Andrzej Litewka

Load-induced oriented damage and anisotropy
of rock-like materials
Andrzej Litewka
a,
*, Janusz Debinski
b,1
a
Departamento da Engenharia Civil, Universidade da Beira Interior,
Calc ada Fonte do Lameiro, 6200-358 Covilha, Portugal
b
Institute of Structural Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, ul. Piotrowo 5, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
Received in revised form 6 April 2003
Abstract
Theoretical model for deformability of brittle rock-like materials in the presence of an
oriented damage of their internal structure is formulated and veried experimentally. This
model is based on the assumption that non-linearity of the stressstrain curves of these mate-
rials is a result of irreversible process of oriented damage growth. It was also assumed that a
material response, represented by the strain tensor, is a function of two tensorial variables: the
stress tensor and the damage eect tensor that is responsible for the current state of the internal
structure of the material. The explicit form of the respective non-linear stressstrain relations
that account for the appropriate damage evolution equation was obtained by employing the
theory of tensor function representations and by using the results of own experiments on
damage growth. Such an oriented damage that grows in the material, described by the second
order symmetric damage eect tensor, results in gradual development of the material aniso-
tropy. The validity of the constitutive equations proposed was veried by using the available
experimental results for concrete subjected to the plane state of stress. The relevant experi-
mental data for sandstone and concrete subjected to tri-axial state of stress were also used.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Anisotropic damage; Brittle solids; Deformation-Induced anisotropy; Constitutive behaviour
1. Introduction
Increasing requirements of safety and reliability imposed on engineering
structures give rise to deeper studies of mechanical properties of materials and
International Journal of Plasticity 19 (2003) 21712191
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijplas
0749-6419/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0749-6419(03)00064-0
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +351-275-329704; fax: +351-275-319888.
E-mail addresses: lit@ubista.ubi.pt (A. Litewka); janusz.debinski@put.poznan.pl (J. Debinski).
1
Visiting Professor from Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology, ul. Strusia 12,
60-711 Poznan, Poland.
also to formulation of more precise theoretical models capable to describe pro-
cesses observed in materials subjected to complex loading. Existing theoretical
models developed to describe mechanical behaviour of brittle materials like nat-
ural rocks have been mainly based on semi-empirical description of available
experimental results. More consistent mathematical models formulated for con-
crete by Chen (1982) and Geniev et al. (1974) postulated plasticity of this
material. Such a description of mechanical response of material was sucient to
explain its non-linear behaviour but was insucient to account for simultaneous
variation of its internal structure. Such phenomenon of internal damage growth
was studied experimentally (Mitrofanov and Dovzenko, 1991, Bogucka et al.,
1998; Litewka et al., 1999) and theoretically (Horii and Nemat-Nasser, 1983;
Karpenko, 1987; Baikov, 1990; Basista, 2001). It was shown there that defor-
mation of brittle rock-like materials and cementitious composites is accompanied
by development of oriented cracks and that an amount of this internal damage
and also privileged directions of the crack arrangement are closely connected
with the magnitude and directions of the principal stresses applied. That is why,
more eective ways to formulate the constitutive equations for concrete and also
for rocks seems to be that based on the methods of the damage mechanics which were
successfully used by Hayhurst (1983), Lemaitre (1984), Murakami (1987) and Kraj-
cinovic (1995). Recently the damage mechanics is widely used in formulation of
numerical and theoretical models that describe the behaviour of various materials
(Brunig, 2002; Chiarelli et al., 2003; Gupta and Bergstrom, 2002; Mahnken, 2002;
Stumpf and Saczuk, 2001; Taylor et al., 2002). Possible application of continuum
damage mechanics in a theoretical description of the mechanical behaviour of rock-
like materials was anticipated in some earlier papers by Eimer (1971) and Dragon
