On Sound and Voice.

ON SOUND AND VOICE
Bart A. Mazzetti
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. According to Plato.
II. According to Aristotle.
III. On phone (‘voice’) and psophos (‘sound’) in sum.
IV. On language as a systematic means of human communication.
V. On articulation.
VI. On speech as a species of discrete quantity.
VII. On elementary speech sounds.
VIII. On the motion of the voice.
IX. On the strings of a musical instrument.
X. On the overtone series.
XI. On tonality as consisting in hierarchy.
XII. Definitions of harmony.
XIII. On the principal meanings of harmonia.
XIV. On composition.
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I. ACCORDING TO PLATO.
Plato, Philebus 17b-e (ed. Perseus; tr. Peter Kalkavage; rev. B.A.M.).
Sôkratês: phônê men hêmin esti pou mia dia But voice, which passes through the mouth of
tou stomatos iousa, kai apeiros au plêthei, each and all of us, is one; and yet again it is in-
pantôn te kai hekastou. definite in manyness.
Prôtarchos: ti mên; Yes, to be sure.
Sôkratês: kai ouden heterôi ge toutôn esmen pô And we aren’t ever wise, one man more than
sophoi, oute hoti to apeiron autês ismen outh’ another, either because we know its indefin-
hoti to hen: all’ hoti posa t’ esti kai hopoia, iteness or because we know its unity, but be-
touto esti to grammatikon hekaston poioun cause we know they are so many and what
hêmôn. sort—this is what makes each of us grammatical
Very true.
Prôtarchos: alêthestata.
Also this same thing makes each of us turn out
Sôkratês: kai mên kai to mousikon ho to be musical.
tunchanei poioun, tout’ esti tauton.
How is that?
Prôtarchos: pôs;
Sôkratês: [17c] phônê men pou kai to kat’ Voice according to this art is also one in it.
ekeinên tên technên esti mia en autêi.
Prôtarchos: pôs d’ ou; How could it not be!
Sôkratês: duo de thômen baru kai oxu, kai And we set down two sounds—the low and the
triton homotonon. ê pôs; high—and a third which is between them. Or
how did we do it?
Prôtarchos: houtôs. Just as you said.
Sôkratês: all’ oupô sophos an eiês tên But if you knew these things alone, you would
mousikên eidôs tauta mona, not yet be wise with respect to music.
mê de eidôs hôs g’ epos eipein eis tauta oudenos Though if you didn’t know them, you would be,
axios esêi. as the saying goes, worth nothing in these
things.
Prôtarchos: ou gar oun. Certainly.
Sôkratês: all’, ô phile, epeidan labêis ta But, my friend, when you take hold of the
diastêmata intervals—
hoposa esti ton arithmon tês phônês oxutêtos te how many of them there are and the number
peri kai barutêtos, [17d] kai hopoia, kai tous concerning high and low voices, and of what
horous tôn diastêmatôn, kai ta ek toutôn hosa sort, and the boundaries of the intervals, and
sustêmata gegonen— whatever systems result from these—
3
ha katidontes hoi prosthen paredosan hêmin tois which those before us investigated and handed
hepomenois ekeinois kalein auta harmonias, down to us who follow them, and which men
call harmonies—
en te tais kinêsesin au tou sômatos hetera toiauta and again the corresponding effects that come
enonta pathê gignomena, ha dê di’ arithmôn about in the motions of the body, which they
metrêthenta dein au phasi rhuthmous kai metra say must be measured by numbers and are
eponomazein, called rhythms and meters—
kai hama ennoein hôs houtô dei peri pantos and at the same time that it is necessary to think
henos kai pollôn skopein— in this way and to look at every one and many—
hotan gar auta [17e] te labêis houtô, tote egenou when you take hold of these things in this way,
sophos, hotan te allo tôn hen hotioun tautêi then you have become wise, and whatever be
skopoumenos helêis, houtôs emphrôn peri touto the unity you have looked to, that is the way to
gegonas: become thoughtful about it:
to d’ apeiron se hekastôn kai en hekastois But this indefinite manyness in things collec-
plêthos apeiron hekastote poiei tou phronein kai tively and individually makes you in each case
ouk ellogimon oud’ enarithmon, hat’ ouk eis indefinite in thinking and worthy neither of
arithmon oudena en oudeni pôpote apidonta. being held in account nor arithmetical, inas-
much as not once did you look away towards
any number.
Plato, Philebus 17c-d, e (tr. Peter Kalkavage; rev. B.A.M.).
