i :;jf;!il ' : i .

'i ' DnlrC Letter

c[ q
q
g

I
\ CONTENTS

g
Page

....,. INTRODUCTION CHEHISTRY OF GASES -Organic and Inorganlc Table of the Periodib

3 4 4 ' 5 7

E q
g

ChenlstrY Elenents

Table

Hydrocarbons

1n General

Alkanes Alkenes AlkaIl.nes Alkynes.-i.. Bondlng Cycllc Bondlng Unsaturated

a
11 L4

e
q

-..;-

r5
L6 L7 1B 19 20 20 2L

Polyroer j-sation

di

( catalysts

)
---.'-

Seroxldes l h n i b i to rs
Stench agents Exercises -.'...
_ l

q
4. 6
' 6I :'#i ;:'' t
I

OF GASES P H Y S I C A LP R O P E R T I E 5 Heat, Capacit.Y Hlxlng of TeuPeraEures Aggregate conditions

Solids

.:... - - - . - ' 1-.

22 22 27 29
1r 1 J

!#l

:'

Liquids Va.pours ..:.. ..... Phase Changes -:.-. t{elting Evaporation .:..Condnsing Vapour and Unsaturated Saturated Boj-llng Distillation Gas Laws

32 32 : :7 3 37 41 42 46

{ -,i q G ! l

a-l -t F -ti

The General Gas Equation crltical Temperature and Pressure Dew Point lflxing of Liquids of Saturation ?ressure Calculation Enthalpy
of Gases.ln The Solubllity and Corroslon Reactlvlty Formation Hydrate Llquids

for Llquid uix.

3 : ; q 5l s2 53 s6 C -! Q I
g

'1Y

.: . :::.::: : : : : : :.:;: : . : :::::::::::: : : : ;l:i;:1

; : q Z i ' tt $ q
59 60 60 ; t! gi

z;*

: : ,:: :::::::: ::::::: i:::::: Hr.i;!'il;i:a;

Exercises ANST.IERS TO THE EXERCISES CORRESPONDENC EE XERCISES

il$
65 67 Ol

23 2 f, i$
7' 1 7
E 3

tf l 6 7 'II

f,

vl{

'

Letter

; ' . , :| . , : ' ,.1

In the

this

t*.-4dr Leern

lle

*ii-].

deal-

r.rit.h f ron

cire thls

cherqistry naEeria-L.

and It

physics w1lL

of help

gases.

ai-l- r-,^,t .->n

'

','.

You later.

on

1n the

course-

'i , . I ," i , ' :, : : , : i

t l

rt

is

advisable

to thls each the best

sketch

and lt

note

thi-ngs

r.rhich you easier to

feel

are a

i-mportai-rt-. tJith proDleg'. exercises ron'ic

v v H * v r F

trethad, toplc naterial to solve are you

j-s of ten wlll al-so

understand

After where

ln

thls fros

l-etter.flnd that previous you check the letter ' r

, . i: -,, :

is

collected problems at

Do your

these collected

before end of

sith :' ,.'.:'. ; i

the

answers.

which

the

The exercises

which

are

to

be sent

in,

are

to

be found

at

the

tr.arKr-ng. : ] ... : 1 ,
' I

, . , :, .,',,
.:,

tie wish things

you

continued you can

success contact

Lrith the

your

study'

If

you -

find

soBe

unclear

narking

teacher

' : '
a a a t a a a a a I I I I r a a a t.a ! M a I t r t a a I a z t a I a t t I a ! t

a a a a a t

r "

a !

!:

tl A:

A f

E*

(
(
( i
t

r
.

'

DnHG

Letter

+
\

4l I
{ { {

CHEI.IISTRY OF GASES

ORGAI{IC

AIID IilORGAilIC

CHEHISTRY

( {

InorEanlc carbon knosn

chenlstry Besidee

deals

ulth

all the

chenlstry elenents 1n the

except coneiet perlodlc of

that

for

the I {

atotraterlals.

carbon,

Loz other table (see

These

ar.e arranged

fLc. zr.
The per1odi.c ln the outer table shell is built on the the princiPle that proPertles the, el"ectrons of a

. t

I
{ ( {

deterrlne

chenl.cal

naterlal. prqtons. of electrons and neutrons ln the outer (fig' electron in 1)'

I
An atol conslsts of
(

and can have a naxlrun shell. There are Just elernint.

B electrons

a6 Eany protons the

as there

are electrons can vary'

I I
(

an atollc
.-e.. ' .

lteannhl.Ie,

nurnb'er of: neulrons

'\tt

ta
\ - - l

o
.'

i (3,) :[iil*
lte

o ilerrtron Fie. 1 Atonl.c nodel hellun of hYdrogen and

I
(. { I {

ll (liydrogenl

(Hellurl hos

In
)
a

the

perlodLq

table

the*elenents they

are

arranged

accordlng colullns I raln wlll

to 1n

I I
the

lany'protons the Perlodlc lesser of

and electrons table groups. are'called In the the

harre. .The vertical rhere the lts are

ErouPs' ualn

groups glve

and.$ nuaber

groups has ln

nunber outer

I
)

electrons

eleuent

ehell

(Va1ence

electrons.

I
I

J I
a I

!
I

u,ll'l\/

: 0 ) rb L o.. ; E i s I - . ': 1 i z . ! : i; . { i : 3 : \ C i : it X i: ? x.): i r ,-.. ;i : o : : I j ' @ : : I al <? cr tO :; c; . -? IJ = 3 . , i j 'o:-,;j trr;:- 1

. I r
_ , !

: o )

1_2-,,
-t ir. t - - .

-,i -

a-::'

c1 ir O r r r a l

:,9;:
J - -

f\

::! ;t& l: I iLJ i: j i! " :. i l i :

i'l -

l.- l; { 16 , r r - : = f J
c t - r r l

::ro r::: . ,
I a

r--

@1r

.:

l i r : l i1lri i,

;iI: i{51

. t = ]j,. 3i. Ir)--

l:ti;
S,!,it
a', O i-

O :.: il F\ :: / :

J _ o : l i r @., \ t ! -)- l, - 9 cr eil

: l

o t t r t i

3p
r l = .

O f J : lrtR

t (.f I

t
j:

eiil il

i:-i., ; :
{ j

! i.o i, = ,- i: !'o-ii :: .c :.1 :i ':: (t '-' I

: ? (./) -:;

(.) -.,

i: E i,
: Fi.;

: , E i !
O r r r -r J ! t-

'-*-I
- :

"Y

ilitf i*rti
.i{
I I l i o Fi

ii{ti II:T1

i i f l lJ I I I
,r.'. :
t

I il; ii

i:

S l:: l'
j -urr'ir

: l:
-, E : t - r { * i aa
@ : e i i

rJq CI::

zfr

l ; l Z r : i : -a i ; I r t / l 7l r :r :'<ii i r l 9 : ' r { i 3 u c'r i= c iI \ .-i.

F

(9 "-s
't ' v

i ;--Q : -(/l -:;: :1 t ,-r1

'. ' -i: : - @ i r .I'

;o Fi ;

a : j= o

O r r r f :
: ,

r 3i:

< E, a7;
gr 5;
} J q * , .

E 9'

;iti
I t

! rlr ij ro::;

; : u i ; i ' h i ; l r (ti:

-.1

I:i: il

(t::;ld

crt:=if g:: r i' E: i

ul !
: t

i i - E - . i : ' &6,- 1 ; = .tz) i, i

i - t sg ' &ra l.!

;!!3::$
3

klE

fi ' klH 9{.H /a ts,

cr::rlj cx):: : +
' : 2 a !

rrr1j
er'f ' a r - i

u1

a j ' .

-!aI! 1;
-- --;

l;==F: it ig : ii j
" y-.,:.r

3 i l i l i ' _: : ; i I $ 8 i r ; = - I i - Ol-. t}: - N : _ t :: --lJ \Ji Il ' - i i ;i; . r'..r iI O . : : -1 ^:.ii i ct t:; S : i t ll: !i!i:o:? =;
I
F

! " i t .i ' { ; ,; ii : ( ) ; . !
s,i -J l:
i i d

! - = 1 ,: ^ t _ : (
r -

!'o!;
: -F-!

!-.r

a r

v l :

.O E| : : I @ r r r ; i r o - - - - * O:v : ' 6-a

i.

-1t

, i

a -

@ - ^ - J

l..rZ : r
lJ r: \ tt r Ji > n b . ,

.o:: -:

t48::

iii:g

ti . .1 ? r i , :. . -

i;:: : :
;:i; T E J

o,ri j - r X . .

i ;

',:l i-..-.i
i-!55iiIIi::
. : . :- ! ; : j j I

.:

iiiiisi!is Ii I
. i 5

-.1 - .:

j . .

a ^o t.Uii

.,q 9: - :o f r r r i u &:ai : r 1 5 : !i;=6 : : - i - , = d i :;t i= E !,i = : * , i r E i j i o _ i ! : 3 l:: ij 3 " : i : @ F a ': f i i o{ }: S:r; Ri;::: P': 5
l': i,9 : : t ^ J_:
^

: ' . 1 : r l ; i ,l : - < :
ll-. =i

E-- _v ():J r .:; 8 : : i i

(= ai -: i: : = == = : ;:;i:g i ; i ' . ' 6. : i

1 . . .

f i s : i : ; = rI
;;i
: l
. . 1 ; . '
\

hEi'it

rrI! : Ii
9'-

i : j i , :-: !;f ii N li:ii

F\ ^- :

o _

(4;:

F ' . .

r ;

!:di:

Sliiij Xii,ii
a : rO b-,t /A | - : ': ! : ' ;: 19 r::

Ll r f : , = l E i i s : o i :
R g : :i ' $ ! I : r i

i : >

.:3

S:R:.

vl ..

=iZii

R t r; : ;

1 a . '
o q d J

i l; +; ; . 'f : i . : i * i , : ' . . : -3; = x : : ; : ; : : : ; :

5 \ :
: + O a - a c

>
g

::=ii
to 3: ? r: { cY;:i
j t_

i-#*i

f,),? a 5i -\f

i :

'j#i:
R!: : ii

: , -z:i

-IJ-.r

3':i*'

l
J

I J
)t i r i

J : i

aJ

:t
t
r lt

,f

! s ; i8i tr= 5;xi

l

i i .i !r( 'i
. r ^ 6 ^

- r:-

X !i: ti
:.i r ! = r

o j: rl = j :rt-l: l 1 .
c{!:: ! \r-- I "-.Q

lj3ir
dl:: ii
\-.-:
O h . t

.rt

g -o-il s'o_ i! * -' ;i i=S ' ti

I r - . !

: t .

3!itI;

il;: : i';
i' O-.!

it=i:
7

;
I t .t .a t t

;'!; i!
s

q = i ; x ; ; i
a

i n:f =iEi :Y :X
n q
g

:;

it>i
Ril:i
t:
;

: . Z i j i - . o :i :,
f l l : I i l-r;; : ij
'N i"! i5
r+-. 3 j...r..t r r_;.!

co !; : j.;

l. o-, ! ' t - l ! l: : {

3 lf: i'
J(.

i'Fi; r:
: 3

1 l l ,
E J,lJ6 o -

oo--;!i.
, 1 r i t l

- 1l:.{

' :. .' ^ ' t i: i i

:e:i : i ; : ; ! 6 r 3 ; c' Xti ;; V =x

: ;.::
r t l u J

iii:iit:

Il!rro
; ttt

'tr'r i J ! :)- i, o ji l i i ' i.:

? i : : r : Str' ii E

s3
-

!- o

@rj
tt i t
a Z

It : ftr a: i

i - r - z !
\ ^
_ -

- -. r-a

- _ l
!

?? .

<-rit l

:,iit

l3r -;'; c2!l e o is -:-><{: ;-f

c{ :3 j
@ 8 . .

: E + ii ' 3 ' l or-rIj

9:::'j

:_ gl(

F i i : l j $ i l : i r h i r i t j $ r! r"II
t .

i'3ii

5ti;

a yt-g {: ! ;
r

i- o a- C' i c o : g= & i . !
'o!=:ij
u't -\ 6 w t

B'l :
o 1 5 r

rl

(jtl:

!-c--: a ji - u - . t F N r . : t ! a: \
Q':

3gi:Ij

\J.

Dnt{c

r Letter The perlods tron 'qre shell are ls the horlzontal fllled.

roers. As there

They indlcate are 7 electron she1l

nhich

el-ecthere

belng

shells, be

7 perlods

accordlnglyenerE/ lever

The electron for the

can also

regarded

a6 the

erectrons.

Elernents elenents to one

ln in

group group

fA have VffA,

a tendency have

to

pnj.t

one electron. to

The

hoeever, the together. are forled

a tendency fron the we g e t

be receptive fA and VIIA ( (

electron.

Theref6re, to react lons

elelents ttlth and

groups enitting

have int

a tendency of
!

and receiv-

electrons,

an ion-bond.

EXanpIe:

Na + CI

===) Na+ + Cl-

===)

NaCl

( (

The chlorine and lt

i

(cl)

has received

one electron charged.

from the

sodiun

(Na) in and

has been erectrlcarly words, undergone

{ ( ( ( ( ( ( (

The chlorind sith'the cooklng

aton has, sodium, sart. form

other they

a chenical

reaction we call

have coublned 1n the

to forn

a product

)
t : , i

Eleaents bonds nlth we cal]-

grouPs

IA and vfIA when two or

have a tendency

to

ionic

each other. product

Eore atoms coublne

together, or cooking

the

a nolecule.

NaCl (sodiun_chloride

)
t' ' .;

salt)

is

a nolecule.

tlhen shale,

tHo lt

atons 1s

have called

one

or

nore

pdlrs -bond.

of

electrons bonds

phlch are

they connon

a covalent

Covalent

1n both : ) 1 )
i

organlc

.and .lnorgunlc

reactlons.

l I
( (

The naln uetallic

part

of, the

lnorganlc the of atons the

ele[ents are

are

Eetars.

They forn together. the nobre All

bonds shere the rlght

packed table

closely rre flnd

q
a

the nay to

periodlc

eb"-= - Noble

tases

occur

only

1n atoqlc

forn.

I I I

I I I

Dnftc

Letter
I

HYDROCAR3ONS

IN

GENERAL

Hydrocar>on the eleraents

is

a neure which and

aI1

the

chem1-cal in

comblnatlons Crude oil

between is of an

hydrogen sixture

carbon of

have

comuon. - The

alaoet

excJ.usj-ve

hydrocarbons aain four

simplest of

form natural to

hydrocarbon gas.

1s aethane aton is

whl-ch l.s the bonded eg: wlth '

conponent hydrogen

One carbon

atons

forn

a rnolecule

(hydrocarbon)

H I H_C_H
l H

In as

all

b<'nds between it has to has one either four

carbon "arns"

and and

hydrogen the

the

carbon atom

atou

behaves as be

though it

hydrogen on or the

behaves atom must atom. of

though coqrected There and they itj-es-

"arn"-

Each

"arE" atom

carbon

a hydrogen nulrbere the of

another

carbon

are

countless

dissimiJ-ar of these

componente di-ssimilar to

carbon

hydrogenhave

To ease

viewing into

couponents, similar-

been separated are:

groups

according

their

These groups

1. 2.

Alkanes Alkenes

(paraffins) (olefj.ns) (di-oief (acetylides) bonding ins )

3 - Alka1ines 4 - Alkynes 5. Cyclonic

(
I

(_

Dnltc

Letter ,

q
q

AIJ<AIIES

!|ethane

is

the

s1.nplest

hydrocarbon

ln

the

aLiane

group.