(1976) and was also discussed more recently by Chaboche et al. (1995). Further
development of this approach due to Halm and Dragon (1996, 1998), Litewka et al.
(1996) and Murakami and Kamiya (1997) resulted in formulation of the phenomen-
ological models that could be used in some practical applications. Interesting gen-
eralisations of theoretical models for multi-axial state of stress presented by Halm and
Dragon (1996, 1998) and Murakami and Kamiya (1997) cannot be considered as a
nal solution of the problem. To obtain realistic theoretical description of overall
material response accounting for oriented damage growth and development of
damage induced anisotropy the extensive experimental studies are needed. Some
other theoretical models were formulated on the basis of micromechanics (Krajci-
novic et al., 1991; Ju, 1991; Basista, 2001). However, these micromechanically
inspired phenomenological models in their actual form were veried only for some
specic cases of loading. Potentialities of micromechanics in formulation of theore-
tical models of material behaviour are also shown in some recent papers by Bruzzi et
al. (2001), Chaboche et al. (2001) and Paquin et al. (2001).
The authors of this note presented in their earlier paper the constitutive equations
for concrete subjected to bi-axial state of stress (Litewka and Debinski, 1997). That
mathematical model was formulated by employing the methods of continuum
damage mechanics and also those of the theory of tensor function representations
(Spencer, 1971; Boehler, 1987; Betten, 1998). The aim of this paper is to present
2172 A. Litewka, J. Debinski / International Journal of Plasticity 19 (2003) 21712191
more general theoretical model capable to describe mechanical behaviour of initially
isotropic brittle rock-like materials subjected to tri-axial state of stress. The physical
background for this theoretical description was supplied by own experimental studies
of oriented damage growth performed for concrete (Bogucka et al., 1998; Litewka et
al., 1999). More recent experimental data on this subject are presented in Appendix A.
Validity of constitutive equations proposed was veried by using the available
experimental data for concrete and sandstone subjected to multi-axial state of stress.
2. Theoretical model
It is known from theoretical and experimental studies by Chen (1982), Horii and
Nemat-Nasser (1983), Mitrofanov and Dovzenko (1991) and Bogucka et al. (1998)
that load applied to brittle rock-like materials results in the development of oriented
microcracks perpendicular to the direction of maximum principal stress. It means
that an originally isotropic material becomes orthotropic one with principal axes of
orthotropy coinciding with the directions of the principal stresses. According to the
rules of the continuum damage mechanics the current state of the deteriorated
material structure can be described by certain independent variable or group of
variables (Onat and Leckie, 1988) responsible for the current state of the material
structure. Mathematical model for deformability of brittle rock-like materials pro-
posed in this paper is based on the assumption of tensorial nature of the material
damage (Leckie and Onat, 1981). That is why the symmetric second rank damage
tensor dened by Murakami and Ohno (1981) and Betten (1983) was used as a vari-
able responsible for deterioration of the material internal structure. Explicit form of
the relevant constitutive equations was found by employing the methods of the theory
of tensor function representations as applied to solid mechanics by Rivlin and Ericsen
(1955), Boehler (1987) and Betten (1998). Preliminary results of possible application
of the above theories to describe a non-linear behaviour of a concrete subjected to
uni-axial state of stress, including the experimental verication, was explained else-
where (Litewka et al., 1996). The generalisation of those constitutive equations to be
presented here consists of the stress strain relations for anisotropic elastic solids
"
ij
A
ijkl
kl
1
where "
ij
is the strain tensor and
kl
is the stress tensor. The fourth order tensor A
ijkl
that appears in Eq. (1) is a function of the damage eect tensor D
ij
(Litewka, 1985,
1989) and denes the material constants of an orthotropically damaged solid. It was
shown earlier (Litewka et al., 1996) that instead of the most general representation
of such a tensor function presented Rivlin and Ericsen (1955) the following line-
arised form seems to be sucient
A
ijkl