But, my friend, when you take hold of the intervals—how many of them there are
and the number concerning high and low voices, and of what sort, and the boundaries of
the intervals, and whatever systems result from these—which those before us investigated
and handed down to us who follow them, and which men call harmonies—1 ...when [e]
you take hold of these things in this way, then you have become wise, and whatever be the
unity you have looked to, that is the way to become thoughtful about it....
1. Plato’s teaching on harmonics in sum.
Subject genus: phone, ‘voice’2
Division of ‘voice’ into three: the high, the low, and the intermediate
Division of the subject (its parts

and passions): the number of intervals
their number with respect to high and low
‘voices’ (= ‘notes’ or ‘tones’)
1
hoposa esti ton arithmon tês phônês oxutêtos te peri kai barutêtos, [17d] kai hopoia, kai tous horous tôn
diastêmatôn, kai ta ek toutôn hosa sustêmata gegonen—ha katidontes hoi prosthen paredosan hêmin tois
hepomenois ekeinois kalein auta harmonias....
2
N.B. ‘Voice’ is ‘indefinite’ when taken as the matter of speech or song, being understood on the analogy of
first matter, which is one insofar as it is considered apart from every determination of form.
4
of what sort they are
the boundaries of intervals
the systems which result from the intervals
(= the harmoniai)
Their corresponding effects (pathe) in

the motions of the body, which must
be measured by number: rhythms and meters
2. Note on Plato’s accounts of harmonia.
As one may gather from the text of the Philebus (17c-d), Plato understands the har-
moniai to be the systemata which result from intervals, which latter consist in high and low
‘voices’ or ‘notes’. But the text from the Laws (665a) defines harmonia as the name for
order in the voice, the simultaneous mixture of the high with the low.
Plato, Rep. 601 A (tr. B.A.M.).
Melos is composed of three things: speech, as well as harmony and rhythm.1
Plato, Laws II (664 E—665 A) (ed. Perseus; tr. B.A.M.).
The name for order in movement is rhythm; but the name placed on [the order] in
the voice (the simultaneous mixture of the high with the low), is harmony;2 but both to-
gether are called the choral art.3
Plato, Laws II (672 E—673 A) (ed. Perseus; tr. R. B. Bury).
o(/lh me/n pou xorei/a o(/lh pai/deusij h)=n h(mi=n, tou/tou d’ au)= to\ me\n r(uqmoi/ te kai\ a(rmoni/ai, to\ kata\
th\n fwnh/n . . . to\ de/ ge kata\ th\n tou= sw/matoj ki/nhsin r(uqmo\n me\n koino\n th=? th=j fwnh=j ei)=xe kinh/sei,
sxh=ma de\ i)/dion. e)kei= de\ me/loj h( th=j fwnh=j ki/nhsij.
Athenian
In our view, choristry as a whole is identical with education as a whole; and the part of this
concerned with the voice consists of rhythms and harmonies.
Clinias
Yes.
Athenian
1
to\ me/loj e)k triw=n e)sti sugkei/menon, lo/gou te kai\ a(rmoniaj kai\ r(uqmou=.
2“The movement of the voice…in the order of its high and low sounds”—that is to say, “the order of high
and low sounds in the movement of the voice”, which is virtually Aristotle’s definition of melos: t$= tw=n
fqo/ggwn ta/cei tw=n o)ce/wn kai\ bare/wn, “the order of its high and low sounds” (Probl. XIX. 27, 919b 34, tr.
B.A.M.).
3
th=? dh\ th=j kinh/sewj [665a] ta/cei r(uqmo\j o)/noma ei)/h, th=? de\ au)= th=j fwnh=j, tou= te o)ce/oj a(/ma kai\ bare/oj
sugkerannume/nwn, a(rmoni/a o)/noma prosagoreu/oito, xorei/a de\ to\ sunamfo/teron klhqei.
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And the part concerned with bodily motion possesses, in common with vocal motion,
rhythm; besides which it possesses gesture as its own peculiar attribute, just as tune is the
peculiar attribute of vocal [673a] motion.
Plato, Laws II (655a-b) (ed. and tr. R. G. Bury).
