COMPENSATION OF LOAD UNBALANCE, REACTIVE POWER AND HARMONIC DISTORTION BY COOPERATIVE OPERATION OF DISTRIBUTED COMPENSATORS

Paolo Tenti, Daniela Trombetti DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA Via Gradenigo 6/B 35131 Padova Italy Tel. +39-049-827.7503, Fax +39-049-827.7699 paolo.tenti@unipd.it, daniela.trombetti@dei.unipd.it www.dei.unipd.it Elisabetta Tedeschi, Paolo Mattavelli DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT AND MECHANICAL INNOVATION, UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA Stradella S. Nicola, 3 36100 Vicenza Italy elisabetta.tedeschi@unipd.it, paolo.mattavelli@unipd.it www.gest.unipd.it

Keywords
Reactive compensation, Unbalance compensators, Active power filters. compensation, Harmonic compensation, Static VAR

Abstract
Distribution grids are increasingly populated by a variety of renewable energy sources, which create new opportunities in terms of efficient use of energy and can also help to improve power quality. In fact, they are connected to the grid by means of Power Switching Interfaces (PSI) which are capable to control power flow and waveform of absorbed currents as well. They can therefore contribute to power balance and compensation of asymmetry and distortion together with other compensation units, e.g., passive filters, SVC (Static VAR Compensators) and APF (Active Power Filters). Of course, effective use of such distributed compensation capability requires cooperative operation of compensators and proper sharing of compensation duties. This paper shows that distributed compensation of load unbalance, reactive power and harmonic distortion can be achieved by a cooperative control approach. Energy efficiency and power quality can be managed as a whole at a system level, by taking full advantage of the distributed compensation capability.

Introduction
Although unbalance, reactive and harmonic compensation has been the subject of several contributions [1-10], based on approaches in the time [6-10] and frequency [2-5] domain, the problem is still open and becomes increasingly difficult and intriguing. In fact, reference is usually made to grids fed by power sources of large capacity, which impress sinusoidal and symmetrical voltages at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). Nowadays, however, this is not generally true, since proliferation of small power sources and distorting loads may cause the grid to appear as a weak power source, characterized by non-negligible impedance, voltage asymmetry and distortion.

In order to fully exploit the available energy sources while providing good power quality there is a need to compensate for load unbalance, distortion and reactive power. This is particularly important in smart grids, where renewable energy sources of different type (wind mills, PV panels, fuel cells, micro-turbines) coexist and must be utilized in the most efficient way. Different kinds of compensation units (passive filters, stationary compensators, SVC, APF, PSI) can provide the required compensation capability. However, with the standard approach, each unit is designed and controlled independently to suit specific local needs. If they have to cooperate to improve global efficiency and power quality, a cooperative control approach [17-19, 21] is needed, which dynamically shares the compensation effort among the various units without affecting their local duty. This paper presents a theoretical background to systematically approach the problem of cooperative control of distributed compensators. The approach is validated in a significant test case, which shows that cooperative control performs effectively under stationary and dynamic conditions and is capable to fully exploit every type of compensator.

Power-based control approach

When dealing with remote control of distributed compensation units, a basic problem relates to the need to exchange compensation information between units which are connected to different network ports, supplied by voltages of different amplitude and phase, in a situation where the distribution grid is substantially unknown. This sets a fundamental difference compared to the usual local control approach, which holds when the compensation unit is connected at the load terminals, or at PCC, and shares the voltage supply with the load to be compensated. In this case the compensation command is fed to the compensator as a current reference, and compensation is performed by current control. Instead, for remote control we need conservative control variables, which allow encoding, transmission and decoding of the compensation commands at different network ports, irrespective of voltage amplitude, phase and waveform. Here we propose to adopt, as remote control variable, the instantaneous complex power, which is defined, for any set of periodic voltages and currents measured at a generic network port, by: N