0
E
0
ij
kl

1
0
2E
0
ik
jl

il
jk
_ _
C
ij
D
kl
D
ij
kl
_ _
D
ik
D
jl

jl
D
ik

il
D
jk

jk
D
il
_ _
: 2
A. Litewka, J. Debinski / International Journal of Plasticity 19 (2003) 21712191 2173
The above equation contains the Kronecker delta
ij
, the Young modulus E
0
and
Poisson ratio
0
for an originally undamaged material, two constants C and D to be
determined experimentally and the second order symmetric damage eect tensor D
ij
responsible for the current state of internal structure of the material. Substituting
Eq. (2) to the stressstrain relation (1) the following tensor function was obtained
"
ij

0
E
0
ij
kk

1
0
E
0
ij
C
ij
D
kl
kl
D
ij
kk
_ _
2D
ik
D
kj
D
ik
kj
_ _
3
which describes the anisotropic elastic response of the damaged material.
Deterioration of the material structure due to applied load can be described by the
damage evolution equation expressed in the form of the tensor function
O
ij
f
1
ij
f
2
ij
f
3
ik
kj
; 4
where O
ij
is a classical second order damage tensor formulated by Vakulenko and
Kachanov (1971), Murakami and Ohno (1981) and Betten (1983) which is dened as
a generalisation of the scalar damage parameter (Kachanov, 1958). The own
experiments of the authors (Bogucka et al., 1998; Litewka et al., 1999) show that the
process of the damage growth starts at the very beginning of the loading. That is
why it seems to be reasonable to look for the damage evolution equation in this
specic class of tensor function representation expressed by Eq. (4) where damage
tensor depends directly on the stresses applied. Eq. (4) contains three multipliers f
1
,
f
2
and f
3
that are scalar-valued functions of the stress tensor invariants. To deter-
mine the explicit form of these multipliers, what is necessary to describe the beha-
viour of the material subjected to tri-axial state of stress, the analysis of
mathematical properties of the Eq. (4) was performed. Preliminary experimental
verication of possible shapes of this equation, by employing the available experi-
mental results for uni-axial and bi-axial compression for several types of concrete,
was also done (Litewka et al., 1996, 1999, Litewka and Debinski, 1997). It was
found that those results needed some generalisation in the case of the tri-axial state
of stress, and it was nally found that the respective scalar functions contained in
Eq. (4) should have the following form
f
1
As
kl
s
kl
1 Hdet
pq
_ _
F
f
2
B

kl
kl
p
1 Hdet
pq
_ _
F
f
3
0; 5
where s
kl
is the stress deviator and A, B, F are unknown material parameters to be
determined experimentally. The multiplier H is a certain function of the actual state
of stress and determination of its specic form requires the separate analysis pre-
sented at the end of this chapter. Taking into account the relations expressed in Eqs.
(5) the damage evolution Eq. (4) can be written in the following form
O
ij
As
kl
s
kl
1 Hdet
pq
_ _
F
ij
B

kl
kl
p
1 Hdet
pq
_ _
F
ij
: 6
The rst term of Eq. (6) represents the isotropic damage and the second one
accounts for the oriented damage due to dierent eects of the stress tensor
components. For example, compressive principal components of the stress tensor
reduce amount of the damage on the respective planes, whereas the tensile normal
stresses increase corresponding components of the damage tensor.
The damage tensor O
ij
, whose components are ranging from zero for the material
in its original undamaged state to unity in the case of a fully damaged solid that
looses its continuity, is very useful to describe the continuity of the material only. As
was shown earlier by Murakami and Ohno (1981) and Litewka (1985, 1989) such a
damage tensor is not sucient to describe the strength and stiness reduction of the
damaged material, and that is why it was necessary to dene a new second order
damage eect tensor D
ij
. The relation
D
i