Nane:

Structurefornula:
H I H_C-H I H

Brutto for nula:

q q
fornula:

Slupllfled structure

t
cHq cHq

Hethane

q
gy adding one carbon atol the nethane to ethaneE*

and tuo

hydrogen

atons,

e can change

g
@

Ethane

t l H-C-C-H l t H H

H H

czHo

CH3-CH3

g @ @
we tet

ff ne nbw add another carbon aton and tero hydrogen atons propane whlch 1s the thlrd couponent ln t h e a l k a n e g r o u p . H H H I I t , H-C-C-C-H t t l H H H

q
CgHe CH3-CH2-CH3

Propane

1
atons and

One can Joln together dif ferent Hays, Iike

4 carbon thj.s:

10 hydrogen

in

tr.ro

)
i

Nornal-butane

H H H H t t t I H-C-C-C-C-H I t t I H H H H

CqHtO

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3

or
i

].lke

this:

\ ]

H
l

t I H
r cqHto
cH3-cH(CH3 ) -CH:

t t ol
H

t ri

H-C-H Iso-butane
I t t H-C-C-C-H H H

\r-

Letter
I

rrhi-ch qre shoqn on the previous page have the sane nurqber of carbon and hydrogen atorqs. . n thev have\iirrerent densitie<,. This is what \ , boili.ng,points "t4 / we call- isometric bonds. As the nunber of carbon atons increases, the nuruber of increases different - eith bondings 5 carbon shi-ch atons are possible are between the

Even

though

the

tlro

butane

ror-.t ut.=

atotrs

there

al-kanes there are

( isoroetrics 9 dif ferent

) - As the isone-tric

number

increases

3 different -l to carDon

atoqs

a-l_kanes _

20 carbon.rtonis dif ferenl TIre prefix, us and hoH nany chemical Hays.

and 42.hydrogen All the alkanes

atoms have (pent

can

be arranged the five

in

3o6319 ,,-ane,,. tel-l-s

names with meaning in the

ending C_atous)

including carbon formula do not fit

pentane are

atoms can,

present

aoleculefrom

The nane afi6ther

thereby, this

be derj-ved For are

one and rnethane, trivi-al

.some nanes ethane, A table 'rake

i.nto butane. of the that of

ruLe-

exampre: called is

Propane of

and

Such nanes inportant the the

nanestie. 3.

a nunber of the the fact

arkanes

shown in points

note

nelting,and:boiling chain in the for normal

increase chained)

with

length

(straightrs:

hydrocarbons-

A general '

CnHzn*2 "n" is any whole nunber_

formura t"'

an arkane

l,Jhen n

n.

L we

get

nethane:

ctHz- L+Z

= CH4

t J h enn-2weg e te th a n e :

czHz -2+2

= C2H6

etc

a
LFtter \
TABLE OF SHE OF THE THPORTANT ALKANES WTTH STRAIGHT CHAINS

lD

6, rd g
-1

6 6

Nane

FormuJ.a

lleltJ-ng og pt.

BoiIJ.nS
t:t -' og

No. of netrics

lso-

a
q q
6

methane ethane Propane n-butane ( iso-butane)

a

cHq

-143 -L72

-L62

o o o
Gas at rootr temp.

czHo c:He cqHro cz*Hro

- a9 - 42 .

-ta7 -135
-L45

o l rrO)J
36 69 9B L26 150 174 195 2L5

lv

a a q
g 6 g

n-pentane n-hexane n-heptane n-octane n-nonane n-decane n - u-u. ndecane

n-dodecane

csHtz
cgHtq

-131 95 90 57 51 - 3 0 - 2 6 - L 2

3 5 9 18 35 7S Liquid room at temp-

czHto csHte cg H zo ctoHzz cttHzq ctzHzo

q
g

6 q

n-heptadecane n-octadecane J
l ?

ctzHsa cl e H g e

22 2A

303 316 60523

solid roon tenp.

at

q q

q q

n-heptacontane

czo H tq z

105

!i q q
-$ !$
.T
aD'

( n-heptacontane
l \

has the hJ-ghest nuuber'of

chain

}inks

i.n the

alkane

series)

Fig.

Letter

ll

AIKEI{ES

Another crude ca1led

imPortant ol1, but are or

grouP

of

hydrocarbon-s, durlng
-

which

are

not

foultd ']re

in

Produced olefines

.the

''cracking" forrn of

Process alkene is:

alkenes

The sirnplest

ethene ( ePhylene )

H H t l
C=C ! t
lJ L{

( C 2 H 4)

or

CH2=CY1,

Take note
nrA< ronf v v v . .
r v .

that instead

tiJo of

joining only of

.',arrEs" between one. the

the

carbon using

atol0s

are

Thj-s i-s indicated alkene series is:

a double

bonC. The next

menber

H H H proPene ( propylene
iit,;j li' i : , .i t. .. .l,lt, i::'

r
t

C=C-C-H )
l

(CaH6 )

or

CH2=C11-911=

'l -' ''

'lr: t l ' i

The total

possibj-lities fornUl-a) the In are

for

isotretric the the the

bondings. more different double when carbon

(bondings atoms the

with

the

same

. r ,li,r

larger to

nolecufe for branchin 3

:::{
iit: : i "
: l :

contains int in

addicion

possibi]ities bond there can be

carbon places

chaj-ns, in the

placed Eore than

Lii; r : : l

: :

different carbon

nolecule

are

al,oBs -

' .t a

r.:

The type isometric the for

of

isometric

behavlour LJe can

we have Look on

looked at the

at

is

called in '

structure. forms propane

usually

differences as shown tlith

isonetric exaruple

by arranging and ProPene -

them

paper

Another the

iruportant between

type the - '*hen

of

isouetric into

behaviour consideration. ij.e on

emerges this the saue

if is

t.le take called of

space

atoms tuo

stero-iscneti'ics

CH3 groups

side

l}\

( (

;DnnC ,t-et.ter (over or under) the doubre

It )e_ QL { l.t l.s calred a c1s-postt:.on. tte i a 6 d d

bondlng, it ls

"ti[f they use the

:'
: l

are on opposlte terB

slde,

called.a

Trans-position. formuras thls

cls-translsonetrlcs. and Trans-2-butene dlfferent

The structure lrrustrate butene series.

beLor.l

for'cls-2-butene

:i I

behavi-our.

There are onLy four whlch 1s the next

dlsslnlrar alkene

lsometrlcs,

nenber

of the

a
T>'lll;^
l-burene
) :

fl

Btutel , :
or cH3- cH2- CH =c H z . ' E

( a - Bu iyre n e )

t-? -? -t=? . H H

TTTT
H

( caHg)

6
cis-2-butene ( b- Butylene ) ""'^. ,rcH3 ,, "=t ." H H, ( CaHg) " . or CH3-CH=CH-CH3 Q Trans-2-butene (b-autylene) t"t
H

^ ^r^ ,r'c=c\

e (caHg) or cH3-cH=cH-cH3

CH:

c
0

H
l . .

I(
l

rso-butene

: "-?-t i H-C ! -H H

(caHs)

or

cH2= c(cH3)2

_
it-

::

'r

:,

,a

T I

t i

.
AND DATA

Letter 2 I

rl

FOR SOI,IE ALK.ENES

Fo:rsula

Helting

BoiJ-ing

No-

of

pt - oC

pt.

oC

isometri-cs

'. i:t: ( ethylene

l n

czHt,
) C:HO

- 169 -1BS

-LO4

none none

i i l . ; . r'

. :

f,, iPropene i,:..(propylene)

; l t t : - - - - -

-48

' . :1-tsutene
' i

; i : .( a - b u t Y I e n e ) 1
i i : .

cqHe c/.Hg
C4llg C4llg

-185,4 -134,9 -105,6 -L40,4

-6,3

4 \ 4 4

,,jicis-2-butene ' r l :. ( , b - b u t y l e n e )
: , '. T rans-2-Butene ;i, . ( b-butylene) ,.i,

+3,7 +O,9 -6,9

: '

Iso-butene (y-butylene) Pentene

-E' f'; o ,.

csHro

- 138

+29

. , . 1

l,i'

::iBecause of . atons
i . : ,. :
:J J- horoF^-o

double

bonds

the

alkenes tray react bonds alkene

can to

take be

up

severalThey

hydrogen are, is which

anci , therefore,
ca1led

they unsaturated form of for

al-kanes. general when

::, CnH2n

Their

formula n =.2,

The simplest
, is the

is

achieved being

l-s etnylene .when n = l

formula

ethyl-ene ec -

CZHq

The

formula

propylirne

C3H6

( ( {

( ( ( (

tr,
Letter 2

t7

d
I

@
t

ALKALINES

6 6
.I

Al"kalines the general

contaln.

tso

double

bonds,ln The nost

their

nolecules,

and have groups

formuJ.a CnHzn-z below:

common out

of 'these

6I

6
I

are mentloned

@,

e
propadJ.ene ( allene) 't, . 1 ,3-butadiene ( butadiene) H H H H I t t l C=C-C=C t l H H H H l l C=C=C I t H H

ceHa

or

CH2=C=Q'11,

6 g g 6
@ @

cqHo

or

CH2=611-gH=CH2

6
Butadiene the has

technica]. of

slsniflcance cat edt

as

the

base

material

for

productoin

synthetic

(rubber).

6
g g q

TABLE FOR ALKALINES

.1 ..- 1t
l

l
g
Formu.l-a llelting oC pt. BoiJ-ing oC pt. No. of

Name
:ri i' : : l : l-;i, -::
'i:' 1

isonetrics;

) )
'I

. ; r :t
, t: : " ':. a' : ..-: r . ' : l

Propadiene 1 ,3-Butadlene

cgHq

-L46 -1O8,9

-32.,
-4 r4

none

ct*Ho

I
t

. i

Fie.5
I

B"

Letter

rl

ALKYNES

The alkynes CnH2n-2,, but The f irst following of true

have

the

same general a triple chain is bond

contain in the

formula 'intead

as of

the two

allcallnes, double bonds '

li-nk links

acetylene

H-C-C-H '

t4i-th the but scEe a

C=Hq, CaHg etcThus the other of

Inore isometrics C3H4 one is

aPPear,

thera are allcyne,

alkalies. shile

proPyne

(allyfene)' is a'diene'

propadiene Propadiene:

(al1en),

Propyne,

gg-c-CH3

H2C=C=CH2

NAME A.I.{DDATA

FOR A NUMBER OF ALI(YNES

WTTH STRAIGHT

CHAINS i {

Name

Fornula

Melting
n r L J L . o _ r V-

Boiling
n t H U . 06 --

No. of
isome::ics i

Etyne

(AcetYlene)

CZHZ C:Ha C/.HO CSHg

-a2
- 103
_ 1 9 2

subl -23 +8,7

none none 2 3

Pr-opyne (A11yene) Butyne Pentyne B.

F i q r a F
v

-90

13s

( ( ( ( ( (

Letter I
CYCLIC BONDING

t6

C
-f

LQ

q
6
6
of three or cycJ.ic Bore carbon atons

tlhen the carbon can forn ring

chain

conaists

it

bonds.

T h e s e a r e called

bonds-

6 6
i

Saturated naphtene:.

cyclonic They have

hydrocarbons the general

are

calJ-ed

cyclo

alkanes

or is

@
) :GI

foroula

CnH2n

One exanpJ-e

Cyclohexane:

6 6

uzg'
Cyc]-ohexane
I

/-\-

f;z

-g*,
| (C6Hy2)

q
@ @ @ @

H2c.--c/
H2

--cHz

Another so-called rnqior

rnajor

part

of

the or

cyclonic benzene formula

bonds

constitutes

the a

aronatlc

bond

derivativesc6H6 rt

Elenzene is has the

g q

cycloni-c

bond with

the

following

structure

f orlnul_a:

q
H I

E e
CH
I

Benzene

Hc/c\.
tl
' HC'---

-c
I H

CH 1=

(c6H6 )

or

) J

q
q
q
very stable and is often found as a part
ar

l
) .,| The of benzene other qolecule is larger noJ.ecu-Les -

s !$

s s 3

fl

j "gtriiiililrli' ffiiiiiliiir,j

ffiiol5l '*,il,!,l,i ,
t. : : 4;:i ii i, $,f i , f 1 ; t,
?+qi .i;j , '

Letterz i
B .N D T N G , N SA T , R AT E D
..h ki an ntra rl rn n a d o u b l e e co w i cn hF , n atoEs are called or 'riple a tr bonds '

L7

',.)i, lli, chernistry ilii:,1,,. Bonds ln organlc *t -J'ti ri;i,,1' : *ld: between two or Eore carbon - G j :iiiii:;

bond

unsaturated

1 : .,3i;; , l' i ;i; , -:;, ' -:i,t.. , , li : ii i , :.

t f ii,,, l' i:., .). :',' "r{-t. ,i ii . t t ' ' - , ,: i . : l '"' fi'i j

i i i l ':i

Characteri-stics an.r. varencles

of

these

unsaturated (spare

bonds are that of el-ectrons)

they

saturared

palrs

can have bv -'reatj-ns

' f or example ' qui-te high activities with theu wlth elements of bromine and Ha'er a sorution .\^ halEgen. rn the I'aboratory. bbnds ' If we shake the unsaturaled used to show such double the brown colou:- of bronine water, uonainss ln some of this

ls

--he

,i :'A
,, .] '.' ),
J

iii, . i l;,' ,iil,

bronlne wirr
doubre the
.

reacts when tne eventuarry disapPear- The bromine

open and broulne + ke ^r-e ^f ^ o ro re, th atoms attach to each spare being, le d< . t- The reaction f ji . lrl e occurs

erectrcn as

'

, : iii. : , i jj. .
'_i_

bonds

valencies

:'

DeIOH:

i,
.

i:
i '

'3
.. i,

.il.
ijl

H H '\t="/'^
'.,
H t {

H H

, A lii'
\ \/t

* Brz -_z\ --i-i-"

Br Br

iri

\t
' lt
-l \'J

i'-;;' ..f
'i,, '

l . r t l : ;j ,i i ; :: ', i

: , :,

ethene

' : i , l

ii,. i
,i,i'. The bonding saturatlng whj-ch is of formed is calted wlth a 1'2-dibrodethane' pl-ays a Iai-ge unsaturated oils hydrogen

The pa'--

, i i i, i:r;
: it i ' i ! , , '

,b

'ii:,;i '
\: , i.t.

in

oll

tndustr j-es - An exanpre

is

"hardening"

of

f at '

-' 1e lii b
i.'i't
i"i '
is sho'*n boMing Anunsaturated

P
/
// ._) |

'b

drops sooe
or brorine

It

at ,-

5L^ sater to the . ,' .6yiodincbrorine bro:ine .. ,orution.Ihebrosn-red

'rE *"r
f | _.,.,r:.-, I *-;' |

a|

r '

g
I

i ;il;lr;;rirl t, the unsaturated

. toiu,ion.

l-- .---'-l
l ';':il

'Tu:Ylit'o
.solution

f,
i:

r8
ru

\' i ;

Letter

1"

l,

I
POLY!'ERISATION

's*

( CATALYSTS )

A specia.]. under forn

property

of

the

unsaturated' polylqerlze laacro

bondings' ( react nith

is

that each

they other

can' to

certaj-n very large

conditions, noJ.ecules,

so].ecu].es).