Athênaios: all’ en gar mousikêi kai schêmata But though there are figures and tunes in music,
men kai melê enestin, peri rhuthmon kai as its subject matter is rhythm and melody,
harmonian ousês tês mousikês,
hôste euruthmon men kai euarmoston, euchrôn and we may accordingly speak of a tune or
de melos ê schêma ouk estin apeikasanta, posture as rhythmical or melodious, we cannot
hôsper hoi chorodidaskaloi apeikazousin, orthôs properly use the metaphorical expression of the
phthengesthai: chorus trainers, ‘brilliantly colored’, of either.
to de tou deilou te kai andreiou schêma ê melos But the coward and brave man have their
estin te, kai [655b] orthôs prosagoreuein echei characteristic postures and strains, and it is very
ta men tôn andreiôn kala, ta tôn deilôn de proper to call those of brave men good, those of
aischra. cowards bad.
kai hina dê mê makrologia pollê tis gignêtai peri In fact, to spare ourselves a great deal of verbal
tauth’ hêmin hapanta, haplôs estô ta men aretês repetition in our treatment of the whole subject,
echomena psuchês ê sômatos, we may take it, once and for all, that universally
all postures and melodies connected with
goodness of soul or body—
eite autês eite tinos eikonos, whether with such goodness itself or with some
image of it—
sumpanta schêmata te kai melê kala, ta de are good, and those connected with badness
kakias au, tounantion hapan. universally the reverse.
N.B. Order is in the before and after of things; but the before and after in
movement gives rise to a number; hence, in bodily movement, rhythm is number; not just
any number, but some ratio.
Plato, Laws II (655a-b) (ed. Perseus; tr. Thomas Pangle).
It should be noted, though, that music includes postures and tunes, since music
involves rhythm and harmony; now one can speak of “good rhythm” and “good harmony,”
but one cannot correctly apply to either tune or posture and image “good color”—as the
chorus teachers, speaking in images, do. On the other hand, with regard to the posture or
tune of the coward and the courageous man, it is correct to call what pertains to cowards
“ugly.” To avoid our getting involved in a very lengthy discussion of all these things, let’s
simply let all the postures and tunes that belong to virtue of the soul or of the body
(whether they belong to virtue itself or to an image of it) be beautiful, and those belonging
to vice be entirely the opposite.
3. A description of the Pythagorean conception of melody.
Iamblichus, Vita Pythagorica Liber.
6
From Ch. 15. How Pythagoras Cured By Music
(tr. Thomas Taylor) (tr. Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie)
This melody also was the result of dissimilar This melody was also the result of dissimilar
and variously differing sounds, celerities, mag- and varying sounds, speeds, magnitudes and
nitudes and intervals, arranged with reference to intervals arranged with reference to each other
each other in a certain most musical ratio1 and in a certain musical ratio, producing a convol-
thus producing a most gentle and, at the same uted motion most musical and gentle.
time, variously beautiful motion and convolu-
tion.
1
The arrangement of the sounds etc. = melopoiia or its work.
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4. On the composition of vocal sound.
Plato, Philebus (add) (tr. B. Jowett).
Soc. Some god or divine man, who in the Egyptian legend is said to have been Theuth,
observing that the human voice was infinite, first distinguished in this infinity a certain
number of vowels, and then other letters which had sound, but were not pure vowels
(i.e., the semivowels); these too exist in a definite number; and lastly, he distinguished
a third class of letters which we now call mutes, without voice and without sound, and
divided these, and likewise the two other classes of vowels and semivowels, into the
individual sounds, told the number of them, and gave to each and all of them the
name of letters; and observing that none of us could learn any one of them and not
learn them all, and in consideration of this common bond which in a manner united
them, he assigned to them all a single art, and this he called the art of grammar or
letters.
Plato, Cratylus 424 b – 425 b (tr. B. Jowett).
Soc. So I should expect. But how shall we further analyse them, and where does the
imitator begin?
Imitation of the essence is made by syllables and letters; ought we not, therefore, first to
separate the letters, just as those who are beginning rhythm [c] first distinguish the powers
of elementary, and then of compound sounds, and when they have done so, but not
before, they proceed to the consideration of rhythms?
Her. Yes.
Soc. Must we not begin in the same way with letters; first separating the vowels, and
then the consonants and mutes, into classes, according to the received distinctions of
the learned; also the semivowels, which are neither vowels, nor yet mutes; and
distinguishing into classes the vowels themselves?