O
i
1 O
i
; i 1; 2; 3 7
between the principal values O
1
, O
2
and O
3
of the damage tensor O
ij
and the principal
components D
1
, D
2
and D
3
of the damage eect tensor D
ij
contained in Eqs. (2) and
(3) was formulated by Litewka (1985). The principal components of the damage eect
tensor calculated from Eq. (7) are ranging from zero for an undamaged material to
innity for a fully damaged material, which means that increasing damage expressed
in terms of the damage eect tensor gradually reduces the stiness of the material to
zero. Taking into account Eqs. (6) and (7) the stressstrain relations described by Eq.
(1) or (3) become non-linear functions of the stress tensor components only. These
equations reduce to well known stressstrain relations for an isotropic elastic solid in
the case of undamaged material, where O
ij
=0 and D
ij
=0.
According to the theoretical model proposed, the non-linearity of the respective
stressstrain curves is considered as a result of irreversible processes of oriented
material damage growth, discussed in Appendix A, that eventually leads to material
failure. In such a situation the limit of validity of the model proposed is determined
by the limit of applicability of continuum damage mechanics. Thus, the stressstrain
relations proposed here can be used to describe mechanical behaviour of brittle
rock-like materials for loads increasing from zero up to the maximum value that
corresponds to the strength of the material for a given state of stress. It means that
the theoretical model proposed describes the main part of the stressstrain curves,
whereas the post-failure material behaviour associated usually with softening of the
solid is excluded from the analysis presented here. In the specic case of uni-axial
compression the limit of applicability of continuum damage mechanics is deter-
mined by the compressive strength of the material f
c
and that is why the stressstrain
relations presented here cease to be valid, if the compressive stress reaches this value.
Relevant experiments show that continuity of the material subjected to axial com-
pressive load is lost when the compressive strength of the material f
c
is achieved and
then the specimen tested breaks into irregular particles of dierent size. The current
state of such a broken material cannot be described by using the methods of con-
tinuum damage mechanics and a more appropriate formulation would be one
developed for granular media. The problem of limitation of applicability of the
damage mechanics to the peak stress was studied by Basista (2001) by using the
methods of micromechanics.
Eqs. (2), (3) and (6) contain ve constants A, B, C, D and F to be determined
experimentally. The various methods used to identify four of these constants that
appear in the case of bi-axial state of stress, namely A, B, C and D, were presented
by the authors in their earlier papers (Litewka et al., 1996, 1999; Bogucka et al.,
1998). Those methods are based on relevant experimental data for uni-axial or bi-
axial compression of concrete and the nal form of the equations used to calculate
these constants and other details related to the numerical procedure can be found
elsewhere (Litewka et al., 1999). The specic method of identication of the con-
stants A, B, C and D adopted in this paper is presented in Appendix B.
Here the attention in focused mainly on fth constant F and on function H that
appear only for three-dimensional states of stress. The constant F can be calculated
directly by using the experimental results for tri-axial state of stress, but the form of
the function H could be determined from the analysis of the specic case of hydro-
static pressure expressed by the stress tensor
ij
p
ij
; 8
where p=p
h
is the value of hydrostatic pressure. According to the experimental
results obtained for concrete and for some rocks subjected to hydrostatic pressure
(Chen, 1982; Carvalho et al., 1997) the relation between applied pressure and rele-
vant deformation is linear. It means that in this specic case of loading the damage
tensor components calculated from Eq. (6) should be equal to zero. Substituting (8)
to (6) and taking into account that O
ij
=0 one can obtain the relation
H
1
p
3
h
extr
j j
3
9
where
extr
is an extreme value of the principal stresses applied. For H determined by
Eq. (9) no damage growth occurs in the case of hydrostatic compression. On the other
hand, it can be shown that for tri-axial uniform tension considerable amount of iso-
tropic material damage is obtained from the damage evolution Eq. (6) for relatively
small stress applied. This high rate of damage growth results in much lower tensile
strength of brittle materials compared to that observed for compression.
The equations presented in this paper were formulated in such a form that is
necessary to describe the available experimental data for brittle rock-like materials.
Analysis of the experimental results presented by Kupfer (1973), Ehm and Schneider
(1985), Thienel et al. (1991), Ligeza (1999), Rummel (1972), Green and Swanson
(1973) and Yazdani and Karnavat (1996) show that only monotonic loading is
analysed there. That is why the explicit form of the equations shown here corre-
sponds to this case of loading. All the generalizations of these equations for
unloading, cycling loading and non-proportional loading are possible but are lim-
ited by the shortage of relevant experimental data necessary to explain the nature of
the specic physical problems. Some recent experimental data on oriented damage
growth obtained by the authors for loading, unloading and subsequent loading for
uni-axial compression are discussed in Appendix A. Possible generalization of the
conclusions presented there for cycling loading under multi-axial state of stress
requires further experimental studies.
3. Bi-axial state of stress
Available experimental data on mechanical behaviour of brittle rock-like mate-
rials concern mainly to concrete subjected to the plane state of stress (Kupfer,
1973; Ehm and Schneider, 1985; Thienel et al., 1991; Ligeza, 1999). Preliminary
experimental verication of the theoretical model, performed by the authors of this
note in their earlier paper (Litewka and Debinski, 1997), was based on some
experimental data presented by Thienel et al. (1991). More complete experimental
verication showed here was done by using the respective data collected by Kupfer
(1973). The theoretical predictions presented in this paper are based on the stress
strain relation for damaged solid (3) specied for the plane state of stress dened
by the principal stresses
1
=0 and
2
>
3
6 0. Substituting these stress tensor
components to Eq. (3) and taking into account (6) and (7) the following relations
were obtained
"
1

