limiting factor, the dam could
have been built probably in half the time it actually took to build, i.e. within three to
four months. That rate was well proven at the beginning of the placement; in the first
month of construction with the stockpile of aggregates at full capacity, the maximum
output with an average rate of two layers per day was achieved, even at the beginning
of the ‘learning curve’. This is quite unusual and denotes a good training prior to
starting placement in the dam but at the same time, not enough resources were
available to increase the capacity as the dam was raised.

3.3. Materials and mix design

During the first year of construction, prior to placing RCC in the main dam, a detailed
mix programme was undertaken. The background information available before
starting those final trials was very limited, as the results available from previous trials
of the design stage were somewhat confusing and could never be completed due to
limited financing. As a result, a complete analysis, including investigation of
materials, three laboratory mix programmes and a full-scale trial was necessary during
the construction stage. The objective was to find an optimised RCC mix that would
meet the design criteria and the specification of the awarded contract at the same time,
and obviously within the available funds. No doubt if the trial mix programme during
the design stage could have been completed before the Contract was awarded, this
would have proved more economic for the Project.

The use of cementitious materials from local manufacturers proved to be the most
economic option for the Project. The addition of the transportation cost to the high
taxes for imported materials made any other alternative unfeasible. Therefore,
cementitious material production is practically in the hands of monopolist companies.
Regional consumption is very low and the closest factories are located 250 km away.
Cementitious materials are filled into big bags (1,0 to 1,5 m3) and transported by
intermediate trucks (25 to 40 t). Total travel time for a Sucre - "La Cañada Dam" -
Sucre is 60 hours. However, as the road crosses several dry watercourses, it may
happen that intensive rainfall restricts the possibilities of unhindered traffic. In
addition, the unions of transportation services are very strong in Bolivia, so further
unknown risks have to be considered.

In order to guarantee some continuity in the cementitious materials supplied, a storage

system consisting of four silos with a total of 1000 t (2 for cement, 2 for pozzolans)
was implemented. This installation guaranteed one week of independent material
supply for an average production.

Different sources of aggregates were used in several stages during the construction
period. The original gravel pit located in the future reservoir was excavated as far as
the conditions on site permitted, and in addition, several alternative areas out of the
Project area were investigated and explored as an aggregate source. Therefore several
alternative mixes for different materials were investigated and used in the dam.

The poor quality of the raw material for aggregates has highly determined the mixture
proportions. Some properties are included in Table 1.

Aggregates (1933 kg/m3) (fine ag.:33%) Cement (140 kg/m3)

Type: partially crushed gravel (sandstone, limolite Type: Ordinary Portland Cement (ASTM Type I)
& shale) split in four sizes: 50/20-20/5-5/2,4-2,4/0 Pozzolan (100 kg/m3)
Relative Density (SSD): 2530 kg/m3 Type: Natural Pozzolan (Class N, ASTM C618)
Absorption: 3,5 to 5,0% Free water (138± kg/m3)
Sand equivalent (raw): 33% From river, no treatment
% Los Angeles lost: 41 to 51% Admixtures: water retarder tested
RCC mix
VeBe time: 15± sec
Theoretical air-free density: 2358 kg/m3
Characteristic compressive strength: 8 MPa @ 180 days
Average compressive strength: >12 MPa @ 180 days
Table 1. Summary of materials and RCC properties

During aggregate processing 20 to 25% of the raw materials were rejected by means
of a thorough washing: pre-washing at the point of extraction, scrubbers, spray bars
over deck screens, screw classifier with water and post-washing on the truck before
dumping on the stockpiles. The resulting aggregates were of great variability and poor
quality. Therefore a significant margin was defined between the average and
characteristic compressive strength of the RCC mix. The crushing process on a
limited installation (operated in extremely low technical conditions) of a poor quality
raw material has been the critical activity during construction.

During laboratory tests several sets of mixes with similar workability were tested.
After optimisation of the aggregate processing and gradation, proportions of cement
and natural pozzolan were achieved in the final mixture just within the limits of an
accepted mix in terms of economy within the Contract specifications (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Average cylinder compressive strength of the RCC mixes at 180 days

Once the mix had been selected, a full-scale trial commenced. The objective of this
trial was both to analyse the RCC properties (mainly at horizontal joints) and the
training and selection of personnel and equipment simultaneously. Those objectives
were successfully achieved. The full-scale trial was an optimum opportunity to
introduce the RCC in Bolivia for the first time, and by the time work on the main dam
had started, all major concerns regarding placement and mix performance had been
solved.

The full-scale trial could be cored and tested at the design age (180 days). Different
exposure time between layers and joints treatment could be investigated. More than
93% of the joints were classified as well-bonded. Some results are included in Table 2
and further details may be found in reference[1].