And when we have perfected [d] the classification of things, we shall give their names,
and see whether, as in the case of letters, there are any classes to which they may be
all referred; hence we shall see their natures, and see, too, whether they have in them
classes as there are in the letters; and when we have well considered all this, we shall
know how to apply them to what they resemble- whether one letter is used to denote one
thing, or whether there is to be an admixture of several of them;
just, as in painting, the painter who wants to depict anything sometimes uses purple only,
or any other colour, and sometimes mixes up several [e] colours, as his method is when he
has to paint flesh colour or anything of that kind- he uses his colours as his figures appear
to require them; and so, too, we shall apply letters to the expression of objects, either single
letters when required, or several letters; and so we shall form syllables, as they are called,
and from syllables make nouns and verbs; and thus, at last, from the combinations of nouns
and verbs arrive at [425] language, large and fair and whole; and as the painter made a
figure, even so shall we make speech by the art of the namer or the rhetorician, or by some
other art.
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Not that I am literally speaking of ourselves, but I was carried away—meaning to say that
this was the way in which (not we but) the ancients formed language, and what they put
together we must take to pieces in like manner, if we are to attain a scientific view of the
whole subject, and we must see whether the [b] primary, and also whether the secondary
elements are rightly given or not, for if they are not, the composition of them, my dear
Hermogenes, will be a sorry piece of work, and in the wrong direction.
Her. That, Socrates, I can quite believe.
Plato, Theaetetus 202 e – 204 b (tr. B. Jowett).
And yet there is one point in what has been said which does not quite satisfy me.
Theaet. What was it?
Soc. What might seem to be the most ingenious notion of all: That the elements or letters
are unknown, but the combination or syllables known. [e]
Theaet. And was that wrong?
Soc. We shall soon know; for we have as hostages the instances which the author of the
argument himself used.
Theaet. What hostages?
Soc. The letters, which are the elements; and the syllables, which are the combinations;-he
reasoned, did he not, from the letters of the alphabet?
Theaet. Yes; he did. [203]
Soc. Let us take them and put them to the test, or rather, test ourselves: What was the way
in which we learned letters? and, first of all, are we right in saying that syllables have a
definition, but that letters have no definition?
Theaet. I think so. [b]
Soc. I think so too; for, suppose that some one asks you to spell the first syllable of my
name: Theaetetus, he says, what is SO?
Theaet. I should reply S and O.
Soc. That is the definition which you would give of the syllable?
Theaet. I should.
Soc. I wish that you would give me a similar definition of the S.
Theaet. But how can any one, Socrates, tell the elements of an element? I can only
reply, that S is a consonant, a mere noise, as of the tongue hissing; B, and most other
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letters, again, are neither vowel-sounds nor noises. Thus letters may be most truly
said to be undefined; for even the most distinct of them, which are the seven vowels,
have a sound only, but no definition at all.
Soc. Then, I suppose, my friend, that we have been so far right in our idea about
knowledge?
Theaet. Yes; I think that we have. [c]
Soc. Well, but have we been right in maintaining that the syllables can be known, but not
the letters?
Theaet. I think so.
Soc. And do we mean by a syllable two letters, or if there are more, all of them, or a single
idea which arises out of the combination of them?
Theaet. I should say that we mean all the letters.
Soc. Take the case of the two letters S and O, which form the first syllable of my own
name; must not he who knows the syllable, know both of them? [d]
Theaet. Certainly.
Soc. He knows, that is, the S and O?
Theaet. Yes.
Soc. But can he be ignorant of either singly and yet know both together?
Theaet. Such a supposition, Socrates, is monstrous and unmeaning.
Soc. But if he cannot know both without knowing each, then if he is ever to know the
syllable, he must know the letters first; and thus the fine theory has again taken wings and
departed.
Theaet. Yes, with wonderful celerity. [e]
Soc. Yes, we did not keep watch properly. Perhaps we ought to have maintained that a
syllable is not the letters, but rather one single idea framed out of them, having a separate
form distinct from them.
Theaet. Very true; and a more likely notion than the other.
Soc. Take care; let us not be cowards and betray a great and imposing theory.
Theaet. No, indeed.
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Soc. Let us assume then, as we now say, that the syllable is a simple form arising out of the
several combinations of harmonious elements—of letters or of any other elements. [204]
Theaet. Very good.
Soc. And it must have no parts.
Theaet. Why?
Soc. Because that which has parts must be a whole of all the parts. Or would you say that a
whole, although formed out of the parts, is a single notion different from all the parts?
Theaet. I should.
Soc. And would you say that all and the whole are the same, or different?
Theaet. I am not certain; but, as you like me to answer at once, I shall hazard the reply, that
they are different. [b]
Plato. Sophist (253 a) (tr. B. Jowett).
Stranger: This communion of some with some may be illustrated by the case of letters; for
some letters do not fit each other, while others do.