= p+ jq = u  i = ( u + j u )  i =
( un in + j un i n ) (1) s where u and i are the vectors of the N-phase voltages and currents and symbol
means scalar product. The sum is extended to all phase conductors, including neutral wire, and the voltage reference is selected to give
un = 0 . Term p is instantaneous real power, while q is instantaneous imaginary
n =1 N n =1

is normalized voltage integral, defined by: power. Voltage 1 1 T
t un = where:
n = 0 u n  dt,
n =  0
n  dt (2) (
 n ) , 2 f n T
In (2) f is line frequency and T is line period. Voltage un is therefore the unbiased integral of voltage un divided by angular line frequency.
It can be demonstrated that voltage integrals u n , like voltages u n , comply with Kirchhoff Law, thus both p and q comply with Tellegens Theorem and are conservative quantities. Accordingly, total PCC absorbed at PCC sums all power terms taken by each branch in the network. complex power s The above consideration sets the basis for cooperative control of distributed compensators. In fact, the compensation duty can be shared among the various units by giving a suitable complex power command to each of them. Note that averaging the instantaneous complex power over line period T gives: N 1 T N  u n
i n
dt =  Pn  p = P = u ,i = T  0 n n =1 =1 = p+ jq, (3) s where:  N 1 T N

 q = Q = u ,i =  0  u n
i n
dt =  Qn T n =1 n =1 

In the above expression, chevrons .,. refer to internal product in the L2 space. P is active power, obtained by adding the active powers of each phase. Irrespective of voltage and current waveform, P accounts for average power absorption at the given port. Similarly Q is reactive power and, irrespective of voltage and current waveforms, accounts for average energy stored in the equivalent passive network seen by the given port [17]. It was shown in [10] that (3) extends the reactive power definition to the case of non-sinusoidal quantities. Observe that an inductor L, in fact, contributes to reactive power with term: 1 T1 2 2 QL =
L I L = 2
wL , where: I L = i L ,i L , w L =
0 L i dt (4.a) T 2 L Similarly, a capacitor C contributes to reactive power with term: 1 T1 2 2 =
2  wC , where: UC = uC , uC , wC =
0 C uC dt (4.b) QC =
 C UC T 2 Such expressions show that reactive power is proportional to average energy stored in capacitors and inductors irrespective of voltage and current waveforms. All power terms defined by (1) and (3) are therefore related to physical quantities. Moreover, they can be measured and processed in the time domain.

Principle of distributed compensation

For compensation purposes, we identify three types of network ports: Supply ports, where energy sources inject power into the network. Energy sources are normally represented as voltage supplies and the power quality issue at these ports is related to the quality of absorbed currents. They should be purely resistive and symmetrical, so as to provide unity power factor and effective energy source utilization. Let e be the port voltages, the currents can be split into orthogonal terms: (5) i = ia + ir + iu + iv The meaning of the current terms is the following. Active currents i a are the minimum currents needed to convey active power P provided by the source. They can be expressed as: e,i P where: (5.a) Ge = = N i a = Ge e , e,e
E2
n =1 n

n =1

Be is equivalent port susceptance and En is rms value of normalized voltage integral en . Unbalance currents i u are due to asymmetrical network behavior. They can be expressed as a function of active and reactive power absorbed by each phase ( n = 1 N ) as:     P  Qn Q 
k
 Pn  e +

i u n = (Gn
Ge ) en + ( Bn
Be ) en =
e (5.c)  E2 N 2  n  E2 N
2  n  n  En   n  En      n =1 n =1 These currents vanish only if the equivalent conductance and susceptance are the same in all phases ( Gn = Ge , Bn = Be ).

Ge is equivalent port conductance and En is rms value of voltage en . are the minimum currents needed to convey reactive power Q provided by Reactive currents the source. They can be expressed as:
e ,i Q
i r = Be e , where: B=

= N
(5.b) 2 e ,e E

n

are the remaining current terms. They do not convey active or reactive power and Void currents account for generated current harmonics (harmonic terms which exist in currents but not in voltages) and scattered currents (current terms which reflect a different network behavior at different harmonics) [17].

A high power factor requires that reactive, unbalance and void currents are suppressed or reduced below an acceptable level. Since reactive currents depend on reactive power, they can be eliminated by compensating the reactive power by proper control of SVC units. Elimination of unbalance currents requires control of active and reactive power distribution among the phases, and this can also be done by SVC units, according to the Steinmetz approach [1]. Finally, suppression of void currents requires control of the instantaneous current waveforms, which can be obtained by proper control of switching compensators (APF, PSI). At supply ports the power quality is measured by local quality indexes, i.e., the unbalance factor (ratio between negative and positive sequence rms currents) and the power factor (ratio between active power and apparent power). Load ports, where power quality is related to stability and purity of the voltage waveform. This requires the compensation system to perform voltage support, to keep stable and symmetrical the voltage supply in every operating condition, and harmonic suppression, to improve quality of the voltage waveform in presence of distorting loads. The first task can be done by SVC units, the second by APF and PSI. Local quality indexes, describing the network performance at load ports, are voltage THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) and asymmetry factor (ratio between negative and positive sequence rms voltages). Other power quality indexes, e.g., flicker, voltage sags, micro-interruptions, should also be considered. Compensation ports, where the compensators inject suitable current waveforms to provide the desired compensation. Power quality is not an issue at these ports. Rather the compensation effectiveness, describing the network response to a compensation command, should be characterized.