Exarnple i H )"="( H H + H H )"="( H + ,H ,C.=C.H H H-.

heat./pressure cata]"yst

'r

-C-C-C-C-C-C| | I I I I H H H H H H

H H H H H H l r t I I I
{ ( (

ethbne

(nononer)

polyethene

(polYner)

W.

".ff nunber

this of

type

of

polynerisation, are produced

addition J-ike

polynerisation. this. the The number nunber only

A of as ( ( ( {

connon can

plastics

Eonomers ei-ther

be many n.

thousands.

One denotes

x or

Exanples: PoIWinyIChloride Polypropene Polystyrene (PVC): : : nonoltrer (CH2=91191; (CH3CH=CH2 ) (CH2=cU11;

po].ymer - (CH2-CH"} ) r,-CHCH3-CHZ) n-

( ( ( ( (

-(CHC6H5-CH2)11-

The structure fron the

formulas It

for i;

these ,roi

three

polymers or

can be derived alkynes One of ls that the can plastj-c

( ( (

polyethene. but also

or.fv'atrkenes materials.

po]-yrnerise, naterj-als

other

organlc

which

has been known for This naterlal ls

a lonel time

bakelite of

(C. eaekbland). fgpualdehyde, sation

uade by the phenol

Polynerlsation

I
( -(

HCHO and.the occur reactlons

bonding

reactlons these

during

radical

(C5H5OH). The Polyneri(chain reactions) ractions il good.yield (increased H also the the use

To begin speed of a catalyst: tion

and to'receJ.v only heat

reaction),

besides is

and pressure, shi.ch lncreases

!
I

"A catalyst a process,

a materlal is ltself

reac-

speed of

but

unchanged

after

I !

I
(

Letter I
reaction". 1OOX built production One can saY that uP with of the help the of

2
'chemical c rtalYsts anmonia industrY - Like etc' for
is as good as

r9

exauPle

ttre

Plastic,

petroJ.,

PEROXIDES used to a great exten*'

One

particular

type

of

catalyst

which

is

intheproductj.onofplasticsisperoxJ-des.Asthenamesugtests together" bonded atons oxygen tso contains peroxide the exanple. benzol Peroxi.de:

for

A-8-o-"-J-5

\./
peroxide , eE. H-o-o-H' The peroxides deconpose easily b'enzol Peroxide-

AIso
!}-

hYdrogen
radlca-Ls

into

. +co2+C6Hsc<2. coHs
peroxides care a pqwder in pipeg' can containers decotrPose and with are If highlY exPlosive are and kePt
Itrust damp, be handled theY with wiII not

AI1

utrBost explode

the

Peroxides

then

Peroxides tanks-

can

for:m'Iayers are

as

The materiars

v.gry unstabre

and

greatforceandexPlode,especia].lywhentheyarefoundinconcentratedallountsandareexposedtoheatorjo]-ts.The]-ightest hanmer blor.r can set of f ' an explosion bondings ' it in is the polymer-

tl tl as in . r, I ls u c h
, i .l

,l

To prevent

the

formation

of

pe.roxides

with

unsaturated VCt{ etc' as Possibl are

I ,3-butadiene, to have as lle low have

ethene,; an oxygen seen that

ProPYIene' content peroxides

necessary pipes

t
,

and tanks.

uged' as

(,

iillil'., ilil,{,.l ' til!'i

iaalc
llli'i,' l:ll i. .:

e^
Letter
catalysts,

(
zo(
(

i iiii'i isatlon
il

T"oL
and we knon ^"vw that Eost o.f the unsaturated

/-

iili'i , jilii ijl

)
t

bondlngs thenselves forn peroxldes Ht-th the oxysen. There is often q =:t a l!ax' rtnit (before loadlne) of 02 1n the atnos- ( 3l.9=:3.,,vor7 products rhe theruselves have a rlnlt of around ( :T::.":":":r.ank(

.,,
.i :

'i'i

, , i it i
iii 1. i , , -.iii j,j i,l "'i ,r ;,r, ir

txHrBrroRs
To get rid of the -l'ast,,!rgces of oxyEgtlr. on uses react f reely Another naterials oxygen. of soue L,r\*ch, even in rfese of the qaterials low concentratl-ons, are called is that wlth

a
{ e

inhibltorsthey

property

the ' :s : :e _ - 'm : =a '^ :^ te rti a l s speed of

can react

w] H lt .h th radlcar ls s

so ( that

:iii iil

polyqgriqation :- --:-

can be sLowgd dosn .or

stoppd.

:iii i: i:l: i; ,iii'j

D u r i n g t ra n sp o rt

b y se a o f l.3- butadiene

to r he UsA, the US c o'as t

- - iiti.'i ,
l l i ' i i .r .

j , lil; . ;iii ;: ,lil ' : ji i,, I ;i ] liiii,i

Guard demands'.that, tllt 9P,rs9 ,fq ',ilhibiEed=.Htl,r'1o9.er." of rBC .ii,,l';I ( tertjT" ' liii ) . rhls 1s to hlnder any polynerisation i . _by_.$cg!_e9hor
and developnents peroxides about cdrto i-qet into . vcft. of shich strong is heat. TBc hinders over any the foruation days, of transported several has added of the

e
C (

.9.f-.-hy-C-f9gu-.lll9n . t_o prevent PVc'

polymerisation

Host

of the

inhibitors

a 5 -r e v h g " ^i6 "h - ly

poisdnous

and dangerous

to

our

{ q

-t

ril,i;;:l iiiiijl:t , ili'iili ,ii j,

iii iI;';

.il;l

health,

and must,

therefore,

be handled

ni-th the

utruost care.

STENCH AGENTS

I
'

,, :f i, " ':ii : i

Due to nany of lt is very

the

gases.being that

highly

inf1-anmab]-e and explosive, leaks can be dlscovered as

iruportant

) liii'' ,ii i',, ' iliii, iliii.., ' ijl l lj , i:ii i l i' , i, ..
il

any snall

d -{

soon as possible. intense

such

Therefore,

1n soue cases a naterlal eggs) even in

is

added to

.!

the LPG, the LPc, f ror or exanple exanple uercaptaneBercaptane - rhese These r.t."r.;;-;";" naterlals have a very ' "-"";;-j ^+^--^ --- r - r,. sme l l (l i ke ro tte n
as only a fen pptr (grans,/tons)

ver y low concentr ations

!t ',f; ,C

;,i '

'l

2T
Letter
I

EXERCISFS (Ansuqrs on Page 67)

lthat

do we mean b y " i s o m e t r i c

bonds"

in

chernistrY?

Gj-we

an examPle(C-aton) contaj-n?

How uanY Protons

does

carbon

atom

tlhat

do we mean by the

exPression

"hYdrocarbons

"?

l.Jhat do Give

we trean

bY a n u n s a t u r a t e d of such bonds

hydrocarbon

bonding?

three

examPles

5.

l.lhat

is

characteristic

of

an alkene?

6.

l,lhat

do we urean bY Polynerisation? with gas

gJhat do He use cargoes?

inhibitors

for

in

connection

rlt I

( t i ( (
I

i
(, (

t ptter$!$

z2-

2& g
:l

HEAT CAPACITY

6 6 g
of energ:y in are the all the salre Hay that work '1s. (J). object These If we

Heat forns

1s

a forn

E
@

(heat,/work,/energy) heat to an

treasured temperature

j-n Joules of the

transfer as a ru1e,

object,

wilI,

e
g

ri.se

@
To ease the quantifies, understanding, lleasure.Eents we si..L1 f irst and fornuras take a look at the

which

we sharl

use -

q
@ @

"Joule" (systen shich

(J)

i.s the

measuri.ng unlt the unit

in

the

sr-raeasurint,systen measuri4g system.)

rnternational"the

new internationar "calories" which

has replaced

was in use earlier.

q
q

a q
; i : , i

N = ke-n s4 q{
r -

' i1 .
l :

N-!r

ke:n

-o,

sz

-<;'ll'' ,i
r'il i

N kgIl s J -

Unit Unj.t unl-t Unl.t Unit work

for for for for for and

force Eass length tj.me heat, energy

( Newton ) ( kj.lograns ( metres ) ( seconds ) ( Joules )

E
q
{
IJ .!

^. E.,

: . ii t ;' il

i i i .ii' { ;' :
, l l:

1 Joule

is

egual

to

O,Z3g calorj.es.
q

, ; ! i, 'i; ,i, J ; ; ir, ::! 1.

' 'I J ; .l :l . 1 :
. . 4 :

) lii;:!, ;
The temperature (K) ' the scale in the .the sr-system earller as is neasured scale. absolute and .at at 2g3K in lK degrees constizero zero Kelvj-n tutes and replaces lenrprature carculated Celsius loc. The

i t i| : . r '

illt;),

3'

1
EIJ .I

a.l

. . - ' ; ) :!'
l:l ' '

sam. is

change to

temperature point' the

) r

. 1..:.r, i'-.

..: !. i ,;.'

be ulnus for Kervin to

273oc, begins and

thi-s

fpnrperature therefore,

scare

o degrees= looc etc.

273K wilI,

correspond

ooc,

,1 a

Letter

2 exPres ? body i:ors

The quantltv sed in Jouleg,

heat is

capac1-tv needed to

(c)

tells the

us

how rouch n::t' in

raise T2ls:

te-qperature

temPerature The formula

_
\J

T1 to for

tenprature caPacltY

heat

Tz-Tt

o To-Tr C"

heat aPPIied .. -difference temPerature heat caPacitY as

_ /Lr \

i}.

The change
The

in

temp'erature-

from

T1 lo

T2 can

be expressed

A T'

syuboldrepresentstheGreekletter,.De}ta..,and1sno.3al1y or a change' a difference used t o i n d i c a t e

S p e c i f i c h e a t c a p a c i - t y ( C ) f o r . a n a t e r i a l i s t h e a E o u n t o f : : = a t K::r by I degree the temperature to raise (in Joules) applied concerned' every 1kg of the materlal heat capacity (c) is:

( (

The fornula

for

specific

! '

(i m

MASS

specific

heat

caPacity

\-) :-=
/ J

Usj-ng the

Preceedlng that:

lnformatlon O = C' T

we can

deduce

that

-:--=

and therefore

t{e can so that:

do c

the

sane

Hith

the

formula

c = *

= c'ul deduce that:

By conbining

these

formulae'

!{e can

O = c'm'AT x lrass x temP dL{ferencel

( Heat

applied

= specific

heat

capacity

f
'| l.

' (
Letter

"4

26
( (

Examp-l-e:
tl*

HoH mtrch heat the heat tenperature capacity

energ,y

do ue

have from

to

apply

to 7OoC,

8kg

of

water

so

that

increases for water is

I I
(

3OoC to

when the

specific

41Bo J/kg.K?

I
AnsHer: O = C't[' T O = ALaOJ/kE.K-akg-4OK O = 133760OJ

6 6 6

) 9===1332!{=1\r}g=Jggl9:
a

a
freshen up our to knowredge use the (o) with rearis., herp of l.le shatl is not look (c, the continue the at heat the T).

Before of

we continlre,

perhaps

se shourd

how we rnanipurate as

equations. but

salBe examples nhich respect range we to the wiLl the

above,

no!{ it

appried equatj-on tJe shall

ca1curate, other values with

but

we.wiJ.r

invol-ved to Hhich T) "

E or (n). find

equation the

respect varue,

nass

The nass with the

therefore, the other

unknown (O,

we will

values

c and

l-Je rearrange o o c'AT -\

the

equation

as

follows

: equati.on) both sides of values c, and

= c-m-dT c'n.AT c'dT

(The unchanged

(Here we have di.vided the equation Hlth the

T)

a
) ] c- dT

(Nog we have cance.I.].ed va]-ues on each slde of

I!

out the the

the sinilar equati-on) equation

r.*-ac'dr
I

(Notr se have r*j.th respect

rearranged to n)

ut

o
C.AT

(The equatlon ls now coEpJ.eted in terms of nass, nith the unknorJn values on the right hand side)

Iretter

25

Example: HoLr Eany the help kilos of an

of

uater

can heat

hre r.raru. up of

fr< m 2AoC to LL7O,4

gOoC with kJ)?

appl-ied

LLTO4OOJ (or

Answer:
h v

e . A r

tr =

LLTO4OQJ = O,4kg 4 t B O J/ k E - K - 7 O K

rn as

the

example

above

you

can see the you

that

lle h.rve equated and rre would find i. rist in front of of

.LL7o4ooJ you the to pre-

] - L 7 0' 4 k J , note of

(iefigure

they c-

are Here

sane), nilr a

like arl the

take fixes (J) '

and nuttiples. or as Lre say: the unit

Hhen we place a prefix (J) by that stands in front prefix for

(k) of (k

s5rnbol r.re

a unit, or kit_o),

i_t means that which stands

nultiPry for

lOOO- Kilor.ratt

(ktl)

1OOO Hatts

etc.

TARLE OF HULTIPLES,

EXPONENTIALS

AND PREFIXES

MIII

TTDI

I;

NA}'E PON

OF

EFIX
trega kj.]-o hecto deca decjcenti ni].li-

ABBREVATION OF PREFIX H v h da d

1 .OOO.000 1.000 100 10

v r !

106 103 L02 101 10-1 LO-2 10-3 10-6

o ,o 1 o . ,o o 1 o, oooool

uicro

Fie.

( (

q
Letter 2

26q

q
q

Example: l.lhat temperature an appJ.li ni1J. the nater of ln a container and there before reach 1s BOkg it if it water the

rece1-ves j.n the

neat The

B,36MJ,

contaj-ner?

water

tenperature

"of receives

heat is

,?""

(2e3K).

Answer: O - c-n.AT
T = 836OOOOJ

c.m

4laoJ /ke'K. aokg

rL

zsrc
(T) =

New Temperature

T 1 + a r
+ 25K 273roc = 45oc 31aK (= 318

= 293K

l-le go is

nolr one step as work

further (or

to

the

quantity per P -

"poHer"

(P).

Power

defined

heat,/energy) is wri-tten as

second. -A t used for (O), we

t.or.rer .

Heat = =-:Tine this that: ^ r =

which with

By replacing can state

the

previous

equation

c'n' dt t carried the out above nork equ1valent to 1J to (that 1J) in'1 is.-to say

I4hen we have that then c'm'

T in

equation of

1s equal 1 l,latt;

second,

we have

produced

an ef fect

[.le see,

therefore,

that the

:3 = tf s fornuLa He can see that J = [.1.s (Hork =

and by rearranging effect x tine).

Letter

-t/

E x a m l' I c : On a hot
i .':

plate

He Lrarn up 2kg

of

water

f rom.looc is

to

6ooc i-n a through

uinutes the hot

and 20 seconds plate?

- How much Power

transferred

:.1

Ansuer:
a - m . A T
P

( 333-283 ) K 17AoJ/kE-rc-2ke(8'6O)s = 836J /s + 2Os

= P36t^l ======

MIXII\ G OF TEHPERATURES

Heat

always -

travel-s from a

from higher

warn

material to a

or

substancg

to

colder -

Eaterial

temperature

lower

temperature

If

r.le assume that or in

there

are

two

substances are which

(or

naterials)

uhich

are'mixed occurring, to that the is

a solution, say that

and there the heat

no chemi-cal is given c t ff

reactions is equal-

r.{e can

heat that

received. there

tJe have,

therfore,

lnade another with the

assumptio.-, -

occurs

no heat

exchange

surroundings

The heat

whj-ch one material of

material receives

gives

off

is

equal

to

the on

heat until

which the

,i
j

L..

