SULUTION OF IMAGE PROCESSING (EEC-068)

Dr. Bhupal Singh, Professor EN Department

1) a
Solution:
The perceived intensity or brightness of the stripes of constant intensities,
is different that then their actual ones around the boundary. These
seemingly scalloped bands are called Mach bands after Ernst Mach who
first described the phenomenon in 1865.
Luminance is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light
traveling in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is
emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle.
Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or
reflecting light.
Contrast is the difference in luminance and/or colour that makes an object (or its
representation in an image or display) distinguishable. In visual perception of the real world,
contrast is determined by the difference in the colour and brightness of the object and other
objects within the same field of view.
The number of pixel per frame =Channel capacity/Frame rate =8/30 MP
1(a) Solution
In signal processing, the Nyquist rate, named after Harry Nyquist, is two times the
bandwidth of a band limited signal. The sampling frequency is called fold over frequency.
Aliasing is appearing of frequency above Nyquist rate as low frequency signal. In the case of
frequency is defined as periodicity of intensity pattern along x-axis and y-axis.
Thus the sampling results in scaling magnitude of analog spectrum by factor 1/T and infinite
many replicas of the spectrum displaced from each other by integer multiples of
T
. The
faith full recovery of the original signal from the sampled signal one is possible if the
spectrum of the sampled signal does not overlap that amount to say that
m m T
>
that
is m T
> 2
. Where m

maximum frequency content of the signal. In order to recover

original signal from the sampled DAC is out need to be passed through a low pass filter of
following characteristics.

'
< <

otherwise
where T
j H
m T c m c
r
0
) (
The periodic unit impulse

k
s
kT t t x t x ) ( ) ( ) (
is sampling function
1 Solution
Solution:
2(a) For an image f(m,n) of the size NxM The DFT is defined as follows
lm
M
N
n
M
m
km
N
W W n m f l k F

1
0
1 _
0
] , [ ] , [ where, M N
W and W
are N
th
and M
th
root of unity.
The DFT follows following Properties
1. Linearity
2. Periodicity
3. Parsevals. Theorem
4. Shifting
5. Circular Convolution
2(b) Solution
DCT stands for Discrete Cosine Transform and for image f(m,n) of size MxN it is defined as
follows
] , [ )
2
) 1 2 (
cos( )
2
) 1 2 (
cos( ) ( ) (
2 2
] , [
1
0
1 _
0
2 / 1 2 / 1
n m f
M
n k
N
m k
n n
N M
l k F
N
n
M
m
DCT
+ +

,
_

,
_

Where

'

otherwise
for
1
0 2 / 1
) (

The DCT satisfies following properties

1. Linearity
2. Periodicity
3. Energy Compactation
2 Solution
Given image
1
1
1
1
]
1

1 2 1 2
1 2 3 1
2 1 1 2
1 2 1 1
) , ( n m f

Hadamard trandform is recursively, defined as follows:
Where
In present case we requires second order Hadamard transform matrix
1
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
1
2
H
Therefore the HT of the image is given as
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
1
1 2 1 2
1 2 3 1
2 1 1 2
1 2 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
1
) , ( ) , (
2 2
T
H n m f H v u F
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 2 4 2
4 2 0 2
6 0 2 0
2 0 2 24
4
1
) , ( v u F
3(a) Solution
Spatial domain g(x, y) = h(x, y) f(x, y) + (x, y)
Frequency domain
G(u, v) = H(u, v) F(u, v) + N(u, v)
H(u, v): Degradation function
(x, y): Additive noise term
The objective is to find an estimate (f(x, y)) of the original image f(x, y). The more we know
about H and , the closer the estimate will be to f(x, y).
The degradation is mainly distortion due image sensor or acquisition
process or noise addition in the process.
WIENER FILTER:
For Wiener Filter:
3(b) Solution:
Given
1
1
1
1
]
1