Note that local quality indexes mentioned above do not provide exhaustive description of network operation. Global performance indexes should also be considered, e.g., transmission efficiency (ratio between transmission losses and active power flow) and power flow control efficiency (global utilization rate of power sources, weighted according to energy production cost), so as to optimize the network performance both in terms of efficiency and economics. Since optimizing all local and global quality indexes at the same time is impossible, the problem can be approached by making reference to suitable cost factors, which weight properly the various goals and drive the system toward a global optimization. As a first step in this direction, we will analyze the capabilities of various compensation units and derive a general approach to optimize the system behavior at PCC by making use of cooperative control of distributed compensators.

Power capability and control of compensators

Compensators can be classified in three main categories: Stationary compensators, which include fixed capacitor or inductor banks and passive filters. They contribute to compensation with a fixed amount of reactive power and/or filtering capability. In practice, operation is influenced by surrounding network and, under certain circumstances, such units can generate voltage ringing or over-currents, which may cause detrimental effects. Here such compensators will be considered as network elements, since they cannot be controlled. Quasi-stationary compensators, which include every kind of SVC, in particular TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactors) and TSC (Thyristor Switched Capacitors). While both TCR and TSC contribute to reactive power control, respectively with positive and negative amounts, in our approach the unbalance compensation will be demanded to TCR only. Although reference is made to TSC and TCR, STATCOM units are inherently considered too, because they provide a similar compensation capability by low-frequency operation of switching power converters.

Dynamic compensators, which include APF and PSI, provide harmonic suppression and can also contribute to reactive power control and unbalance compensation. As a whole, they are classified as SPC (Switching Power Compensators) because of their capability to control current waveforms by high-frequency modulation of power switches.

Compensation capability and control criteria of each type of compensator will be analyzed hereafter.

Thyristor-Switched Capacitors
TSC include multiple banks of delta-connected capacitors, which can be inserted or disconnected by controlling thyristor switches. Thus, they provide step regulation of capacitive power from zero to rated VA capability. Control is simply done by assigning a suitable reactive power command to each unit. In the following we assume that TSC units are operated symmetrically, to avoid amplification of asymmetry in presence of voltage distortion.

Thyristor-Controlled Reactors
Recall first that reactive and unbalance compensation can be performed, under sinusoidal conditions, by means of the Steinmetz circuit [1], which includes only reactive elements. In presence of asymmetrical and distorted voltages, we still apply the Steinmetz method by making reference to the fundamental positive-sequence components u p of actual voltages u . The effect of voltage asymmetry, distortion and phase control of thyristor switches is then corrected by proper control of SPC units. Lets consider a TCR made up of three delta-connected inductors controlled by bidirectional thyristor switches. Phase control of thyristor switches provides independent and continuous regulation of the equivalent susceptance of each branch from zero to rated value. Let B12 , B23 , B31 be the phase-to-phase susceptances and u p the fundamental positive-sequence supply voltages. Compensation of reactive power requires the TCR to absorb suitable positive-sequence p fundamental currents i , while compensation of load unbalance requires absorption of suitable n negative-sequence fundamental currents i . These sequence components are [20]:
i p = ( B12 + B23 + B31 ) u p (6)
u2p
i n =
B12 u1p
B23
u3p
u1p
p u3
B31
p u2
p u3
p u2
u1p (7)

from (6) and (7) we easily obtain: 2
p
p p  i p = 3 Bo u p + j u p = u  u = j 9 Bo U p = j Q p s

Equation (7) shows that currents i n do not change if B12,B23 , B31 are increased by the same amount. Thus, let: '  B12 = B12
B0 B12 + B23 + B31  ' and B0 = (8)  B23 = B23
B0 3  B' = B
B 31 0  31