,r , ..j

the

other

- The heat are

exchange equal -

goes

te?'peratures

both

the

naterials

( t

This are

is

a form to heat are to the

of

reasoning

uhich with

is

directly different and this

applicabfe temperatures

when and "ot . \ ( ( (

going

transport capaciti.es be nixed

cargbes (egon

speci-fic cargoes

propane In

butane), $ray you

and these can'calculate you mix

board. of the

beforehand

temperature

nixed

cargoes

before

'

Letter

2 ,,nixr'ng

28(
(

I
thern together. can carcurate Hos to the tlith further the the help of'thi" the temperature,, wiLl rater you be. 1n

I
(

nhat tank

expected wl}r

tank, pressure be dlscussed

calcurate

pressure

course-

I
(

The most'inportant released is the = heat followlng

thing received, equation:.

to understand and the

noH is

that for the

heat calculation

I
(

expression

I
(

A T = n

dr
expression.deals the the to other. dr shos in with the one

a
( { The most the dj.f ficult and He ( ( to ( equation,,

where Ii-quid

tte

rert

hand right

side hand

of

the

and the is

si.de,

understand wirl this

how one

comes to

now go through for ourselves -

an exanpre

how we can

illustrate

e
Example: l'le have butane 5kg at of propane at a lprnpeFature heat heat of -4ooc, for for (tu) and akg is is two of +2oc. and The specific the specific capacity capacity propane butane 22aoJ/ke'K 2L75J/ke-K. liquids are

tJhat

i.s the

ruixing

temperature

when these

rnj.xed?

6 I I C -l I

First balance nearest

t

se dras point. to to the

all This

of

the

data

onto

a '!balance", polnt,. case the of

where course of frou

t,

is lles

the

inlgj.naiy ruass (in ].owest

"balance this

].argest the

gkg

butane). the lar_

q
.l

Reue.ober test

take

-i number

number cone

(teuperature) to the AT.

(terqperature)'to

I I I I a

I I I

iiil,lr'; li;.t; ii , iii r

ji:;ii ;ill
i:.-; :

I t i i! ; ; , '

'i',i,li,i' j ; ii ; t ::Lii.trc t.l i,

:f: ,i t.:, .t: i:

l.etter

:i , .:
; j ; 1r,
I i' : j l , l
l

'i;,: i'

colder ( lor.r.
( <

FJATlnCT

1 i ':
l I

temp . - n o . )

(hieh

tenp. -no. )
- - - - : = t )

i ilI
i t !,

I Ii ' ; l

l,ji,;
..;'
) ! . .

, ,/,-,-.*u
9.

A T = (tm_233K)

Af

(275K-tn)

I !:,,

\ tz

i i .,.
i,

t i

-40t 233 K
2280 J/kz.

We c a l - c u I a t e
: : i . , . i ,i

the

temperature

of

the

mixture

as

f ol-tows:

heat l c

recieved d T

heat expelleC t r ' c d r ' B k e - 2 L 7 5 J/ k g - K - ( 2 7 5 K r r a) 47B5OOOJ L74OOJ/K.tm 744L200J

5ks- 22BoJ/ke.K. (tn - Z33K) 11400J,/K. tn - 2656200J 2AaOQJ/K-tn

cIu
1-

zggowTK
258 ,4K

744 L200J

f.

=====

em

===!!:2??

( z s e , A- 2 7 3 = - t 4 , 6

AGGREGATE CONDTTIONS

By

experience, or which as

we know Lre say:

that

material_s

can

exist The

in

different condr-

states, tions

aggregate from

conditibnsexperi-ence

aggregate are sorids,

Lre know

day-ao-oay

ri-quids which is plasna) -

and vapours, called

but

in

addition (s),

there liquid

exists (1), gas

a fourth (e) and

phase

plasna

(solid

The condition elernent preasure could and

is go

dependent through

on tPrnperature al_I
three (four)

and

presbure. if we

Any varied the

phases

femperature-

(. (

l.J&.say

that

a substance

sub11.mes

if

j.t

transforms

direct1y

fron

t
(

Letter

3d
I

soLid \*.

to

ga6

(le.

does

not

becorne liquid)..

I (

9lhen we heat bolllng polnt

up a so1id,

He can read off

the nelting

point

and

( (

as Lre proceed - The temper'ature all the untll solj-d the untll is rnelted, beglns of the after

keeps itself that the tempera-

constant. until ture ture

See

rises renains
fig9-

again

llquid all

to bol1.

The tenpera-

constant

liquid

has evaporated.

I
( ( . (

'. '.i

4...

t
fa r: - : a : :a
:::J

t:

I
t

:]I: .tt.
t{at

;c
;:t:

:1.
-l =l::-' t=:t::
..- .1

l=:
t
I :

.'t'- -. .'t -l::: :

; $per-heated vaDour ras ) :1

r 1.. -t.-. . - t { - l- - l '.--.1.-lr

it' :c
;l
:

t. lj i::: I l-. -l ---t --rt :: -l

-- 1.. ' - l : '

I.-

t:trl:

::::l:::

:^=l

::::

'-. t::

I;;I l:-:l

iii:Eii

tltng

::

:l
.l
-l

i4int
E[*l
::: l:j-:i::

I
J

.t.

Llquld r va1 our (uaterr steal)#

-' l

:T

i1
.- i-

c::

:r
i ! : : : I i :

"'_l

el

EI
:r=
F

sl

t:

:t

:zF

1-50lld + llquid (lce r

(uaterl Llquid

:J
+l

i!
iI
:l
:l

- . t r .

)rc : : :! : : '/t xa

l:::

l$ltia qtnt
!

'l I
I

71:

v
I

I I

iI
'/) .:t

t.l
':l-li

l-...4....1

t:
'A'ti.

il t
t:
I .

sorid l cel
):
-l f

3
t

:!!

:lh
.I

A
. . . . t . - . 1" - r " " 1 " . . . .

:1

*g
:::1:: :::: t::

l!,:t1;;;.1
I

t:

:,

,,t

ta

:ii
Aggretate

ruyPr t

:::l'.:

::E=

conditions

and phase changes.for

lkg

of water

Fie. g

; lilrrl::
j

r.:iiiili
r.,lj,ii.i

ilitiii ii.g3 t
'tIll , " l' ; l { l r

,., ",iii

'''

:t'i9l'" r. iili:'
,

Letter I rcLIDS

31

i i;ii;i
iliiFj:: 4! i r : i f '
.i: i f-i'1,

;illiii ',;iilii
ir;iiii
.f
t.ii"jj! it1!;:

Solids as

have

fixed

volumes That

and fixed the

forms - A solid atous to or

is

bu -l-t have

up set

a "network"-

lueans that in

molecules other

r ;jiiir,, r ::;

i''iiil
ir iaiii

distances of has the it the

and set

positions of "network" which

relation joj-n

each the

' t'Jhen many formed of or hos

lj:ii I : ',il,i,

same type

together, crystallinehow hard

naterial

a regular "network" will

shape decides heat

se caII

The shaping a naterial is

'; ;i,ljii .,!:-llli

i:li:l
I i,' : i::

for-example or electricity-

t i: it::i;. t.'1.')-li
'i::t:rii, I ' t r r ,L i : i

conduct

liiril,i' ,iriiiiit:

:' i: ':l tt,l. i! :::i. i

l'lrf)i:.r
I rlt :i:

LIAUIDS
I

i,il,i,''

"iiil'','
'.; .'j i.', , , . - c . i 7. .
I

Liquids therefore, tprizontal

have

fixed

volumes, held in

but

no fixed

shape-

A liquid

can is

on].Y be when the

a containeris undisturbed

The exposed -

surface

t t {

,l-rr i

I:ii'Iii'i ;
,;; ilriliii;;

rli[ilt, ::f.ti I: : ii i!t,i. . ,.illiilii:'

, l ; i fi r ! : , :ll:liii , iiilii :i , lilll:ri
-iiiilr;i.

,i}at

liquid

::iiiliii:',I n

a liquid between

the

distance are no

between larger

the than

nolecules to allow

i-s small. then to

and Eove packed

the

( {

bonds

then one

f reeJ-y about that the

another. barely

The molecules its

are .so tightly

;riiitiir
iil'ii.:l

liquid

changes

volume

when compressed '

I

illlifljii,t, i
';:l'Ii i, i ; f,'::{,

(
i

ir{,{i i ;;tl-i

VAPOURS

{ In a vapour there Vapours are are very weak bonds of between form and the seParate even in a

'

',1' tii. i+'{1,,i iil:Y1'1.i

jll:,rl ii ,

iil. iff,ii

particles. container

independent

sLze,

. . r r , . r ; i : :ll tti-t, .

' . r',i li i Iii,i iiii ';l'lttlrl

rit:i:.i'l'

'lii.iiii. ' itill r , l , :liii iil.:..

iiil.iilii.

The

nolecules with

in

a vaPour each other, the

are

1n constant with the

motion-. container

TheY collide theY are in'

constantly This

also walls

';ll'l i.l !.i

. ' ; i :, i i . i l

colliding

against

produces

a Pressure,'the

vapour

t
( i t. (

' ,: : :i,l

, ! f '' I

,iiji
, i, .,'

Lptter
pressure. discoverer, gas is the Thls i-s

2>*
after
become

I 321 I
I
(

Robert up.

"-Ilt9_plg111f
Brown. Thege

an rqotion
Eoveraents

the

naae

of
a6

its
the

faster

heated

Therefore, Reversint temperature

the the

presaure theory,

of the

the

heat

gas increases wiLl the

i_ncreases. as the

as

becoroe Lower particles

gas pressure move-nent of

drops

and the

q
{

slolrs

down.

PHASE

c a
CHANGES

{
L t'lelting. and evaporation are

both

phase

changes.

description there to is

tte

use

the

with -freezlng arways energy

sa'e

-G '1

ard

condenslng.-

ouring off-

phase: changes For a substance

either in

used or liven aer"t or evaporate.enerBy nust-be naterial'rises.r same

either

,q
_1

energy erial

the

remai_ns the

added_ The internal but the,'temperature of the mat_

we have a piece of ice heat to it' the te'perature continue water to to suppry the apply this hea!,

rf

(see fis. wi.r.l rise the ice wilr

g)

at from uelt

-400c

and we transfer _400c to 00c. rf we turn to rise.

e e c
q
j

and si.1l to rf

sithout to At

tenperature heat,

continui-nt

continue loooc' evaporate ture

r{e nor.,

without

of lhe steao evaporated -

the tenperature in the water will rise teEperature the eJater rrirl begin to boil and the temperature rising any EOre- The temperabegins to rise only when arl 0f the Lrater has

a -

,'|
I

.1

q
}'ELTTNG
When a solid in the' uelts, the atoas are torn loose ,,network.. and slide about each other-

*q

frou Energy

their is

positions heeded to

't.,

I
break
|

Letter . 2
energ)r. does rt can

the to

"netL{ork".

rn. of

reg;red heat-

lr 1-

have

not

necissariJ-y energ:y, for

be in

th: form ice

be mechanicar the

1 -

exampre, usuarly

rubbirg heatto this the

cubes is

together, car-r-ed the which is but the

although rnelting

energy

userd is

heat

heat_ under to

The enertr/ constant the when the

sor-i.d,

_cransferred temperature interna-lnaterial

transferred is used

cloes not

disappear, of

potentiar solidj_fies

increase i_t back

energy agai_n

sorid.

tJe get

Careful Iiquid

.' . ^ . , t f t ; ''l:

J llll

r{li:i

ii;; .3i;

btlii

'rS

of sol-id and same substance always has the same tempera_ ture when the pr 3ssure over the m:-xture i-s the sane .This _ temperature, r + h e: e i t is possibl-e to have a mixture of solid and Ii-quid phases of one substance, is the melting point of the substance at tha : pressureThe nelting point is the same as the freezing poj_nt phases of the

experime nting

has

revealed

that

a mixture

The heat a fixed called

(O) that tetrperature

is

needed to to a ri-quid

change a trass with the

same
( 1

(n)

of

a solid is

r.rith

telnperature

the

speci_fic

nelting

renperature
1s

\ *s

\ /

o
EI

The uni_ts kilogram -

for

specifi.c

ae-Ltj_ng t.eEperature

are

Jou-Les per

q!

(1s) = For 'ce, the specific uelting

J /kc is approx 33,,kJ/kc

temperature

t'Jhen freezing had great better

foods,

which this high

contain value

a lot for the

of

Lrater, iceon rt

the can

observe for

nachinist be of whether the \ ( ( ( ( (

iroportance

the

refrigeration

system

board

: (

,Letter
cargo frou ig the already cargofrozen r ot

31
the heat hae to be re.r,oved

3!
{ | '

shether

I
{ ( aust be transferred of ooc to lrhen a piece It 1s to

Example.

1:

How much energy of 1 ,5kg and

I
of i.ce with a Eass to ( ( Lre changed (

a te'perature

nater

with

the same tenperature?

Ansrrer: Transferred enertrr (o) = I5'E = 330-to3.r,zk'-1,5kg = 495kJ =====

--,'l
{ (

Exanble 2: A piece of copper of of uass o,Bkg is to be nerted. starts. The copper point has

a temperature nust is

200c when the to the

is

( ( (

heatlng

How nuch ener8:y for copper

as

be transferred i'ts
capacity

copper?

The nerting is
capacity

10830c'

spec'flc

nelti-ng

ternperature
The heat

the heat L constant

zLokJ/kg,, and
is regarded

390J,/kg'K-

I (

AnSHer: Transferred (o) = c enerty - xn dT during = heati.ng: = ..._ 33zkJ

I
( (

39oJ,zkg.K-o,Bkt.1o63K

Transferred (os) = ls.E

enert:/

during'n.."frre

(nelting = 168kJ

heat)

= 2to. LO3J/kE.o,gkg

Total

transferred

energy:

( o ) = ( 3 3 2 + 1 6 8 ) . 1 o 9 . 1= g q q \ J

T I I I a

T I

Letter
E V A P O R A TI O N

rf that

we ret the

a liquid -liquid

stand

in

a container after

in

the

wir-. in wirr the

open a_r_i, LJe i::::w rf rre hang ( out H r:t t { ( ( ( ,

dlsappear winter

crothes knos that

a uhiresub_zero

to

dry they

during

temperatures,

if they hang rong enough in dri/ weath=:-. l.Je can find I'any exampi-es of erater dry; pr - This rr. must s:gnif y :._iat the iiquid changes to vapour- tJe calrthis evaporationperha:s L{e think mainry of evaporation in connection with boi-r_.ng. bu_ we had best note that evaporatlon can occur at a1l temperatures. some .J-iquids evaporate qui.ckJ.y, like ethane and benzene. And others evaporate s1owly, l_ike oil I

dry

As a rule exceptions. clothes is

things In often

dry the

quicker, the or

the air

warmer is

they

are,

but

there

( ( t (

tropics

so h.umid that

drying

impossibJ-e

dj_fficul-t

Evaporation

depends

on

the

thermar

moveroents of

the

molecur_es

( (

[^le can following In a

explain Hay: the

evaporation

]_n th=

liquid

molecules but

are

in mo]=_

constant cules speed. Oo

notion, it travel speed

aI-l_ the at the the

sarue

( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

The

of

mol_ecuf es

i.n liquids [,raporation of a liquiC. fJolecules in the liquid having enough tineric energy, rill escape fror the surface o f r h el i q u i d , a n df o r r vapgur. as they of of the the

vari_es do in gas

in

the

same

way

(Vapour) at the

Some

nolecules gas have

surface speed and.

enough

therefore, to allor-r in

enough then the to

kinetic escape

enerty froru thei:

Fie- ru

bonds vapour-

liquid

and,-.become a

q{

Letter I
Everyone cdl'd lf who has been lnvoJ.ved 1t cones.lnto if contact

2
nl.th petrol. the skln. knows that

76
it feels is even must

361 I { I ( ( ( (

rrlth

Thl.s effect with skin

Bore notlceable be taken to cause

ether

comes lnto of

contact the effect the skin

(care

here as the the skln to

ternperature freeze). (energy)

can fa1I

so low as

Thls fron

occurs

because the

]iquid

uses the

heat

stcin to

evaporate.