0
E
0
k 1
3
C
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
k
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
_
_
_
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

2
3
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
k 1
3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
_
_
10
"
2

k
0
E
0
3
C 2k 1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
_
_
_
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

2
3
_
4D
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
k
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
11
"
3

1
0
k
E
0
3
C
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
k
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
_
_
_
k 2
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

2
3
_
4D
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
3
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_

3
3
1
2
3
A k
2
k 1
_ _
2
3
sign
3
B
k
2
1
_
k
2
3
12
where k
2
=
3
.
Comparison of the experimentally determined stressstrain curves for three types
of concrete tested by Kupfer (1973) with the relevant theoretical results obtained
from Eqs. (10)(12) is shown in Figs. 13. Theoretical predictions presented here
were based on the numerical calculations performed for constants shown in Table 1.
Satisfactory agreement of the experimental and theoretical curves seen in Figs. 13
corroborate the validity of the theoretical model proposed. It should be noted that
material was calibrated by employing two experimental points taken from each of
two stressstrain curves determined experimentally for uni-axial compression as was
shown in Appendix B. The other theoretical curves for bi-axial state of stress were
obtained directly from Eqs. (10)(12) and no additional experimental data were
necessary.
4. Tri-axial state of stress
Technical problems faced when testing brittle rock-like materials under tri-axial
state of stress resulted in rather limited amount of the respective experimental data
Table 1
Experimental data and constants used in analysis of bi-axial state of stress of concrete tested experimen-
tally by Kupfer (1973)
Constant Unit Concrete 1 Concrete 2 Concrete 3
E
0
MPa 29 500 33 000 40 000
0
0.19 0.195 0.24
f
c
MPa 19.1 32.4 61.9
A MPa
2
242.710
5
91.3410
5
26.1010
5
B MPa
2
11.7510
5
4.59010
5
2.57510
5
C MPa
1
0.744910
5
0.391910
5
0.111410
5
D MPa
1
1.60910
5
0.747810
5
0.206910
5
Fig. 1. Stressstrain curves for Concrete 1 subjected to bi-axial compression: (a) k
2
=
3
0,
(b) k=0.227, (c) k=0.525, (d) k =1.0, (e) k=0.051, (f) k=0.070. Fine lineexperiments by Kupfer
(1973), thick linetheory.
2
=
3
0,
(b) k=0.226, (c) k=0.525, (d) k=1.0, (e) k=0.052, (f) k=0.070. Fine line experiments by Kupfer
2
=
3
0,
(b) k=0.208, (c) k=0.513, (d) k=1.0, (e) k=0.052, (f) k=0.070. Fine lineexperiments by Kupfer
on the mechanical behaviour of rocks and concrete. Some experimental results
obtained for rocks subjected to simultaneous action of axial compressive load
represented by compressive stress
33
and hydrostatic pressure p=p
h
, referred to
as a conning pressure, can be found in monographs on rock mechanics by Cris-
tescu and Hunsche (1998), Derski et al. (1989) and Goodman (1989). These data and
similar results available for concrete (Chen, 1982; Neville, 1995) make it possible to
conclude that hydrostatic pressure increases the axial load that can be sustained.
That is why with high lateral compressive stress, extremely high strengths of rock-
like materials have been recorded (Neville, 1995). Moreover, in the limit case of
hydrostatic pressure, practically linear mechanical response of a material, described
by the law of elastic change of volume, is obtained (Carvalho et al., 1997). It means
that conning pressure reduces the amount of the internal damage accumulated in
the material in the loading process and for hydrostatic pressure practically no
damage growth is observed.
To present the potentialities of the theoretical model proposed, the stressstrain
relation (3) and the damage evolution Eq. (6) were expressed in terms of the com-
ponents of the following stress tensor
ij