(9.a)

i = p + jq =u s
n p n n

' p
p ' ' p
p  p n =
3 B12 u3 u 3 + B23 u1p u1p + B31 u2 u2   n '
p
p '
p
p '
p
p q = 3 B12 u3 u 3 + B23 u1 u1 + B31 u2 u 2  

(9.b)

The total instantaneous complex power absorbed by the TCR is therefore given by: = p + j q = pn + j Q p + q n s

(10)

Considering that Q p is constant while p n and q n are alternate quantities, equation (10) sets the basis SVC ref for TSC control. In fact, given TCR complex power reference s , the power terms Q p , p n and q n can easily be extracted by separation of dc and ac components, and susceptances B12,B23 , B31 are then derived by inversion of (9). Let I n be the rms value of currents i n and S n = 3U P I n be the unbalance power, it can be demonstrated that compensation of currents i n corresponds to a reactive power absorption equal to S n . However, the reactive power compensation capability of the TCR is reduced by 3 S n .

Active Power Filters and Power Electronics Interfaces

PSC units (APF and SPI) are capable to provide every kind of compensation. However, they are normally used to refine the action of stationary and quasi-stationary compensators by suppressing the residual reactive, unbalance and harmonic terms. Each SPC receives a complex power command SPC SPC SPC ref and transforms it into a set of current references according to the equation: s = pref + j qref SPC
SPC pref w
qref w SPC (11.a) i ref =  where: w1 u 2
u 3





w w
w1w 2 + w 2 w 3
w 2 w 3 + w 3 w1
w 3 w1 w = w 2 = u 3
u1 (11.b) = 1 2 3 w 3 u1
u 2 The reference current can therefore be evaluated, on instantaneous basis, from complex power reference and line-to-line voltages. The compensation capability of an SPC is only limited by voltage and current ratings, thus the instantaneous complex power must satisfy the condition: I = p 2 + q 2
ASPC = 3U rat rat pk (12) s 2 where U rat is rated rms voltage and I rat pk is peak current capability of the SPC. Apparent power ASPC is the rated switching power capability.

Implementation of cooperative control

As mentioned before, we assume that cooperative control aims at making proper use of distributed compensation capability so as to optimize operation at the point of common coupling. At PCC, the goal is therefore to absorb only active currents, the remaining current terms being suppressed by cooperative operation of distributed compensators. The network is schematically represented in Fig.1, where only PCC and connection ports of controllable compensation units (TSC, TCR, SPC) are shown, the rest of the network (power sources, transformers, transmission lines, loads, stationary compensators) being included in block
. Every compensator, when switched on, informs the central controller about its residual compensation capability, which is the rated one less the part invested for local needs. Based on the compensation needs at PCC and total available compensation capability, the controller distributes the duty among the various compensators so as to minimize a global cost function, which takes into account the cost and effectiveness of the compensation task performed by every compensation unit. Fig. 1: General Network Representation

The proposed implementation of the central controller is shown in Fig.2. It features closed loop control of input currents at PCC and feed-forward control of remote compensators. The controller is designed to perform properly even in presence of non-negligible communication delays and slow network response. In particular, the control bandwidth is chosen small enough to avoid instability. Moreover, the instantaneous quantities handled by the controller are, in practice, frames of data which are collected every half line cycle, processed and transmitted in the following half cycle and executed in the next cycle. Consequently, control is characterized by at least one-cycle delay and the controller is designed accordingly.

Fig. 2: Central Controller The control operates as follows. First of all, currents i i absorbed at PCC are processed to extract active components i a , which are taken as input current references. Since full compensation is not always possible, due to limited availability of reactive and switching power, current references i a are modified by non-compensable current terms i nc estimated by the controller. Error signals i
, generated by comparison of references with actual input currents i i , are processed by error amplifier A
, which generates internal current references i ref .
p and i n The fundamental positive- and negative-sequence components i ref ref of references i ref are then
p = e p + j e p to get instantaneous extracted and multiplied by positive-sequence complex voltage e p p n p
i ref p
i n ref ref complex power references ( s , s =e =e ref ). These quantities are then fed to the SVC Control block which, based on reactive and unbalance compensation needs and available p n compensation capability, computes actual SVC current references ( i SVC = i r + i u ) and complex power SVC . reference s Power Sharing blocks PSTSC and PSTCR split the compensation duty among the SVC units, according to their type and compensation capability, and send a proper complex power reference to each of them. This reference is then executed according to a feed-forward control approach based on the theoretical results given in the previous section. SPC The current references for the switching compensators ( i ref ) are computed by subtracting SVC current
= e + j e generates references i SVC from i ref . Scalar multiplication of i SPC by complex voltages e ref SPC ref complex power reference s , which is fed to the SPC Control block. This block, based on available