Energlz which evaporation

is

used to

evaporate

a rnateri.al

is

calLed

I
( (

energ:y.

lle caru def ine If the

this

as f ollows: (O) is the is: needed.to transfer a liquid then the with specific

-_-l
( ( ( ( (

heat quantity a gas with

trass (rn) to heat of

sane temperature,

evaporation

(r)

_ o
!l

The speci.fic tenperature boiling

at --.-

heat

of

evaporation. rn tables li-quid-

declines, the figure point

as a ru1e, glven is is

when the psually the

( ( ( (

increases. of that

point

(BoiJ-ing

usually

quoted

atmospheric

pressure

1o13nb)

Exano-l-e: Hos nuch

)

heat

is

needed to.. change sith (r) the for water

4kg of 1s

water

wi-th a tetrperature

of

loooc

to stean evaporatlon

same temperature

when the speclfic

3
-) ) )

heat of
q' Anslrer:

Z,Z6-yOGJ/qA?

Q = f ' l ! = 2 , 2 6

106J,/kg

4ks.= 9,91UJ

Letter
:,:.
&

c R

CONDENSING turn
-

AII
at a

forms
cer

of

vapour
^ro<SUF

bacK into
l'.Je caII

liquid

if

the

vapour

is

cooled

this

condensing'

Lo'l-Il

( CondenslngcanoccuratallteEPer'atures,asthecaseisfor evaPorati'3n ' (

:;liii
s.
-'i

9{ecanexplainthisbyusingthekinetictheoryofgases.There areHeakbondsbetweenthegasmolecu}es,andbycoolinethe.s theirspeeddecreases'and'therefore'sodoestheirkinetic energ,y.Thecol}islonsbetweentheEoleculesbeconelessvioler

ij
,;t
:i!

ThiscausesanumberofmoleculestoJointogether,andasa resultaliquidbeginstoform.Dur.ingcondensingthegasgives offitsevaporationheatwhichwasusedtof-ransfornitintoa energy decreases j-nternal and its b.gas, ( t

:* ; !
'j ii

l:l

UNSATURATED SATURATED AND

VAPOUR

lf an f ill or

Lle consider air a even tight Lj-ttle better

container ' and into

with He it' which

Piston water a '

liquid H l-et uP

evaporates piston rest

easily a

the -from

distance''

Fis.
,t L has

rl
, the proce'

the

Ilquid

(fLE. an

11) ' amou'nt of the liquid

evaporated

i:
ii

After

a while

goesqtrlckerthehigherthetetrperatureis.Thenoleculesinth( Iiquidmoverandornly.ThemoleculesHhicharemovingatgreat( s p e e d i n t h e l j . q u l d r . l i l l e v e n t u a l } y e s c a P e . a n d b e c o m e v a p o u r - E ,of the surface hit also nill m o l e c u l e s v a p o u r some of the the \ ( ( (

,;l
..;i

ii,

ii

.::

ll

:'1
rtl

i.': ,:|
!::

C
(

,Letter
car'o fron is the already cargo. frozen, of *hether

31
the heat hae to be re.noved

3! I
| { { '

Exanple. 1: How much energ'y of 1,5kt with and nust be transfe*ed of ooc to when a piece lt ls to of ice with a ,oass to

( ( be changed I ( (

a te'perature same

Hater

the

fprnpgFature?

Ansr.rer: Transferred enertf,l (o) = fs'E = 330-to3.r,zke-1,5kg = 495kJ

--.'l
( (

Exarnple 2: A piece of copper of { of 200c to uass when the o,Bkg the is to be nerted. starts. neltint is capacity The copper How nuch point for has ( ( ( as I ( ( enerty - rn dr during = heating: = 332kJ heatlng The

a temperature must i's the

b"

enerE:y copper and

be trahsferred its

copper?

10830C, heat -

speci-flc is

nelting

temperature The heat.

2\okJ/kg, is

capac'ty

3goJ,/kg'K-

regarded

constant

Answer: Transferred (o) = c

39oJ,/ka.K-o,Bkg.to63K

I
(

Transfened (Os) = ls-E

enertf,/

during heatlng (ne].tj'ng = 2Le. 1O3J./kC.O,gkg = 16BkJ energ-y:

heat)

Total

transferred

(O) = (s32 + 168).1o3J = ggg\J

T I I I a

I I

nHC Letter
EVAPORATION

rf that

L/e r-et a riquid the fiquio to dry they will in will

stand

in

a container after

in

the

open rf

aj-;_, LJe l::::r.r ( out.r:t H t { ( ( (

dlsappear winter

a whir_e. sub-zero

crothes know that

rJe hang

the

during

temperatures,

if they hang 10ng enough in drlv weath=:-. [.Je can fi_nd Iuany examples of e'ater dryi ng trThis must s'gni f y --.iat the liqui_d changes to vapour. FJe ca.l this evaporationperha;s L{e think nainry of evaporation in connection with boiling. buL',ehad best note that evaporatl0n can occur at alr temprature_<. some .J-iquids evaporate quickly, Iike ethane and benzene. nnd others evaporate sIowIy, like oiIAs a ru-Le things exceptions' clothes is rn

dry

dry the

quicker, the

the air

warmer is

they

are,

but

there

( a:3 ( ( (

tropics

so h.unld that

of ten

dr _" nb g 1y rr L

impossib.l-e or

difficult

Evaporation

depends

on

the

therma]-

movetrents

of

the

nolecul-es

( (

[^lecan

explain

evaporation

in

th=

f o1lowi_ng Hay: rn a liqui_d the nolecules but are in

( (

constant cules speed in fvaporation of a liquiC. floiecuies in the liquid having enough kinetic enerry,Hil.l. escape fror th: surface o f t h e l i q u i d , a n df o r r vapcur. ao

notion, not

a-l_l _,he mo]=_ at the the sarue ( ( ( ( ( \ ( ( ( ( (. ( (

traveL of

The

speed varies gas

mo-l_ecul-es sane wa).

J-iquids

j_n the

as'they of of the the

do in

(Vapour) at the

Some

nrolecules gas have

surface and.

enough speed kinetic escape

therefore, to allor+ in

enough thern to the

energlr' from their a

[ie.

1u

bonds vapour-

liquid

a n d , -b e c o m e

a&

. :

iii;

ill,
.iI

I
Letter 2

iti .
t.
al

g8
lhere wirl that pe so uany there wirl be

3l
I
I

f,l

:iii

ii

Iiquid vapour equal

and enter morecures nunbers of

it in

agaln, the

After

a whire the

iii. ilI

il! iil!

area over

liquid

I
(

norecules

becoming

vapour the

as there over

are nunbers the 1iquid is

becoming liquid saturated so that a ]arger after wlth the

- t'Ie can now say that vapour. rf He trove the riquid above the the llquld

area

lii,,

piston

I
{

up a rlttre ne ni.rr

higher, see that wirl, is

volume

i-ncreases,

aBount of

evaporates,

and the pressure for this

a whi'le,

be constant is

that, the

temperature

again - The assumption ' held constarit:_

I
( { ( to { {

rl* tna

piston

is

pressed

down, the soEe of af ter

vorume over the vapour

the

liquid,

therefore, liqui-d, constant. but

becones snarrer, again

w i r . r condense shile
will be

the pressure

a li_ttle

[.1e. can

.bxplain l-iquid si-r1 occurs and

the is

experiment in an

as

follows: space the At nolecules the saue whi_ch tirne the of llore

( ( {

t'lhen the evaporate opposite the liquid

enclosed

remain with

i-nside the

the'space. molecuLes again.

vapour ].iquid

hi-tting

the as the

surface is

b,econing riquid,

Gradually, wirr hit

there

vapour of the

above liquid-

the

more nor-ecules

surface

I
-Y

After t.here

a while, are golng

just back

as rany into

nolecures liquid

co'e

out

of

the

liquid that the

I
as

ghe

- [.Je can

now say

u"o lieuid :::""", _the has a certaln pressure

there

are stable
whlch .--..-.----

(ln

eeuiJ.ibrluuf
on the

. Ig:__rr,g_fegg""
te.nperature of

I l:
I

1s dependent

the liquid. This is carreaJl-=at-otE-r *-'_-.-_--'_-.-,--,--.

is riquid in -, the contalner independent'of saturation the then liquid theivorume.

=---=--=-.-._ the pressure ig the the

"=
of the vapour is sane as the then nore of

q .t
12

The fresgure

pressure.' will

tJhen we lncrease into into vapoura liquld.

vorune,

evaporate will turn

r-{he

vorune

decreases, pressure is

I
e
I t

t
rl

the vapour

The vapour

't--

Letter

39

I
a - l - t ' t a y st h e temperature, vapour, hlgher sarne as nore the saturation rscape rressure pressure.. from of the the If He increase the

morecules and

liquid vapour

and become becomes

and the

density

The vapour The pressure higher other to rn fil-I this than

pressure of the

and

tenprature at a certain pressure can occur vapour is if at

are

very

crosery

rerate,l be on

a vapour saturation opposite

tenperature at that

cannot

temperaturqis not enough

the

hand the the case

there the

liquid

container all the

with liquid than

saturation and vapour the the

tenperature. vapour wi-l-I

ewaporated,

have a loser this -"d Figure the

pressure

tl e saturated say that

would .have at i.s unsatu---'

temperature. rr rup".-h""td

LJ, therefcre,

vapour

, . , t : : . .

lt,

L2-

shows

e
D ,l't t a

. . , t . , . .

saturation for

tiiili:::
rlr,tttrr

temperature propane, and water different t.ures. boiling be read

r)4

t= A

l|J

'' .t. r n I L / :li;:l]-:.:

butane at tenperaThe nornal point off at can the

o

, lllilllil: .t,...i..-..
' . . 1 . . ,

"..,..-.
:::;t:t'

saturation at 1 bar-

pressure

-40 -20
Fj-z. 12.

20

40

t00 ( oC) Terp,crutura

60

B0

t20 r40 r60

( The saturation the pressure the increases.with pressure is in the highest the { temperature, for propane and and at is is ( { (

same temperature for water.

lowest caused

The difference betueen the

saturation The

pressures

by the

bonds

molecules-

intei-uolecular

i
( (

!
Letter 2
4

ot
'l
(

I
strentth proPane.
of the

bonds is real-ly

targeit

for about

nater

and

smal-Lest the

for liquids \ are.

l.le are

talki.ng

how volatl1e

( (

I ' he

boil- l_nc
't

po

of

a li-quid the

is

at is fie-

the the

temperature sane as the

where

the

/ satu rati
ver
h

o n p r e a a u re e of lquld

\
I

.l.iquid from

( ( ( (

presaure with a / /

the

\tt. "

- 14e c a n s e e

L2 that

a llquld "

ieh

sat ur ation

p res s ure

has

a lotr

boi1ing

point

A saturated rises, system

vapour as

wiJ.l the -

increase and

its the

density lJ.quid

as are

the kept

tenperature in a closed

( ( (

Ets long

vapour

(container)

The density can be read

for off

saturated curves j.n the or next

vapour

and

the each

saturation gas. This

: pressure wi'l-I be

tables'for Ietter.

explored

Eore

6
( {

\r.{

I C I

t I
I

q
q
(

T I
I

Letter
f

4L

BOILING

Everyone seen inside that

hae aeen vaPour bubble than the

qater bubbles urust sum the

boil from

in

pan

on the

hot

Plate, The

and

has

lnslde

Iiquld

Pressure

the

b larger of 'tfre surface the sure

pressure tension

from inside

bubble from If

and the the

Pres-

surroundlng a at

liquid. vapour the

He consider formed the 13),

bubble of

bottom (fig.

conthe the sane

f i q I ?

tainer pressure bubble as the

( ( (

(p)

j-nside

rqust be the barometer

Presthe (f -g'h) :

sure static

(O6) plus pressure

Iiquid

boils Pressure is

when in

the the

satvaPas

uration our

bubble Pr.essure the

the over

same the

P = pb *f,-e-h

the plus

Iiquid '

stat

j-c Pressure

These

bubbles Hith

nust

be

saturated vapour. face the ls water is

water saturation larger The as than pressure the in the bubbles the just Iiquid at the surthen the ( (

glhen the a little boil-s. the in sane the

pressure of the

over vapour

water, above at

telrperature the boiling

Hater

point

of

the

the ( (

pressure

room

!Cg--ge-a-!.e-f-i-Sgj- The at rrhich the

boiling

Point pressure -

of of

a liquid the

ig

the is

tenperature same as the

( ( ( ( (

saturation the liquid

vapour

the

pressure

above

( -r,

YZ-

Letter

41

I
I.

q
is the sane as the atmospheric nhere the

If

the

pressure then

above the

the

Iiquld po1nt saEe

pressure, saturation

bolllng is the

1s the as the

tesperature atnosPherlc

pressure

Pressure-

If

the

preseure In liquld

above

a Iiquid if at the

decreases, pressure

the

boiling

po.-i1t- wi1l is increa-

decreasesed, the

reverse, boiJ.s

above

a liquid

a higher

tenperature.

fn

a steam

production water water

plant bolls dt,

we know th1s for in example, a fresh

frou

practlceat

In

nodern During; boil at

boller fresh

65bar nater to

2B1oCit can

e
_t

production of

generator a saturation

a tenperature of O,O738bar-

4OoC corresPondlng

pressure

l
At 5OO0n above the boiling sea level of the air pressure j-s BzoC - . is aPprox. 513mbar,

6
(l

here

polnt

water

DISTILLATION

of tlro liquids, both pressure vapour mixture coorPonents of such of are then

If

ue heat in

up a rnixture the lolrer the vapourthan boiling

present is always

The saturation the suu of of the the

a mixture the has c.onpoa tnean

pressure generally

e
t I I

nents, value

and

point

b the

If

se condense volatile at

this liquids, the end

vapour, then

io Eore

the

beginning of the

we ni11 the pure less

Eostly volatile

get

and more get

d,

ones I and This

we w111 rnal.nly is called

co!0ponent'. (See fig. t4)

heating

and condensi.ng

distiLlation.

'1

q q

I I e

Letter

1
Exanple:

3 weight X of ethane_ The Point for propahe (at atm_ ) is -42,LoC and for ethane -88, 6oc. The boj-line poi.nt for t h e n j . x t u r e _47,SoC is rn the vapour is phase in the

A cargo

of

propane

contains

bollJ-ng it j-s 15)

(fig-

above liquid rf to

the

riqui.d

there because is of the the

is

than

much onore ethane has eva_

there

phase,

porated then

o,ore ethane to sarnpre

than wiII which

propanehave is

the

raboratory a sample of

trre

cargo, to get

they

take

liquid

phase

a result

representative

cargo-

..

_)
,:>}

IL

. > : '

4-r'

'1,'
.i

g:

'.,.:. .Yi,".' -;. '1t.'

- .' 't , . t'
I

't.