0 0 1 2
2 2 2 3
3 3 3 2
2 3 3 3
) , ( n m f

The no of symbols are 4 that is (0, 1, 2, 3)
The frequency table of the symbols is given as
Symbol ( i
x
)
0 1 2 3
Frequency(
i
f
) 2 1 6 7

4
/ ) (
i i i
f f x p
1/8 1/16 3/8 7/16
Sort the symbols descending order of frequency
Then pick the two least frequent symbols assign 3 bit code 111 and 110 connect and add
next lowest assign 11 the 10 to new entry finally connect forth symbol assign 1 to the parent
and 0 to the new entrant, this process continues till probability sums out to be 1. In case
following is the result.
Symbol 3=0 (bit)
Symbol 2=10 (bits)
Symbol 1=110 (bits)
Symbol 0=111 (bits)
3 Solution
Shannon denoted the entropy H of a discrete variables X with possible values {x
1
, ., x
n
} and
probability mass function p(X) as,
For maximum entropy
i all for
x p
X H
i
0
) (
) (

Or
i all for x p
i e
0 ) ( log 1

That
i all for e x p
i
) (
This shows that the probability of the symbols should be same.
4(a) Solution
In computer vision, Segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple
segments (sets of pixels, also known as superpixels). The goal of segmentation is to simplify
and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and
easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and boundaries
(lines, curves, etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the process of assigning
a label to every pixel in an image such that pixels with the same label share certain visual
characteristics
Thresholding
The simplest method of image segmentation is called the thresholding method. This method
is based on a clip-level (or a threshold value) to turn a gray-scale image into a binary
image.The key of this method is to select the threshold value (or values when multiple-levels
are selected). Several popular methods are used in industry including the maximum entropy
method, Otsu's method (maximum variance), and et al. k-means clustering can also be used.
Clustering methods
The K-means algorithm is an iterative technique that is used to partition an image into K
clusters. The basic algorithm is:
-Pick K cluster centers, either randomly or based on some heuristic
-Assign each pixel in the image to the cluster that minimizes the distance between the
pixel and the cluster center
-Re-compute the cluster centers by averaging all of the pixels in the cluster
-Repeat steps 2 and 3 until convergence is attained (e.g. no pixels change
clusters)
4(b) Solution
Image segmentation is a fundamental process in many image, video, and computer vision
applications. It is often used to partition an image into sep-aerate regions, which ideally
correspond to different real-world objects. It is a critical step towards con-tent analysis and
image understanding. Many segmentation methods have been developed, but there is still no
satisfactory performance measure, which makes it hard to compare different segmentation
methods, or even different parameterizations of a single method. However, the ability to
compare two segmentations (generally obtained via two different methods/parameterizations)
in an application-independent way is important: (1) to autonomously select among two
possible segmentations within a segmentation algorithm or a broader application; (2) to place
a new or existing segmentation algorithm on a solid experimental and scientific ground; and
(3) to monitor segmentation results B on the fly, so that segmentation performance can be
guaranteed and consistency can be maintained. Many image segmentation methods have
been proposed over the last several decades. As new segmentation methods have been
proposed, a variety of evaluation methods have been used to compare 1 new segmentation
methods to prior methods. These methods are fundamentally very different, and can be
partitioned based on five distinct methodologies, Supervised Methods Unsupervised Methods
Supervised evaluation methods, also known as relative evaluation methods or empirical
discrepancy methods, evaluate segmentation algorithms by comparing the resulting
segmented image against a manually-segmented reference image, which is often referred to
as a gold standard or ground-truth. The degree of similarity between the human and machine
segmented images determines the quality of the segmented image. One potential benefit of
supervised methods over unsupervised methods (discussed below) is that the direct
comparison between a segmented image and a reference image is believed to provide a finer
resolution of evaluation, and as such, discrepancy methods are commonly used for objective
evaluation. However, manually generating a reference image is a difficult, subjective, and
time-consuming task . Besides, for most images, especially natural images, we usually cannot
guarantee that one manually-generated segmentation image is better than another. In this
sense, comparisons based on such reference images are somewhat subjective. In the
supervised method the feature of the image are obtained and in future he new image are
looked for same feature based on the similarity with data base. Whereas supervised methods
evaluate segmented images the objects are classified. ages against a reference image,
unsupervised evaluation methods, also known as stand-alone evaluation methods or
empirical goodness methods do not require a reference image, but instead evaluate a
segmented image based on how well it matches a broad set of characteristics of segmented
images as desired by humans. Unsupervised evaluation is quantitative and objective. It has
distinct advantages, perhaps the most critical of which is that it requires no reference image.
A manually-created reference image is intrinsically subjective and creating such a reference
image is tedious and time-consuming, and for many applications, it is hard or maybe even
impossible. The ability to work without reference images allows un- supervised evaluation to
operate over a wide range of conditions (or systems) and with many different types of
images. This property also makes unsupervised evaluation uniquely suitable for automatic
control of online segmentation in real-time systems, where a wide variety of images, whose
contents are not known beforehand, need to be processed.
4 The Gaussian filter for 2D is given as
y
y
x
x
y x
x
x
y x h