1
p 0 0
0
2
p 0
0 0
3

33
p
_
_
_
_
13
which corresponds to axial compression combined with conning pressure. Sub-
stituting the components of the stress tensor (13) to the damage evolution Eq. (6)
and taking into account (9) the following principal components of the damage ten-
sor were obtained
O
1
O
2

2
3
A
2
33
Bp
2
33
2
33
p 3p
2
_
_ _
1

33
p p
2
33
3p
3
_ _
F
14
O
3

2
3
A
2
33
B
33
p
2
33
2
33
p 3p
2
_
_ _
1

33
p p
2
33
3p
3
_ _
F
; 15
where F is a constant to be determined experimentally. The stressstrain relation (3)
specied for the stress tensor (13) makes it possible to determine the following
principal values of the strain tensor
"
1
"
2

0
E
0
33

1 2
0
E
0
p C D
1
D
3

33
p 5D
1
D
3
4DpD
1
16
"
3

33
E
0
1 2
0
E
0
p C 2D
3
33
p 2D
1
4D
3
4D
33
p D
3
: 17
The principal components of the damage eect tensor D
1
=D
2
and D
3
included in
Eqs. (16) and (17) are dened by relation (7).
The validity of Eqs. (14)(17) was veried experimentally by employing the stress
strain curves obtained for Ruhr-sandstone by Rummel (1972) and also those
obtained for concrete by Green and Swanson (1973) and cited by Yazdani and
Karnavat (1996). Comparison of these experimental results with theoretical predic-
tions obtained from Eqs. (14)(17) is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 where
"
11
"
22
"
1