( ( (

q1
Letter
I

t ,.t !41 I
( ( { (

Tenp.

Tu

I
( TI
$^

I 6
tn

o7. o f A 1002 o f B

(nol)

IOOZ of O7 of

A B

FLz.

L 4 . Diagran nixture

of AB

boillng (l-deal

points nixture).

at

constant

Pressure

for

the

!
T6, and cotrPonent B. B has boili-ng than

The point

conponent t"-:

A hae

boi-ling A is

point

Component

nore

volatile

a a
'i

]
t

an

arOitrarily the

chogen

point

on the (d)

top

curve

(dew (T1)

Point of

curve the

(y)

, a
I .:

lndlcates durlng

composltion

and tenperature

vaPour

. :i! {

condenslng.

e
I

-i

The point the

(x)

on the of

loser

curve'(boiJ.ing ulxture the (e)

point

curve)' indicates boiling of pointthe at the

conposition

the

liquld

and the

(T1) - The points vapour and the

x and y rePresent llquld. ln stable

concentrations (equlllbrluu)

I T
.f
a

condltlons

sarne tenpqratures

Lecter

Boiling

point

for

propane

mixed

wi-:h

ethane

at

latm'

T " C

-50 -49 -48 -47

-qo
i_

-4tl

- 43 -q2
- q I

-40

1l

{
rJX ,r:jl I

0r5
l;l ilr

t t

r J

2rO

215

3'o

wei.ghtz etl

jji
41
.

E -L i Ao .

L J

1 q

at ,{l. :.i.

\ ( ( i
6'

q6
Letter

I
GAS LAI.JS

Zri
I
. l

AvoEadro's Avogadro's contaln the

I Law laH states saue that: of "Equal nolecules volunes at the of different pressure gases and ( ( I ( nunber

sane

teaperature.'.

The volume called the

of

1 nole

nolar

A 3 s ( 6 , o 2 - 1 O 2 s tas volurqe o f t h e g a s .

of

molecules)

is

( ( (

ar1 has b'een shown to be correct. The nolar vorume can be found for the so-calred "1deal tas'j. At ooc and at,atmospheric pressure the Eolar volume is 22,414 1itre,/nolgases - This
By usint OoC and per
t&

Accordi.ng

to Avogadro's

rarr the

uolar

volume is

equar

f or

( ( (

e
{ (

voluue we can fl.nd the denslty of gases 1 attr- pressure. The density i s neasured in nass litre of gas -

this

nolar

at

Example 1: Find 1 nole 22,4 the of densi.ty oxyten of oxyten at OoC and has atnospherlc of

e c

pressure. off)

molecules 32g 02

(O2)

a Eass

32C (rounded

litres

contai-n

AnsLrer: The density )

t

22,4--Ir:.'=Ei;L = !:!?g!!

32e/mo]-

c e,

q
Example 2: Find the of density 1 nole
AnsHer: The density

-) )
I

CO2 at OoC and atmospheric CO2 nolecules has a nass of 44e.

of

pressure,

when

zM=

44z,moL

!+29E1!

q I 1 T
-t . I

:DnHG

Letter

o:Ep-q--qDalton's sun of

l-c!
Iaw the is relevant of rlhen we turx tl{o the tI'Jo gases
ls dif equal ferent to

gases: the totaf

"The

pressure

pressure". was alone ' the The Iarger Iarger its Portron effect wiII be

Each gas wilt u.of the Partial

behave

as

though the In the

it

Pressure density.' for

gas exerts, air, for

willnostIY

be on the

example'

nj-trogen

resPonsj-ble

density-

Usj.ng sYnbols

, Dalton's P1 -

law PA.*

is

as

follows: (ne + ng)

P - =

Pa

= total

Pressure pressures

{
I t

P 6 + P B = partial = number

( n6 of rnoles of gas A

nB
=

number

of

moles

of

gas

the

gas

constant,

which

is equal t@
in K (Kelvin)

= teEPerature

of

the

gas

= Volume

of

thg

gas

in

ta3

In

Eas transPort of

definitj-on pressure 2,lkp/cm2

You have ':A gas Elas: Pressure)

to is at

take

note

that

we havd a technical saturatj-on than

a substance 37,BoC is

where the equal

(vaPour

or higher

(z 2,8bar) ' (

(
r&

f
(

Letter I
Bovle's

4B

Boyle's

u*

La$J

lan states

that:

"At

a constant ls

tenperature -

the

Product

of p (pressure)

a n d v (volune)

constant"

If

we nalntain vary,

a constant we get can

tenperature, the then equatlon: be read

and p-V frorn

He let

the

Pressure The

and volune pressure See FlS.

= constant. a curve

and volume 16.

(hyperbole),

1.2 1.0

3
I

5 0.t ! o.c

& o.r
0.2

"o

{0 @ EO Yoluor (titen)

t@

t20 I

Fle.

16. Pressure

volume dlagran

for

an i d e a l

gas.

I
I

Gav Gay voluue

Lussac's Lussac's of the

IaH: law gas states increases that "At a constant wl.th the Pressure, tenperdture" the

unlforuly

A gas thernoneter thernoneters. tenperature,

,] ) tr" ) ) ) V =

w111, therfor,.be we malnta1n-a

nore

relI.able

than

other the I I

If

constant

pressure

and lre vary

wb get:

V o :
a(-

Vo-(t+{-t)Hhere 'OoC volume at

I {

constant
tenperature Boile's

(fir)
ln degiees Celclus lans, vorune we get: glves, ll = P2 T2 T1

t
If

t
I I I

we conbine Pt'vt T1

and Gay-Lussacrs grhlch at constant

= Pz'vz T2

!
(

Letter I

2
MIXTURE

LIOUID CALCULATION OF SATURATION PRESSURE F'OR A

During usual ) ,

*'he it

transportati-on happens pressure or that for it

of

rnixed

products'

(which to

is

quite the rool

nay

be necessary of liquids

calculate a given cargo '

saturation Percentage,

a rnixture

fron of the

f rom a known wr=ight

raixture

It

is

also

of

use above

to

be

able liquid

to

calculate 3s

the thls

composition is declsive r'lork' the It

of for is,

the the o,f

vapour

phase

the and,

phase,

condensing course. (the this

pressure vapour

therefore, which is

co!trPressor sucked into

mixture system)

conpressors

reliquefaction

we sha-l-I l-ation

now

look

more

cl-osel-y the

at

sone

simple

methods

of

calcut

i-n connection

wi-th

above'

,,-' tf{{ 40ot,T of rhe

J . . - r

to

carry

a cargo

of

loof1T and

(rnetrj.c are

tons) to

of

proParre in the

and of

butanetanks-

The propane I ' , J eh a v e (as

butane the

be nixed of '

one

i I

shin,s to

calculated previously the

temperature the this Letter)

liqui

rnixture
:I

be -8oC

seen for from

in at

The saturation
rl

pressure this

propane or

telqPerature and the

il

,i:

3,69

bar

(we read

a curve

table)'

saturat-

ilt
ll:

ionpressureforbutaneisQ,TSbaratthesallletemperature(tota1 of the l0ixture pl'essure tJhat is the saturation of and what wj-I-I be the roixi-ng condi-tions the tank), phases sucked above into the the liquid surface (the vapour mixture

presure the which vapour j-s

in

reliquefaction

system)?

tt

{: :,
li

AnsHer: First we hawe to calculate horr tuany mo)-e we have of ProPane and

butane,

resPectivel-Y - t'Je trust , therefore,

find

the uolar

trass of

(
I

G- l-

{x

( (

<1-e

I
I k
I

1r
Letter 2

I
THE GENERAL GAS EOUATION

The Generar with ls to a good say:

Gas Equation approxinatj-on when the

or for

Boyre-charles''Law a]-]- gases is with

(p-v low lower

= n.R-T)

deal

pressure than the

(that gases

pressure -

considerably

saturation

pressure)

A particular an idealgas.

gas

which

fol-lows

the

condi.tion

closely,

is

called

p = pressure V = vol-une n = number R = the gas of of

of

the

gas in

in

Pa (pascal) Eetre)

the

gas of

ru3 (cubj-c

moles

gas

constant of

= I, 3L434J /R- molthe gas in K (Kelvin)

T = tenperature

Exarqple: How large a voLume wi]']. 96g of oxygen occupy at 3 atmospheres

( 3OOoOOPa) and

77oC ? :

AnsHer: First periodic 15,9994. atons) 'L6gr.re f ind table, This has out how raany moles that the 96g 02 atomic of is. Eass oxygen He round two By looking of oxygen (6,02 nunber atons. 2 to find in (o) the is to23 up to

we see means that of

one'more grans.

atoms this

a uass

1s,9994

The oxygen nultiply the 32,

nolecure..(o2) the atonic (\6-2

contains mass of = 32). in g/not-

oxygen by

lle must, the

theref.orq, tnass of cule is

orygen

o2.urolecure and is

Thls

Eass of

one 02 !ole-

denominated

Nos we must

find

out

how nany

noles

969

of

02 is

equar

to:

96g:32t/g.oL Then we find out

=3noJ.ei 77oC 1s:

how many K,

(77+2731K=35OK

p
?

!:i."

,i":
Dn't'tC Letter 2

;1 Now He can use Boyle-Charles, v.' : P ,"*, 8.31434J,/K.nol . 3-sor v - 3nores

n-R-T l

I
I

so( I I
t hat I

rooo#=

o,o2em3

I N o tice I

l;"":";.,

===?g=Ii!Ig:
tue find : tirat the the volume density decreases rises when the tenperature

f " u = N , / u2r
decreases ,

a e
6
Q

and therefore

because:

,,

,
Boyre-charles' tas) is.higher

Densitr=.r-f,r_@fu
LaH 1s rer-evant than the crj.tical

d
(o,f the the gas) -

when the

ternperature (for

tetrperature

(t
6

a a

@
CRTTICAL TEI{PERATURE AND PRESSURE Theoreticar,r-y,

nined

atrr gases can becone ri.quid if coored. sorne gases will arso becone liquid if they are coepressed. other gases have to be coore'd before they can be conpressed into a riquid. croser stu.-dies of these condltions show that there are strlctly 9* deter_
criticar the gas teEperatures can becone and pressures a liqui-d shich are required

before

q
to the gases: which this into is a tenperature Above

l'le have

two

definitions

which

are

rerevant is

The cri-tlcal characteristi'c ture the

teupera.ture for*each cannot pressure

substance-

tp'peraa liqui.d,

substance high the

be conpressed i.s.

hor.rever
!

The criti-car with

)

pressure

is

the

pressure to get wir-r- not

shich the.gas

must be used coupressed

the

criticar ' Loser

tenperature pressures

to a liquid

be suf f lcient.

The inforuation

in

fig-

17 shows a.number of

critical

data.

I I
I

q q I I

q q I

Letter

SUBSIANCE A.ulonia HeIiua Hydrogen Carbon

!{ethane Ni.trogen ._Oxyten
9+

CRITICAL og

TE}'P.

CRIT{CAL 7L2,O 2,3 L2,A 73.O 45,A 33,9 5L,4 42, L 2LA,O 56,9

PRESSURE

NH: He H2

L32,4 -268 , O -240,o 31.O a2,L -L47 , L -1 18,a 96,9 374,O 156,s

Dloxlde

caz
CH/, N2

o2 c:H e Hzo
Chloride

Propane l.Iater Vlnyl

C2H3CL

FLz.

\7

DET.{ POTNT

The nust

dew be

point cooled

teEperature down until

is

that

temperature, begins.

to

uhich

vapour

condensatlon

/^'

-J0'

-10' -to.

5 a t u r a t i o no f s a t e r

( L (

Fie.

1B

Figure
r}!

tB

shows

the

saturation

curve

of

water

vapour

at

absolute

q ( (

DENNORSKE

:TR.ANSPOR.:TAT

ON

OF

CONDEN.SED

GASES

B)'

SEA

PAR.T

:f

'B*

COR.R

TqSPOT'IDENCE

LET:rER

r{o

t , ,

, i

s2
Letter 2
saturatPolnt

: Dnt'1G

ffi" #
( (

trunldltY 1on after

( j-n g/s3 ) and coollng to

tenPeratuie

Air read

at. of f

B wilI t.hat

reach the dew

ffi: #:
( ( (

E , and LJe can

l s % p p r o x . Lzoc at
hunidity Hater

D'a'rounc which (in ls X)

between to

w . qi,
f f i ((

The rer.ative the actuar-

can

be given

as the and that

vapour

content,

equaf

4(
f,
t

saturation. exarnPle thls wlll be':

qf f ffi{
@, ( ' : - 1(

In

our

looz

= 1oo

lr.5 N = SOE 23,o

@, (

Themaxj-mumcapacityofairforholdingwatervapourwilllargely babletodoubleltselffoi.everylodegreerisej-nternperature. ThedewpolntcanbemeasuredusingaDellPolntHeter..wewiII letter' in a later of dewpoint r n e a s u r l n g t h e w i t h m o r e deal

fr &
@'

t t
1

@,
HIXING OF LIAUIDS

&u {
lre if can read

If the

r.le nix l1qu1d

tHo fron

liquids a curve

the

saturatj-on

Pressure of

above

Lle know

hor.r much we have

. :

each
I i I

q( (' q( (
I

ll.quid

shown in
Saturallcn
^ra<(llfP t,, vJve. ^ f ut i i Y t l r ? e r^^!vr

q, q(
(

Thi-s ie fLe. ture

,
I i

E
\((
i
I I

19 for of

a mixand heat
C a q r/l d,

ethane No

proPanereactions during of
r}.

occur uixing I1q-

q, $,
( (

the two

ion Saturat

these

Pressure of etane
turation 5a PreSSure of ProPare - ' -"r;I

$(r

l$,
( ( (
l

ids. The 1s gas shown PresEure as of a an of r" FiE. ilol fraction of etane 19.

. r - T - - l ' . l

function ldeal ethane at

lq, l ! t,
{ ioIc

lq,

solution and

q o ' ' f 'i ,o l s

liquid rixture

ProPane

C {e

-4ooc-

1r !c
,,

( Letter
I

s/.1
(

these

subgtances.