2
) (
2
) (
exp(
2
1
] , [
2
2

)
There fore the filtered image is the convolution of the filter with image f(x,y) hence
) ( ]) [ ) , ( ( ] , [ ) , ( ) , ((
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
m y h n x h m n f n y m x h m n f y x g
M
m
N
n
M
m
N
n

However Laplacian
2
2
2
2
) , ( ) , (
y
f
x
f
y x f y x g

Clearly its not separable with respect differentiation x and y.
5(a) Solution
In mathematics, a moment is, loosely speaking, a quantitative measure of the shape of a set
of points. The "second moment", for example, is widely used and measures the "width" (in a
particular sense) of a set of points in one dimension or in higher dimensions measures the
shape of a cloud of points as it could be fit by an ellipsoid
Thus in image processing moment of image is computed to characterize the object shape.
The (n,m)th order moment of the image f(x,y) is defined as follows
) , ( ) , (
,
y x f y x y x
n m
n n

We recognize translation, rotation, scaling, affine, projective, and elastic geometric
invariants. Ratiometric invariants exist with respect to linear contrast stretching, Non-linear
intensity transforms, and to convolution.
5(b) Solution
Cameras, on the other hand, are much smaller and simple to handle, and are becoming
ubiquitous in the current computer environment. The goal of this project is to develop a
signature verification technique suitable for signatures captured by our camera-based
acquisition system. Handwriting recognition is still an open problem, even though it has
been extensively studied for many years. Signature verification is a reduced problem that still
poses a real challenge for researchers. The literature on signature verification is quite
extensive and shows two main areas of research, off-line and on-line systems. Off-line
systems deal with a static image of the signature, i.e. the result of the action of signing while
on-line systems work on the dynamic process of generating the signature, i.e. the action of
signing itself. The system proposed in this paper falls within the category of on-line systems
since the visual tracker of handwriting captures the timing information in the generation of
the signature.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM
The camera-based acquisition system uses computer vision techniques and estimation theory
to track the position of the pen tip in the image plane. The verification algorithm compares
the 2D shape of the signatures using a translation-invariant metric.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
5 Solution
Automated fingerprint identification is the process of automatically matching one or many
unknown fingerprints against a database of known and unknown prints. Automated
fingerprint identification systems are primarily used by law enforcement agencies for
criminal identification initiatives, the most important of which include identifying a person
suspected of committing a crime or linking a suspect to other unsolved crimes. Automated
fingerprint verification is a closely related technique used in applications such as
attendance and access control systems. The finger prints are identified certain features such
as the valley and ridges, the delta loop and whorl. The image first proposed and converted
into binary image. Then these features re looked properly and data base is generated. In
future same features of the finger print are obtained and compared with data base.