Permeability (in situ test) Matrix 5 x 10-11 m/sec

Horizontal joint 1 x 10-10 m/sec
Compressive strength of RCC Specimens 16,0 MPa
Cores 13,3 MPa
Tensile strength of RCC Indirect, specimen 1,7 MPa
Indirect, core (joints) 2,1 MPa (1,0 MPa)
Direct, specimen 1,4 MPa
Direct, core (joints) 0,6 MPa (0,1 to 0,5 MPa)
Shear strength at joints Angle of friction 41º to 44º
Cohesion (Figure 3) 1,0 to 2,5 MPa
Table 2. Test results of the full-scale trial @ 180 days
Figure 3. Relationship found between exposure time and cohesion at horizontal joints

3.4. Power Supply

An important factor to be considered in rural areas of developing countries is the

availability of sufficient electric power. Power systems in rural areas are sometimes
still fairly non-existent.

Such is the case in Comarapa. Basic power consumption is about 600 kW, peak hour
consumption (18:00 - 21:00) is approximately 1.300 kW. The network's peak
production is about 2.200 kW, so the power available for the construction site is
limited during peak local consumption to 900 kW, whereas 1.500 kW are necessary.
The Electricity company limited the construction site by indicating a pause of the
crushing units during peak residential consumption in the evening.

All alternative solutions such as independent additional generators etc. proved to be

unfeasible due to the costs and availability of the equipment.

3.5. Concrete production and transportation system

Two identical concrete plants have been installed on a platform on the right abutment
upstream and near to the top of the dam. The total output of both plants is 2 x
60 m3/hour. Forced-action horizontal twin-shaft batch mixers have been selected. An
excellent uniformity in quality and production has been achieved.

For the transportation of the concrete to the point of placement, two stages have been
applied (see Figure 4). During a short initial stage a direct transportation with dump
trucks from the concrete plant to the point of placement was used. For the rest of the
dam a double circuit of trucks (one external and one in the dam) was implemented. At
this stage the transfer between both circuits was made by means of a half-round steel
chute covered with a flexible rubber band. This chute system was placed on the right
abutment at a 45º inclination. A similar system was used first in China[2] and was
successfully experienced in La Cañada in terms of both the quality of the mix and the
production: No segregation was observed for the 15 seconds-VeBe time workable
RCC mix and an output of ca. 120 m3/hour was achieved with one chute. The required
maintenance of the system did not recommend any additional chute for this Project.
However to meet the short construction programme (see section 3.2) a second stand-
by chute would have been necessary.

Figure 4. Transportation systems for RCC

Figure 5. La Cañada RCC dam under construction

3.6. RCC placement

The RCC has been spread with D4 and D5 type dozers and compacted with large 10-
ton single drum vibratory rollers and small 2,7 ton double drum vibratory rollers. No
other treatment apart from continuous water curing has been applied to the RCC
horizontal surfaces younger than 30 hours. For older joints, a conventional exposed
aggregate finish by means of high-pressure water jet has been applied. The use of
mortar as a bedding mix in some cold joints was directed as an additional factor of
safety.

The main concept of the design of the RCC structure was simplicity. This was most
beneficial in La Cañada as it was the first RCC experience in the country. All intakes,
adits, and outlets had been taken to the abutments, and a simple all-RCC dam design
was successfully achieved. In the full-scale trial the GEVR (grout-enriched vibratable
RCC) was tested and accepted as the perfect complement to a rich RCC mix to be
used as interface concrete against the rock abutment and against the forms (see Figure
6). At the same time this was the simplest way to obtain an excellent finish for the
dam facings without producing and transporting a different concrete to the dam than
the RCC. The use of just one type of concrete for the dam made the whole procedure
more simple and easy to learn for the non-experienced teams.

Figure 6. GEVR typical Figure 7. Formation of Figure 8. Formation of

finish in La Cañada transverse joints drainage system

Both faces of the dam have been formed. The Contractors have manufactured
themselves the formwork for the dam facings and its design was based on the
continuity of RCC. Several 2-lifts high panels conform the module. The lower
element is raised as the rest are fixed by anchor systems to the concrete. The much
lower labour costs at the job site when compared with other sites have made this
activity extraordinarily cheap (less than half the cost of previous experiences in
Europe[3]).

The transverse joints have been formed by insertion of small steel plates on the fresh,
fully compacted RCC using an insertion plate mounted on a hand set, pneumatic
hammer (see Figure 7). Again the low cost of labour force has made this procedure
extremely cheap.
Another peculiarity has been the formation of the drainage system in the dam. A
holed PVC pipe enclosed in fine gravel has been placed manually in a formed
cylinder in the fresh RCC after compaction was finished (Figure 8). This may avoid
additional costs for further drilling.