I
( formula the aton (H) (C) ls CgHS, and table" butane lle has find the ttrat formula the atomic { ( ( ( (

Propane C+H1O atomic raass of

hae With

the the

che:nicaL heJ-p of a carbon

"periodic is

mass of the

12,O1115g/E,oL

and ,the

hydrogen

atotr

L,OOZBTE/noI-

The calcu].ation MoleCular tL

a

is

as

folloss: (C3Hg) : 12, 01115g/!,ol-- 3 + L,OQ797Elnol-g = 36, O33459,/no1 = 8.O6376e/moL = 44.O972Ie./rnoI

Eass,

propane

e
C

Z=!!+L====gls_g_!
Holecular Bass , butane ( C4H19 ) : = 48,O446g/moI LZ ,O1115g,/uo1 - 4 + L,OO797g./noL' 1O = LO.O797e,/moI = 58. L243e /moL e

j=99.1== =glry-e-L

c
l.Je can now calculate nass can ratio just as betseen well the propane say that number arid the of nole is j-s of each substance: 4OOHT, but 4OOg, to The Lre butane ratio the lOOtlT lOOg :

6 C C

make the

calculation

easier.

tJe can use

formu]-a:

e q
I I

'l{i

:i!i
: !i :i. :

il

EF

= n

NASS

M r = nolecular n = number of

mass mo]-e

ii,

!
Nuruber of moles of propanelooE 44 , Lt/soL = 2,27moL 9, 15 (Total No. of Nunbers of moles of butane, ---1.Oo 58, 19,/uol = 6,gguol nole)

q
I
A

I I I I

I
a

( (
tl.
trc

'

Letter

55

liilrit iiiriY'

llllkr;

:iil:iii, F u r t h e r ,

lii:5r, Ii I li:l;

iliifr'

ii ffir ilijiil

iiiii,' li l:i:l;,: . if f , ' , : i l::r, i

He calculate

the

partlal-

pressure Raoult,s

f oC propane and buta ne law):

(w1th the help of

the so-calfed

Molar fraction of propane in rhe liquid: i l ,i i 2 ' 2 7 m o != o , 2 4 a 'i1ii ): 24,82 \ e ' 15mol i lil I i j i i : . t , l o 1 a r f r a c t i o n o f b u t a n e j - n t h e 1 i q u i - d : > 6'88mol = o,7sz s ', 27. I ) : 7llilit, e, 15mo1 ) i;ilj,, ligi,
liiEll.

iii#i 1i g l ' ifii, ,:; . : , i " : I i \ ) j:

iiii
r:,

pressure Partial of Partial-' pressure of pressure Saturation I-ank pressure

- -

propane O,Z4A- 3,69bar butane O,752.O ,78bar of the nixture atm. press - )

= O,91Sbar = O.S87bar = r.SozUai' F_9r5__Dgl \

s

(sat - press

':l9i . 'it
,ii,.}i
i l r r a

The roixing liquid ) is

ratio

of

the as

gas

phase

(over

the

surface

of

the (

iiiiB,

iiiil*,

ca]culated

f oI1ows:

iiiiEi

iiiifiii,Propanein the vapour phasethe vapour phase'

o.915bar = 0,609
1,5O2bar

): 60.g7" )
): 3 9 , L Z '/ )

ililRi, Butane in 'i li lililfj i; l; t r i i f l i. r:lre1-:.

'

o,587bar = o,391 1 ,5o2bar

Loo7.

( ( (

i ' l l iiii i

;,ti!..
irls'i
i tl;: i'i{j, j ! i4!i!:

t'Je see

that

the

vapour

which

we suck

into

the

religuefaction

l' . . $ j . i s y s t e n

consists
^ i; n

of
+k^ t he

60,gz
+^^rt ank

propane

(and

39,Lz

butane),

even though rt in is impor{ ( a ( ( (

r-Frr ti^.,i: i;i81; tha. liquid

^^r-o nly

c o n t a^i :--n s

24,87. propane. may calculate the systen

tant to be aware of this ii*1 ;:$i'i condensing ': !f { . tf :r l i t h e n e c e s s a r y

so' that pressure

you for

advance has

- propane

:iil,, ;lJi' ,
.lYi 1t,..

considerably

higher

condensing

pressure

than

butane.

,I:,i

Be aware pressure-

of

the

relation notations

betwen

absolute

pressure

,. ,1q':'

and overabsolute)

( ( ( ( ,

i;t;il
r j lii:
! I 1 a lt l 'l [ ! ; l{r l{J '
'l | ,

i il;r
i i{r, l{;, ;i
.r: ,? : t , < : ! 1 ,,

The o1d

ATA (Atruospheric

pressure,

i[11,.and ATo (Atnospherj-c

overpressure)

are sti]l

in

use-

' i ,

l , rj { ' ,
l i , i:li

C
(

Letter

s6(
( ( (

I
We can lllustrate.the relatlon as folloss:

Absol-ute

pressure pressure)

Over ( ATO)

pressure

(Saturation
(ATA)

( llanometer (Tank

pressure)

pressure)

Atnospherlc

pressure

Fie-. 20

(Over prssur

= AbsoJ-ute pressure

ninus

atmospheric

pressure)

ENTHALPY L Enthalpy (H) is uslng the total unlt energy Joule shich (J). work a substance Thls (p.v). energf,/ contains. consists of It

1s neasured lnternal

ttre (U)

energl/

and external

Enthalpy

is

deflned

as:

H - U + (p.v)

.) ) )
3

In unit

this is

calculation J /ke

specific

enthalpy

(h)

is

nornally

usd.

fts

fn in

technj.cal changes ln

cooling enthalpy

calculations (dh) -

He are,

d s a rule,

interested

The First

Law of

thernodynamics

states

that:

h - q + Wt

Hhere q and Wt

tr;lnsferrqd
trangferred

heat Eass
sork (technicaLr.rork)

Letier
I

s7

ENTROPY

(6) ie a useful .rid which ie uged in thernodvnamics,llliifi]il""a.opy units used are Joules,/Kelvin (.J /K) . l ii ll ii[iiiir rl+ :n"

itlifiiii fIn technical

liili!i:

cooling

calcu.J-ations

we

are

maj-nly

interested

in

the

,'lliiF;; ( s) ill:lij,."..qA" changes

iiij|l;l
l l :Il 1 : i

iilU''i

2ls = +

(onry when r = constant)

.dq = chanse in the quantity of heat lllili,,"n".e = temperature in Kiil:ii;1""a r

liliitj

r,lfiii
, ; ,, l : i r
i : t ;

I.' i'rl ,];I'DIFFUSION

l.':,. ,j.jijrf-r" word ,iiiil'
. r l ; i : i rX t pef

: ,i ; '

diffusion

cones

from

Latin

and

means

spreading

out

,itii$ir

iiiiri -

Itrent:

illiifiir sases wilI

mix together ro the left

liii{jftt ii ,11t.n diffusiort.

; !f i i " f i e . 2 L , H e s e e t w o b e a k e r s iiliff"ni.n contain separate sases, ij[;S;l qLEu vty l a barrier - There i i .l B ' fr -f H ie o ^e a r a t e d b
iiI'r
; !lr[ , r ' 'A

,#is air

in

the

upper in

beaker, the losrer betneen

ll::'4-:---

illanO bromide

gas
the

ill !5

ittitle renove

:ti{

barrier

i ! , l i $ n et u o :t :$
';than
i r::
; l .:

beakers.

Even though gae is

siIl

,li1tn" brown bromine

! r ' , ,

heavier
occur-

air,

diffusion

ilip.
: ,. jjl

will

Bee af ter
t.lili

a while

that
I

j'lpoth
' 't:t, :.i.1;t:

beakers

be fj-J-led

,iii.tritn' brown gae ( the

r : .i i . : . -;t'.

beakers

on
:-=-b:-=-::

(
f i s t I

.l,i;tnefab

right).

\.
1

: (

Iretter

5B

Thg Rroeertles etlc theory of

of

gases

can

be explalned is Greek,

rsl.th and

hel-p from treans

the

k1n-

gases.

(Klnetlc

movement).

A gas Single ether,

conslsts atoms but

of like:

a large He, to

nurqber

of

uncharged ta6es)

atoos

or

molecuJ.es bond tog-

N and Ar be separate

(Noble atous.

do not

continue

Nltrogen,

hydrogen atons the for

and ox.yEen sl}I form molecules: can also

bond N2, foru p4.

together, a2

so

that nuruber phosphor

tr.ro and two of atons of

H2 and

A }arger Four

same example

kind the

nolecul-es.

atorns form

nolecule

Another elements) chlorine

(very bond (Cl)

co',oon) together which

bond like,

is

when different for example, chJ.ori-de

atoms hydrogen (HCL).

(different (H) and

forn

hydrogen

Nitrogen Carbon

(N) (C)

and hydrogen

(H) (H)

forn

ammonia N + H3 --) C + H4 --)

NH: CHq

and hydrogen

forn

nethane

The norecules notion, earlier. the

in

a vapour

(also

in

liquid) which

are

in

constant of

so-called

Brownian

motlon.

we have spoken

The movements are say-.that arrive

cornpletely

coincj.dental over

and random, of tine,

that

is

to

a partlcular in a

anywhere

norecule, '' "oor. is the

a period

couLd
I (

Thaseee'd
I

of

the

aolecule

dependent faster they

on the Eove-

tenperature.

The

I
I

hlgher

the

tenperature,

The speed of the

of

diffusi-on The

for Brltlsh the

a gas

is

also

dependent Graham

on

the

weight this in

I I { {

EolecuLe.

Scientlst

dlscovered

1829

and he deduced

1aw:

!
I

':
'-a

I-etter
7i

2
gas

Sq

The

dlffusion square root

speed of

a
:i

of the

is

inversely rnass of

proportronal the gas -

the

to

rqolecuJ_ar

: _
i

vt = {ni v2 tnl

Ex.:

\, 'HZ

%;--ft
(Hydrogen oxygen) diffuses

= 6i

= VIC
iour times quicker than

THE SOLUBTLTTY OF GASES TN LIOUIDS Liquids gas is

can

absorb

gases the

(absorb fiquid

is

Latin

for

to

suck in

dissolved

in) - The is

into

soda!)_

(CO2 dissolved

water

E!ffsp_lc:
1 Ii-tre but of water at OoC and 1 bar that j.s inportant pressure is onl-y O, O3g of 39 voIZ of oxygen absorbs in in e,O7g of N2 The air (this 02,

absorbed for life

water the

contains

sea ) -

Law states {enrV'9 that: "The absorbed mass nal- to the gas pressure over the liquid.,This as' law for onJ-y works exaruple'

of

gas

rs

proportio_

when no chemical an-onia and gas the is

.reactions or

are

taki_ng prace, chroride and

,oith

water also

water-

hydrogen

The absorbed. the and being

,oass of

The higher in rivers 02

dependent is

on tenp:rature(Fish to die (

temperature, rakes due

l_ess gas

absorbed. which

to. hieh in the

temperatures water) -

litt1e

leads

dissolved

( ( (
f

e
(

Letter

I
REACTIVIfi A}ID CORROSION

Natriun vlolently roon

netal wlth

reacts copper. etc.

violently Nltrogen The reason

rrith does for

waternot this

ChLorine react is wltlt called

Eas

reacts at

olrygen

tenperature

"chernical

aff1nitv".

Natrium great

has affinty

a great to

aff.inity etc.

to

water,

and

chlorine

gas

has

coPPer

\toruic

theory

states

that of

the

electrons

of

the

atoms

deci-de

the

c.henj-cal- proPerties

a substance -

In

a stean

boiler lron

where oxlde ls

the

tlater

contains Ihe oxy8en

traces has

of

oxyten, to

know that iron

forned.

an afflnlty

Further

examples

of

chenical

corrosive

reactions:

1 -

Ammonj-a solution
(NHaOH + Cu -)

dissolves
(Cu(NH3)S)acids 2+

coPper

2.

Traces iron -

of

mineral

(salt,

suLphur,

nitric

acid)

corrode

(H2 SO4 +HZO+Fe

Hor,rever,

concentnat-ed

sulPhuric

acid

does

not

react

with

iront

3-

Vinyl

Chlorlde

with

traces

of

salt

acid

corrodes

iron.

(VCH + HCI + Fe -)

VCH + FeC12)

HYDRATE FORT,TATION

By analysing

salts,

it

can

be shoeJn thet

utany of

them

bond

sith

': i;ili;
' ,l'i I riji irl

: :\rlil. .;rIr:
I rilrl'

iirilii
' :I t i l ;
'r i ir !:i:il {jl,

i*' ,ii[,i
;,ilri
:;liri,
one cules taKe or nore are water molecules.

[-etter

c, l

Substances

containing

water

moleIf He

,irii
.' ; , l l i r " t l1
ff,, i

cal-Ied hydrates - An older terE is' crystal ..--T----.....some bl-ue copper surphate and heat it up; the dlsappears, to and cool of at the end a r.rhite its

water blue

col-our forned wirl -

'fii
i!ii

eventual-ry rf

l_i_quid is

we l-eave this -

i.n norma]- air,

bl-ue coLour

riiii
jii'
. : i l , t ' , i i

return

c u s o aa -

SH ,btue) Lc O ( of

heat (--this .

CuSO4

(whit.e)

+ 5H2A between the the water construc-

The expranation nolecul-es ti-on

"1oose cherqical

connecti-on'. substances

. ri :
l :

and several Hater

is

due

to

',i, lr,ll
l i

of. the

mol-ecuIe

!l1: i;.;i:
t t:! ::'l j ,

The water atoms the with

molecu]-e an angle charge

consists between of the

of

one oxygen

atou

and two

hydrogen this, f: g- zL) (

thern of

approx is

Lo/+oc. Due to (see

electric

oxygen aton

displaced

I ,'iiii
. l::rlI

i!:, ,i i l ;

t'l .i,:t.|,

. :

In

organic

chemistry substances for

there

are

also

:;l; , .lri t'

i..: ii

a number of hydrates,
1040

which

forn propane. can exau-

Like

example,

l.le allabsorb ple

know tha*u hydrocarbons an aruount of , oil- , water; f or

'.rlt]{l

,ii i,, ,,1lil ilt i

1,11. i

iir i, ,t r i ,

it;l'.

petrol

benzene, li-quids the

vctl etc t'ne water hydrates

11

If
-)l

we cool- these separated

' i.:ii.i rl il;'l

i, it ilffl i

F-iq

is

out - But

,E;it . :'Ii'
: -1?rii i <r 1
tJ|

f o r m a n e w , z d i - ff e r e n t . the example

substance - In a white

propane-hydrate, substance

i l l il l ii;iii, tlrlii' il.lr l rii li ii

:i i,l l; :i ltill ii,H,il ri : r1i
, . i!:' {,1,

;t: ii,il

ointment-1ike the formation of hydrates - This He can

1s formed Iike

To hinder ror

add alcohols, of

;l, t;1'

exalople

nethanol_

or' ethanol only allows have ppn-

addi.ti-on in situations

alcohoG-6r where gases the I e this

simj-Iar product et-l.rylene (Ethylene, pptr. ) .

subgtances

ruust

be used this-

,r;i.i:
; i;ii.,

specificatj_ons or propylene trax. lOvoI

The sueer regulations and

ct-''t

stri-ngent nethanol,

i i' i \ t : .
{'lE'' 1

regarding

propylene

Eax.;. S vol( (" (

j j i { i:
i .i;
ji':\i:

!:'r';r; i"1{i. i;: :'.'.

i'!.:,

. l; ;:iiil

C 'l
Lgtter 2

621
polyrqer.isationlirits hlgher. on.the Products content of

Additives like

have

a negative of

effect also values

on

LPG, ethane

proPane these

have are

q e
@

ethanol,/rnethanol

, but

6
j

LOW TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

g
Hater, iS al.so known in th,ree of aggregat

Our most forns: act to like vapo'ur

itoportant lrater

liquid;

ice,

and vapour for

(steau). Iodlne shich

The rnajority goes straight

substances from solid

water, during

except

sl-ow neatfi*g.--

C
@
connon hydrocarbons at atmos
I

9Je shal]-

pheric

u.

Iook

at

some of ( 1,013

the

nost

pressure

bars ) .

and 'r 'l il

ethane Propane butane benzene

1S

between "

-l72ac - 190()C -1350C +5,5oc

-Bg,60C -42, LoC + O,6oC +8O,1oC

a
a!

Iiquid

tt

" "

e
i-s an expression for

Frour thernodynamics the movenent of are in the in

we know

that

tenperature That j-s to than say

rqolecules. a greater This

that

the

solecules and in in a liq-

j-n a vapour least uid E.E-: very motion increases Hotor viscous,

rnotion

in. a liquid, the viscosi.ty

a solid.

means that temperature.

with oil at like

decreasing +3ooc i3

runny,

but

the

same oil

at

-zOoC is

treacJ.e-

q I I
a

q !