switching power, determines the actual SPC current references i SPC and corresponding complex SPC and splits it among SPC . The Power Sharing block receives power command s power reference s the SPC units according to suitable duty-sharing criteria. Non-compensable current terms are finally determined as i nc = i ref
i SVC
i SPC . They are fed back to the input summation node to correct the input current references.

Application example
As an example of cooperative control the network of Fig.3 was simulated. It includes unbalance and distorting loads, transmission lines, transformers and various compensation units (fixed capacitor bank, TCR, TSC, APF) and is fed by distorted and asymmetrical voltages. The central and local control units are implemented according to the criteria given above. It is assumed that the TSC and TCR are switched on at time t1 (0.2 s) and the APF at time t2 (0.6 s). In time t3 (1 s) a sudden load change (from single-phase resistive to single-phase capacitive) is introduced, so as to show the dynamic response.

Fig. 3: Simulated Network

Fig. 4: Voltages at PCC

Fig. 5: Currents at PCC without compensation

Fig.4 shows the voltages at PCC. They exhibit considerable asymmetry (unbalance factor equal to 10%) and distortion (5th harmonic: 5.0%, 7th harmonic: 5.0%). Fig.5 shows the currents at PCC when the compensation units are off. The high distortion is due not only to the distorting load, but also to the capacitor bank located next to PCC. Current asymmetry is due to load unbalance and voltage asymmetry.

Fig. 6: Currents at PCC with SVC turned on

Fig. 7: Currents at PCC with APF turned on

Fig.6 shows the currents at PCC after time t1 when the SVC units (TCR and TSC) are turned on. Although distorted, the currents are now reasonably balanced and in phase with the corresponding voltages. Fig.7 shows the currents at PCC after time t2, when also the APF is turned on. Within the control bandwidth, the input currents now track the supply voltages with good accuracy.

Fig. 8: Time behavior of Power Factor

Fig. 9: Time behavior of Unbalance Factor

Finally, Figs. 8 and 9 show the time behavior of the power factor (ratio between active and apparent powers) and unbalance factor (ratio between negative and positive sequence components of the input currents), both computed at PCC. Both values are averaged over a period of the line voltage. The power factor is initially very low (0.58), due to unbalance, distortion and reactive current components. The intervention of the SVC almost suppresses reactive and unbalance currents, thus the power factor increases progressively to 0.96. A power factor close to unity is reached after intervention of the APF, which removes the residual reactive and unbalance currents together with the void currents, including those generated by SVC units. The effect of load transient on this parameter is temporary and small. The unbalance factor is initially high (0.28) due to load unbalance. The intervention of SVC units reduces considerably the unbalance. When the APF is turned on the unbalance factor improves further; in fact, the residual unbalance is only due to voltage asymmetry. The effect of the load transient on this parameter is appreciable and derives from the inherent slow response of the controller.

Conclusion
A general approach to cooperative control of distributed compensation units was developed, which allows simultaneous and effective use of every type of compensator (STATCOM, TCR, TSC, APF, PSI). The theoretical background lies on the definition of instantaneous complex power, a conservative quantity which allows remote control of compensators irrespective of phase shifts and voltage changes introduced by transformers and voltage drops on transmission lines. The characteristics of the various kinds of compensator were analyzed, both in terms of local compensation capability (to suit surrounding network needs), and global compensation capability (to cooperate for improving system-level performance indexes). The compensation limits were also discussed together with the response to complex power commands, so as to characterize the operating properties of each compensation unit when controlled from remote by a central controller. The proposed control approach was verified by simulation of a network including all typical compensation elements (passive filters, SVC, APF), fed by non-sinusoidal and asymmetrical voltages and loaded by unbalanced, distorting and time-varying loads. In spite of the difficult operating environment, the cooperative operation of distributed compensators provides substantial reduction of load unbalance, distortion and reactive power and fast adaptation to load changes as well.

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