1 2
0
E
0
p
"
33
"
3

1 2
0
E
0
p:
The theoretical curves shown there were constructed by using the numerical data
presented in Table 2 where four constants A, B, C and D were calculated from the
stressstrain curves for uni-axial compression (Appendix B). The constant F that
appears in Eqs. (14) and (15) was also determined experimentally and to do this, one
point taken from one stressstrain curve for tri-axial compression is sucient.
However, because of complicated algebraic form of the equations involved the only
eective way to determine the numerical values of the constant F shown in Table 2
seems to be a method of trial and error.
Fig. 4. Stressstrain curves for concrete subjected to tri-axial compression.
Fig. 5. Stressstrain curves for Ruhr-sandstone subjected to tri-axial compression: (a) conning pressure
p=0, 20 and 50 MPa, (b) conning pressure p=10, 30 and 80 MPa.
Table 2
Experimental data and constants used in analysis of tri-axial state of stress of concrete and sandstone
Constant Unit Sandstone
(Rummel, 1972)
Concrete
(Green and Swanson, 1973)
E
0
MPa 38 500 37 000
0
0.08 0.2
f
c
MPa 123 48.0
A MPa
2
7.90310
5
48.2310
5
B MPa
2
0.0747710
5
0.499010
5
C MPa
1
0.133210
5
0.503110
5
D MPa
1
0.138910
5
0.780010
5
F 100.0 40.0
The agreement of experimental data with the theoretical predictions seen in Figs. 4
and 5 is less satisfactory than that obtained for bi-axial loading. However, such
bigger dierence could be acceptable taking into account much larger scatter of
experimental results for concrete and rocks tested under tri-axial state of stress.
5. Conclusions
Application of methods of continuum damage mechanics combined with the the-
ory of tensor function representations made it possible to formulate theoretical
model capable to describe mechanical behaviour of initially isotropic brittle rock-
like materials. Experimental verication of the theoretical model proposed was
obtained by employing available experimental data for sandstone and for various
types of concrete subjected to multi-axial state of stress. It was found that theore-
tical stressstrain curves for bi-axial and tri-axial loading obtained from the relevant
equations presented in this paper show satisfactory agreement with experimental
data.
Increasing compressive strength of brittle rock-like materials detected experimen-
tally for specimens subjected to conning pressure can also be explained theoreti-
cally within the mathematical model proposed. It means that the available
experimental data corroborate the validity of the assumption that non-linear
mechanical response of rock-like materials is a result of overall stiness reduction
due to oriented damage growth. This irreversible process associated with develop-
ment of material anisotropy and decrease of respective material constants can be
considered as a macroscopic eect of deterioration of the material structure due to
load applied.
The theory presented in this paper was formulated in such a form that is necessary
to describe the available experimental data for brittle rock-like materials. That is
why the explicit form of the equations shown here corresponds to monotonic tri-
axial loading. Possible generalizations of these equations for unloading, cycling
loading and non-proportional loading are possible but are limited by the shortage of
relevant experimental data necessary to explain the nature of the specic physical
processes of damage growth and to perform the realistic experimental verication.
Acknowledgements
This work was done within the F.C.T. Programme Fin. Plurianual-C.E.C.
U.B.I. and P.U.T. Programme 11-1654/BW-2002.
Appendix A. Experiments on damage growth for cycling loading
The authors of this note performed the experiments to study the damage growth
for ordinary concrete C20 subjected to monotonic loading (four specimens) and also
for loading, unloading and subsequent loading up to failure (15 specimens). The
cycle 1 consisted of the compressive load in the direction of the x
3
axis above the
point of initial cracking of the concrete, and of unloading. Seven specimens were
loaded in this cycle to the value equal to 0.56f
c
, whereas the other eight were loaded
up to 0.78f
c
. The mean stressstrain curves obtained for eight specimens of the sec-
ond group are shown in Fig. A1.
Cycle 1 of loading resulted in accumulation of oriented damage and in develop-
ment of material anisotropy, smaller for the specimens subjected to lower load and
more pronounced for those loaded to the level closer to the compressive strength f
c
.
To study the damage growth on planes parallel to the direction of compressive load
applied the velocity of ultrasonic pulses travelling in the transverse direction were
measured. The mean values obtained for eight specimens of the second group and
for four specimens subjected to monotonic loading are shown in Fig. A2. Small
parallel shifting of the experimental points for monotonic loading seen in Fig. A2
can be considered as normal eect of the scatter of experimental results obtained for
two groups of the specimens tested.
Decreasing velocity of ultrasonic pulses travelling in the transverse direction
observed in Fig. A2 for load applied in the longitudinal direction can be considered
as a macroscopic eect of the deterioration of the internal structure due to damage
accumulation. Preliminary study of this problem including the details of the experi-
mental procedure used was presented by Litewka et al. (1999).
The tests presented in this paper and also those described in earlier papers of the
authors (Bogucka et al., 1998; Litewka et al., 1999) permit to draw the following
conclusions:
1. The process of the damage growth is irreversible and practically no repair of
the material structure is observed when unloading occurs.
Fig. A1. Stressstrain curves for cycling loading of C20 concrete.
2. Subsequent loading in cycle 2 up the maximum load applied in previous cycle
of loading does not produce any new material damage.
3. Further loading above the maximum load applied in previous cycle of loading
up to material failure starts new active process of the damage growth that is
almost exactly the same as that detected in the case of monotonic loading.
The above conclusions could be used to formulate the possible generalisation of
the theory proposed for unloading and subsequent loading in the case of uni-axial
compression. Formulation of the respective constitutive equations valid for unload-
ing and subsequent loading and also for cycling and non-proportional loading for
multi-axial state of stress requires more information on material damage. The tests
presented in this paper and also those described in earlier papers of the authors
(Bogucka et al., 1998; Litewka et al., 1999) are not sucient in this matter. To
obtain consistent generalised theory more experimental data on oriented damage
growth for cycling and non-proportional loading are necessary.
Appendix B. Identication of constants A, B, C and D
The various methods that could be used to determine the constants A, B, C and D
were presented by Litewka et al. (1996), Litewka and Debinski (1997) and Bogucka
et al. (1998). The tests for uni-axial compression dened by the compressive stress
3
applied in the direction of the axis x
3
were used to identify these constants in the
case discussed in this paper. To this end Eq. (3) was specied for two values of the
compressive stress equal to
3
=mf
c
and nf
c
which correspond to four points on the
stressstrain curves as was shown in Fig. B1.
Fig. A2. Variation of the velocity of ultrasonic pulses travelling in transverse direction of axially
compressed C20 concrete.
Substituting in Eq. (3) the longitudinal strains "
3m
and "
3n
, that correspond to the
above mentioned stress levels, the following two equations were obtained
2
3
A B
1 C
mn
nf
c