A rather strict quality control programme has been established during dam
construction. The combination of the high variability found in the quality of the
aggregates and the rest of conditions discussed above had recommended such control
beyond the standard procedures in Bolivia. The parameters are within the expected
limits: coefficients of variation between 12 and 18% are obtained, and that is self-
explanatory of a relatively great success at La Cañada (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Some historical data of quality control during dam construction

4. ADDITIONAL EXPERIENCE

4.1. Liquidity of the Contractor

The present Bolivian regulations for disbursement are highly restrictive and involve a
number of authorities in order to reduce corruption. However, the fulfilment of these
obligations takes up important time. This proved to be a major difficulty for the
Contractor. It has to be considered that an underestimate of the necessary pre-
financing led to a serious situation of insolvency for some time.

Only the fortified efforts of all parties resolved the problem that had arisen. The lack
of liquidity led in some moments to almost a complete stop of construction activities
due to strikes and lack of basic materials (fuel, steel etc.). In order to prevent these
problems it is recommendable to leave some flexibility and establish mechanism for
recognising some costs before RCC placement start (for example stockpile of
aggregates, site installations,…).

4.2 Thermal analysis

The mix to be used in the dam body was defined during the trial mix programme.
However, the materials and proportions were different from those investigated in the
final design stage. In the final design, a maximum placing temperature of 26,5 deg C
had been specified and maximum joints spacing of 17 m. Therefore the unit price did
not consider any pre-cooling systems for the RCC mix.

However during the construction stage a decision was taken to investigate, in more
detail, the characteristics of the materials that were actually used. A thermal study
including heat of hydration and adiabatic temperature rise has been executed.
Measured values showed an adiabatic temperature rise of 21,7 deg C, which is
something common for this content of cementitious materials. A new thermal-stress
analysis defined a new joint spacing of about 10 m for the same placing conditions.
This was assumed as the additional cost of transverse joints could be assumed while
the implementation of cooling systems to reduce the specified placing temperature
would not have been feasible in terms of economy and logistics.

Measurement of thermocouples installed in 3 layers is shown in Figure 10, and

confirm the laboratory records. The untypical form of curve in first level is due to a
stop of placement just after installing the thermocouples.
45,0
No placement Average placement of 1 layer/24 hours No placement 1 layer / 24h

40,0
Temperature [deg C]

35,0

30,0

25,0

1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level

20,0
6/9/01 26/9/01 16/10/01 5/11/01 25/11/01 15/12/01 4/1/02 24/1/02
Date

Figure 10: Development of temperature monitored in 3 different layers of the dam

5. CONCLUSIONS

Various aspects of technical and economical problems that occurred during the
construction of ‘La Cañada Dam’ within the framework of Comarapa Irrigation
Project have been described and some applied solutions have been explained.
Recommendations have been given to prevent these and other difficulties arising in
the future due to the nature of the type of Project in remote areas.

It is obvious that these are partly regional experiences, however most of them apply to
similar conditions in other developing countries.

In terms of total Project costs it has been proved that the implemented methodology of
relatively small local Contractors combined with experienced engineering support can
achieve an attractive result for the Project owners. The RCC technique, whose
popularity is due to its simplicity, high speed of construction and economy, is suitable
for such an adaptation, as even small Contractors are familiar with some of the
implemented equipment.

Consultants, Designers and Contractors do have to adapt RCC technology to local

conditions. This is even more important in developing countries, where other
restrictions, in addition to the more commonly known restrictions apply. A successful
implementation of RCC technology under these conditions depends highly on
simplicity of the design.

REFERENCES

1. Ortega, F. and Somdalen, B. (2000). ‘Financing, design & construction techniques

for the first RCC dam in Bolivia’ Proceedings of the International Workshop on
Modern Techniques for Dams-Financing, Construction, Operation, Risk
Assesment, ICOLD 69th Annual Meeting, Dresden, Germany, (2) 296-312.
2. Shen, D., Mao, M. and Xiao, L. (1999). ‘Characteristics of concrete deep-trench
belt conveyor and negative-pressure chuting system and its application in Jiangya
RCC dam’ Proceedings of the International Symposium on Roller Compacted
Concrete Dams, Chengdu, China, (2) 663-673.
3. Martín, J., Marsellá, J.A., and Ortega, F. (1995). ‘Use of RCC for Cenza dam
construction’ Proceedings of the International Symposium on Roller Compacted
Concrete Dams, Santander, Spain, (2) 951-967.

AUTHORS

1. Francisco Ortega S.
Member of the Spanish Committee on Large Dams (SPANCOLD)
Consultant & RCC expert
FOSCE, Glinde 1c, 23843 Bad Oldesloe, Germany
Tel.: +49 4531 670115, Fax: +49 4531 670116, E-mail: fosce@online.de

2. Christian Gross
Department of Hydraulic Structures
CES Consulting Engineers Salzgitter GmbH
Nord-Süd-Straße 1, 38259 Salzgitter (Bad), Germany
Tel.: +49 5341 823-0, Fax: +49 5341 823-199, E-mail: grs@ces.de