Theaetetus: Of course.
Stranger: And the vowels, especially, are a sort of bond which pervades all the other
letters, so that without a vowel one consonant cannot be joined to another.
Theaetetus: True.
Stranger: But does every one know what letters will unite with what? Or is art required in
order to do so?
Theaetetus: Art is required.
Stranger: What art?
Theaetetus: The art of grammar.
Stranger: And is not this also true of sounds high and low? —Is not he who has the art to
know what sounds mingle, a musician, and he who is ignorant, not a musician?
Theaetetus: Yes.
Stranger: And we shall find this to be generally true of art or the absence of art.
Theaetetus: Of course.
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Stranger: And as classes are admitted by us in like manner to be some of them capable and
others incapable of intermixture, must not he who would rightly show what kinds will
unite and what will not, proceed by the help of science in the path of argument? And will
he not ask if the connecting links are universal, and so capable of intermixture with all
things; and again, in divisions, whether there are not other universal classes, which make
them possible?
Theaetetus: To be sure he will require science, and, if I am not mistaken, the very greatest
of all sciences.
Stranger: How are we to call it? By Zeus, have we not lighted unwittingly upon our free
and noble science, and in looking for the Sophist have we not entertained the philosopher
unawares?
5. The primary division of vocal sounds according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus:
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De Comp. verborum 14 [In: Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

Critical Essays II. On Literary Composition. With an English Translation by Stephen
Usher), pp. 91-105, with omissions].
[14] Now in the articulate speech of human beings there are prime units admitting no
further division, which we call “elements” and “letters”: “letters” (gra/mmata),
because they are signified by certain [91-92]
2
Underlying the following discussion is the theory, which probably originated with the Sophists of
the fifth century, and was later adopted by the Stoic grammarians, that the letters or elements of
speech bore a natural relationship, through the words formed from them, to the objects which those
words described; and that hence letters might be thought to possess innately pleasant or unpleasant
characteristics through such associations. Plato examines this theory in the Cratylus 424 A ff.
lines (grammai/),1 and “elements”, because every vocal sound originates in these in the
first place,2 and is ultimately resolved into them. The elements and letters are not all of
the same nature. The first of the differences between them, as the musical theorist
Aristoxenus3 indicates, is that some represent vocal sounds, and others noise: the
former being those which are called “vowels”,4 the latter being all the other letters. A
second difference is that some of the non-vowels by their own nature produce some
kind of sound—a whirring, a hissing, a murmur, or suggestions of other sounds of
these kinds;5 while others are devoid of any voice or sound and cannot be sounded by
themselves. Consequently some theorists have called the latter “voiceless” and the
others “semi-voiced”. Those who divide the primary and the elementary powers of
the voice into three give the name “vowels” to all the letters which can be made to
produce sound on their own or together with others, and are self-sufficient;
“semivowels” to all which are pronounced more effectively in combination with
vowels, worse and imperfectly on their own; “voiceless”6 to all which have no sound
on their own, whether perfect or imperfect, but are pronounced in combination with
others.
It is not easy to say precisely what the number of these letters is, for the subject has
caused our pre- [93-94]
12
1
Cf. Dionysius Thrax, Ars Grammatica 6 (p. 9 Uhlig).
2
Cf. Aristotle, Poetics 20; Plato, Theaetetus 202E-203C.
3
Of Tarentum. See Demosthenes 48. Cf. Aristotele, De Anima 2. 8.
4
The seven referred to below (p. 95, n. 2) correspond with those in Plato, Theaetetus 203B. Cf.
Cratylus 424C; Aristotele, Historia Animalium 4. 9. 1.
5
This intermediate class of semivowels was recognised by the earliest known grammarian, the
Egyptian Theuth, according to Plato, Philebus 18B.
6
Or “mute”.
decessors much perplexity. Some have thought that there are only thirteen “elements” of
speech altogether and that the other letters are formed from these; while others have
thought that there are more even than the twenty-four which we employ today. Now the
discussion of these matters belongs more properly to grammar and prosody, or even, if you
like, to philosophy. It is enough for us to assume that there are neither more nor less than
twenty-four elements of sound,1 and to describe the properties of each, beginning with the
vowels.