2
C
mn
mf
c

2
B1
C 2D "
3n

nf
c
E
0
_ _
3 2A 3B nf
c

2
2 2A 3B nf
c

3
; B2
where
C
mn

n
m
_ _
3
E
0
"
3m
mf
c
E
0
"
3n
nf
c
:
The next relation necessary to determine the unknown constant
C "
1m

0
E
0
mf
c
_ _
2A mf
c

3
3 2A mf
c

2

2A mf
c

3
3B mf
c

3
3 2A mf
c

2
3B mf
c

2
_ _
B3
is obtained from Eq. (3) expressed for
3
=mf
c
and respective value of the transverse
strain "
1m
. The last relation
R
n
mf
c

2
D
mn
R
m
nf
c

2
_ _
2
3
A
_ _
2
N
H
mf
c

2
R
n
D
mn
M
H
nf
c

2
D
mn
R
m
_ _
2
3
A
_ _
N
h
D
mn
M
H
0 B4
was obtained from the Eq. (3) expressed for
3
=nf
c
and corresponding value of
strain "
1n
. To simplify the form of Eq. (B4) the following notation was used
Fig. B1. Experimental points used to identify the constants A, B, C and D.
M
H

2
3
A B
_ _
mf
c

3
1
2
3
A B
_ _
mf
c

2
N
H

H nf
c

3
1 H nf
c

2
D
mn

"
1n

0
E
0
nf
c
"
1m

0
E
0
mf
c
R
n
nf
c

3
N
H
nf
c

2
:
R
m
mf
c

3
M
H
mf
c

2
:
The set of four Eqs. (B1)(B4) was used to determine the constants A, B, C and D
shown in Tables 1 and 2.
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Load-induced oriented damage and anisotropy

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