During in sone

the

cooling get water

of

hydrocarbons of

in nater. other

the

liquid shogs

phase that are cbn

lre ltill the sep-

cases of

separatlon (and

This

T
.|

arability on the pletely

several

coEpounds)', oil which

dependent be com-

tenperatureclear at

An example +zOoC, but if

1s

dlesel to

cooled

OoC the

oil

i-s uisty-

i I

I I I

,Lerter
Bg:sides
9.

6-l

the

separatj-on What it

of

water is , is

there ea sily

can

also in

be a

the

separation

of

paraffin-Hax.

shown

Iaboratory.

tlith

the

handl j-ng of and propylene it is

condensed

gases the

such

as

ethane, of the

ethylene, the liqrrid

propane can

etc - , where clear is that

tenperature in

be -10ooc, pipes

the to

material

valves, -

pumps,

and tanks

exposed

a colossal

stress

The crystal brittle. the metal

structure During due to

in

the if it

rnetal is

c'an be changed too.rapid,

and

it

becomes forn in

cooling, the

cracks its

can

ternperature

change

and

brittleness.

lluring shell at the

liquid plating, same

J-eaking water time

at

such

low be

:enperatures used to keep

on

exposed warm

deck and

and
i

hosi.ng

can

thern

d'isperse

the

gas-

fn drip

connection tray),

with

1 iquid

leakage using

co.)-lected water to

in

containers the

(e.g Iiquid

o n e m u s t avoid can

evaporate

because water

ther-e

be a danger

of

rupture

of

the

container

if

the {

freezes

HELTING OF'ICE

( (

Among of ice u. In

other

thi.ngs and the

ice

can

create of

huge To

problems hinder ) are the

for

the

service of

( ( (

varves alcoho}s

working

punps or

formation

( normall-y

methanol

ettranol

added .

Norway
--:--.--+

ethanol are a:xture

j-s

used,

mainJ.y

due

to

the

toxicity

of

nethanol. reezing

( t ( (

These point

alcoholg of tiie

completeJ-y wj.ll sink

soJ-uble (see

in-water, tj,e22) -

aiar:he,-f

To hinder spray is

eXternal
--.....'_.'__-_*-*--F

ice

formation

6n

valves,

mefhAllo]

or

ethanol

(
t

often

used.

lliffi" '|ffil itiffil

iiriilii
';ll' ll l ,:1i8:i

Letter

I 61
{

The freezlng The freezlng

polnt polht

of of

nethanol ethanol

l-s -g8oc. ls -ttzoc.

ijiiili
' $ii' ii'l

, t
, ( ; (

' 'i i i i

' ' : r;.1| ,i:l 1

r;f[*i
ELe. zz.

zo
l0 0 -10 -20 '-30 -40 -SO i' Polnt

; (

lliiHll ilil 'i'

,'

,,1 e
Freezlng

. a
I

,:c(

c
( ( ( (

'i'iii
i r.i li

Hij

' l; ;:.;1
i ;/t:r

!. it,li

iii*ui

I
( ( ( (

t II I t

I I a

Letder

65

EXERCISEs (Answers on Page 68)

How tnany k1los -3ooc the with the

of

propane of

can

we heat quantity propane

up of is

from

-4ooc

to

help

a heat for

115kJ '

when

specific

heat

capacity

23AOJ/ke'K?

A cargo

tank

contaj-ns of the

3 O O O M T( 3 ' 1 O 6 k S ) is -3BoC. of quantity the cargg

of

propane.

The

tenperature is the supplied

cargo

The cargo the this

(propane) l'that is heat

with

a heat of is

3427,5'1o6J" specific

neLJ tenPerature for propane

when at

capacity

22ASJ/ke'K

tenPerature?

How much heat to increase

must

be transferred from butane

to -1oC is

5000MT of to +5oC'

butane when the

che

teltrperature for

specific g O O o t ' 1 To f butane specifrc for the at

heat

capacity

27SOJ/ke'K? a n d 3 O O O H To f sane tank ' The 23LOJ/l"g'K and temperature of

propane +loC heat is are

at to

lemperature be rqixed for in

-39oC the is

capacity

Propane wilI

butane mixtures

218OJ,/kg-t(. tlhat be?

the

5.

What

other

nalnes

can

we use

for

"the

phase

change"

of

substance?

6.

How nuch propane vaPour of

heat liquid

(energy) at

is

needed

to of

change -35oC the to

l1OOMT of Propane heat is ( \

!

a teltrPerature

at

the

same temperature, for propane at

when this

specific

evaPoratj-on

tetrPerature

4L7 ,7kJ /ke?

tJhat

do

Lle lllean

by

the

"saturation

pressure"

of

liquid?

.l
Letter 2

6d
I

I a.
Hon large occupy +6OoC? at a volune 4bar of \ wJ.II tkg of and butane at vapour (CaH1g) of

I I I

pressure

a temPerature

eY

glhat

is

the

density

of

the

butane

vapour

in

the

above

{ I {

question

(B)?

10-

lJe have nixed temperature ation of pressure

15OMT of tne for

propane

liquid

and 25Ol!T of butane - The ml-xtures is -22oC. The saturthj-s temperature for is

I I { (

propane at

2,27bar
Q ,42bar .

and the saturatlon

pressure

butane is

I
saturati-on pressure of the nixture? ( (

a)

tthat

is

the

b)

l.lhat

is

the

tank

pressure is

of

the

rnixture

when the

( ( (

atnospheric

pressure

99onb?

c)

tJhat is

the

mixture

ratio

of

the

vapour

phase?

( the speed

l1

In of

a Laboratory diffusion and for for

experinent

we have

found

that

I
(

NH3 (arnmonia) is glhat under is

O,O9cm,/s at the sane

a specific diffu-

pressure sion

tenperature. propane

caLcuiated conditj.ons?

I
( (

speed

the

L2-

llow much energy propane, -35oC the in if one the

has

to

be transferred is.to the be heated specl-fic

to up

lookg from

of

li-quid to

( ( ( (

liquld and ls

-4ooc for,

hour, llguid

heat

capacity

propane

22A5J/ke'K?

I
t1..

( {

I
! It

Letter

ANSWERS TO THE

EXERCISES

FROM PAGE 21

1 )

I,Jith "i-sometric Same "Brgtto hydrogen

bondi-ng"

we utean Bolecul-es the saue number

which of

have

the and

Forraula" but

(e.ghave

carbon

atoms),

arranged

the

atoIES in have

dlfferent

lJays nutually bonds ) -

(n-butanc

and

iso-butane

iso-metric

z l

The carbon nuraber 6) -

aton

contains

6 protons

(and

has

the

atomic

i )

"Hydrocarbons" the tr+o chemical

is

a group el-ements

name for hydrogen

chemical

bonds

between

and carbon !

4)

B y an by t h e
a)r

unsaturated elements bond

hydrocarbon hydrogen between and tHo or

bond, carbon, more

tnean molecules there atons. is a

Frn

n,:

ari

where carbon

double

{
t

tripl-e

s4

The characteristics contains a double

of

an "alkene", two

is of

that the

the carbon

nolecule atoms -

boncl between

6)

When

substance bond), (bond (ethene

pol-)rrner-ises this

( f or

example

an the

unsaturated ruolecules (e-greaci

hydrocarbon together ethylene

happens and

because giant )

together) ) f orms

form

molecules plastic ) .

polyethene.'--

7)

[.]e use from

an inhibi-tor

in

the to

Iiquid prevent

cargo the

to

prevent

tshe cargo 9f

polynerising -

and,/or

fornation

peroxi-des

(
!

\ ( i (" (

Letter I
A.IIS}JERS TO THE EXERCISES

\ FROI,I PAGE 65

1)

O = c-rn-dt n _

===)

Q ,

c'dr

115kJ 23aoJ /ke. K. 1oK

:=:59=
Af
=

2)

a = c-tr-dT Ar =

=====).

o
c-E O.5K

3 4 2 7. 5 ' L o 6 J

22BsJ/ka.K-3-1o6ks

The tenperature

of the c a r g o :

(-38

+ 0,5)oC

:_:3ZJ:C

3)

O = c-m-dt A = 2 L 5 O J/ k s . l ( - 5 . t 9 6 k c - ( Z 7 e

272)K ==93+9:19:g

4)

Heat

received

heat

glven

off ( 274-ta)K

t'"'dt 5 - lo6kg -z3IoJ /kC-K- (tru-234)K 1 1 , 5 5 - 1 o 9 . l , z K. t ' o Z7oZ, 7 . 1O9J

18, 09 - 109J,/K - ttr cB

ra-c-lt 3- lO6kc.ZLAOJ/kc.KL7gL, 96. 109J -

6,54. 109J,/K. tn

4494,66.109J 44s4.66- togJ 1 8 , 0 9 - L O 9 J/ R 24g,SK (248,5 273)

.. tm tE

-24,soq ===================== =

' Flil
-4 tl

iffii
:I

s)

Other boiling,

nanes

for

phase

changes freezing,

of

r3.1;l

a substance solidification,

are:

ueJ-ting, condensing.

I I ( {

evaporating,

;Bil

i rSil .rfa

:Ftl

lIrl
F,'|l
t:.-l

ld'!r iir:!i

t il,f |ll' iri: Jtl:'

ti,,l

fi:,1

!i it

I
I

DnfiC

[.etter

t
c, l V J U =

r - m

417,7ki/ke- 1. 1 . 1o6kc L= A= g= J =_!tg.7 .== :=

!139*Z=1g3ggt

7)

with there crosed

"the is

saturation an equiribriun After

pressure between a nhile froq the and has the

of

a the

riquid.. liguid be are are

ue and the

'oean

rnat in a i of,

vapour same

space -

there liquid

wir-l as

number it at f rc,u the

mol-ecules ' the vapour

escaping

entering occuring pressure

(evaporation The vapour of

condensi.ng then a

same rate)on is the

specific rt i; this

dependin which r t
q

temperature the

J-iquid pressure

pressure

call-ed

saturation

q.
B) Mol-ecu lar
,"4 :

utass

for

butane

(C4H1g ) : = = = 48,O446g/mo1 tO,0797z/rnol 58 , L2439/moI

{L2,01115 -4)e/mo1.

H 1 o , (L,OO797 - IO)e/mol caHt o

!= =2g r!?==g/=y?!
No. of moi-e c -{ t+ .H . .trn u ==) m Mr looog 5BJ2c7r"I = L7.ZLmoL

P' v V

= n 'R-T =

V =

n-R ' T p 4OOOOOpa 333{(

(volume)

tl-

==9*119g]
( (

e)

The density

of

the

butane

vapour:

d e n s i t y - m = l k g

o . 1r e m 3= = 9 + 1 5 g 4 g l

t
I

(
f t!

C
(.

I
Letter I

7('1
(

I
10 ) Number of mole mole of of of propane, butano . : re propane ln ajft"f 25oz = ,3 ,4onoL 7 ,7OmoL (

Number of ldolar

= 4,3onoJss, 187;or
the llquld: 3.40sol _ = 0'442 -7oil1 the liquid: 4.3onol _

c
{ {

fractlon

):

44'27

Molar

fraction

of

butane

in

Zt6;;T

= o,ss8 ): ss,az ) ' " " .

1 , OO3bar O.235bar

c a
(

PartiaL Par{iaL a)Saturation b)

pressure pressure

of of

propane: butane: of mixture

Q,442-2,27bar O,558 - O,42bar

6 I

pressure

==1i??999:
= O,99obar

atmospheric

pressure of mixture I . Oo3bar 1 ,238bar O.235bar 1 ,238bar

Tank. pressure

==9r3-199e! i=9+919==]:=91+ 4 )9 t /92 I=9+199==l:=19+

c)

Propane Butane

in in

the the

vapour vapour

phase phase

( L o o TC

1r)

vr_@
Y2 /Mi

*o.o9cm/s =1@ v2 /17 ,fue/1fioT

Y2 (diff-speed for propane)=

o.ogcm/s-l6;|G7rr:l t@:[fr]7g'o|

= O. O559ctr,/s E zotm/ti-me

] ') ,

L2t P -

c:n-dT t 60=-

I I q
tr* = L9Q4L-7J/s
= L9Q4L.7 =19 tvl kt.|

j" Itt : i

1 t

i;"!i :

H:I
i,; I t. ,l l],1

I I

I I

iil$i
COF. R.ESPC)I\I are to D EINC be sent (Anl wers Horr many e}ectrons are
2 \

L etr er

/ L

E to

EXE the

T]C

I S E S f or rnarking )

school

there

in

the

"C-atoq"?

t"Jhat do

Lre ruean

by

saturated of such

hydrocarbon bondings.

bonding?

Name three

exampJ-es

? )
r*l

tJhat

are

the

characteristics

of

an

alkadi-ene?

4)

gJhat

is

cataJ-yst?

q \ . )

I r L ^ &

wnar tank

! - ^ - , o angers

are

involved of an

with

h1gh

oxygen

content

in

before

loading

unsaturated

hydrocarbon

compound?

6)

How much heat increase specifi-c the heat -

has

to

be transferred frorn for -39oC

to to is

4sooMT of -34oC? 2z9oJ/kg-K

propane,

to

tetrperature capacity

propane

at

these

ternperatures

7)

You

are

on

board

a
-f

semi-pressurised
-'t<On -h, acAMT

ship^c

The

ship

is

loading

?Z qJ M 'L f tL \ A) . -L n r ^ nu J z pa _ - . lJr an

and 65OMT of be nixed in the is

butane sane

at

+4oC.

Both

of

these

cargoes heat heat

are

to

cargo

tank - The and che

specific specific tetrperature

capacity capacity the

for of

propane butane

234oJ/kg.K,

i-s zLgoJ/kg-K-

t4hat is

the

( tm ) of

rnixtures? 1

8)

use

your

own words

to

terr

what

we Inean by

a phase

change

of
I

a substance

t
(

{ (

Letter

7"

e)

l'le are 5'5t'lr ture pherlc a1I heat of of

going propane

to

"bo1L the

off"

the

reqalnder 1n a cargo (propane has to 1s be

of

the

cargo

of

fron propane

"Hell"

tank. bolred

The tenperaoff at atmosso that

of

the

j.s -42oc

pressure). the propane

How nuch heat wiJ-l for

transferred the speci-flc 1s

be vaporLzed, propane at

Hhen thl-s

evaporatlon

telnperature

425 ,2kJ /kg?

10 ) tlhat at

is

the

volurne at

and

the

density

of

5kg

of

propane

vapour

+lOoC and

4 bar

pressure?

'''it'it', .
11) In of a tank propane is Lre have and -9oC. a liquid uixture nhich consists of of 1OOHT 6OOtlT of The ls butane. The ternperature pressure and the for the at for

( { {

Eixture this pure

saturation 3,57bar,

pure.propane pressure

temperature butane is

saturatlon

( (

O,76 bar.

a)

glhat is

the

saturation

pressure

of

the

mi-xture?"'

,i.

(
( ( atmos( (

b)

9Jhat is pheric

the

tank

pressure is

of

the

rnixture

when the

pressure

1O3Onb?

c)

tlhat

is

the

ratio

of

the

nixture

in

the

vapour

phase?

: ( +7oc the ( ( ( ln

L2)

zoftr the

of

l1qu1d of

butane

1s to

be heated

up

from capacity

ooc'to for

space

2 hours - r The specific ls 242oJ/kg-K. has to be transferred?

heat

liquld

butane

How much energy

t

t
u.
(

I I

! ! a