These are seven in number2: two are short, e and o; two long, h and w; and
three common, a, i, and u. These latter can be pronounced either long or short, and some
call them common, as I have done, others “variable”. All these sounds are produced from
the windpipe, which resounds to the breath, while the mouth is formed in a simple shape,
the tongue not being busy but remaining at rest.3 But the long vowels, and those common
vowels that are pronounced long, take an extended and continuous column of breath, while
the short vowels and those which are pronounced short are uttered abruptly, with one burst
of breath and only a brief movement of the windpipe. Now the most powerful of these, and
those which produce the most attractive sound, are the long vowels, and those common
ones which are lengthened in utterance, and this is because they are sounded for a long
time, and do not arrest the strong [95-96]
1
So Dionysius Thrax, Ars Grammatica 6 (p. 9 Uhlig).
2
See note 4, p. 93.
3
For a rather different account of the part played by the tongue, see W.S. Allen, Vox Graeca, p. 3.
A.J. Ellis, in his book English, Dionysian and Hellenic Pronunciation of Greek, goes some way
towards reconciling the two points of view by observing that ou)de\n pragmateuomenhj may mean
that the tongue “does not move about, though it directs the breath.”
flow of the breath.
The short vowels, or those which are pronounced short, are inferior, because they lack
volume and restrict the sound.
Again, of the long vowels, the one with the best sound is a, when lengthened,1 for
it is pronounced with the mouth open to the fullest extent and the breath forced upwards to
the palate.2 Second comes h, because it presses the sound down around the base of the
tongue and not upwards, and the mouth is only moderately open.3 In the third place is w,
for in pronouncing it the mouth is rounded, the lips are contracted and the breath makes its
impact on the edge of the lips.4 Still lower on the scale is u, for here, since a considerable
contraction takes place around the lips themselves, the sound is choked and comes out
13
thin.5 Last of all comes i: with this the impact of the breath is on the teeth, while the mouth
is slightly open and the lips do not amplify the sound.6
Of the short vowels neither is beautiful, but o is less ugly that e: for the former causes the
mouth to open wider than the latter, and receives the impact more in the region of the
windpipe.
Such, then, is the nature of the vowels. The semivowels are as follows. They are
eight in number, five being simple, l, m, n, r, j, and s, and three double, z, c and y.
They are called double either [97-98]
1
The danger of applying such rigid aesthetic values to letters is nowhere better illustrated that in
the case of vowels. For example, a is used in tragedy to depict pain (e.g. in Sophocles, Philoctetes
732, 739).
2
Cf. Allen, op cit. pp. 59-60; Dionysius Thrax, p. 10 Uhlig.
3
Cf. Allen, op cit. pp. 66-7; Dionysius Thrax, ibid.
4
5
Cf. Allen, op cit. pp. 62-6; Dionysius Thrax, ibid; Aristophanes, Plutus 895 and Rogers note ad
loc.
6
because they are composite, receiving their individual sound through the amalgamation of
s and d into z,1 of k and s into c, and of p and s into y; or because they each occupy the
space of two letters in the syllables where they occur.2 Of these semivowels the double are
superior o the simple because they are ampler than the others and seem nearer to perfect
letters.3 The simpler letters are inferior because their sounds are confined within a narrower
compass. They are severally pronounced somewhat in the following manner....
The sound [99-100]
1
Not ds, and hence the reverse of the English z.
2
Thus rendering them metrically long.
3
This judgement is difficult to reconcile with the unfavorable verdict on s below. By “perfect”
letters (te//leia gra/mmata) Dionysius seems to mean combinations of consonants closing a
syllable, and lengthening it. See Ch. 20, and Roberts’s note on p. 205.
assumed by the three remaining semivowels is of a mixed character, being formed from
one of the semi-voiced letters, s, and three voiceless letters, d, k and p.
...Of the letters that are called “voiceless”, of which there are nine, three are
smooth, three rough,1 and three intermediate. The smooth letters are k, p and t, the rough
q, f, and x2; the intermediate b, g, and d.3
1
The metaphor, as before, is derived from the different kinds of animal skin: “hairy” and
“smooth”. See Dionysius Thrax, p. 12.
2
On the aspirated plosives, see Allen, pp. 16-23.
3
On the intermediates, or voiced plosives, see Allen, pp. 15-23; Dionysius Thrax, pp. 12-3.
<> [104-105]
14
It is from this number of letters, with the properties described, that are
formed what we call syllables. Of these the ones which are made from long vowels, or
from variable vowels when pronounced long, are long, as are those which end in a long
letter or a letter pronounced long,3 or in one of the semivowels and on the voiceless
letters.4 Those which are made from a short vowel, or from one taken as short, are short.
There is more than one kind of length and shortness of syllables; some are actually longer
than the long and some shorter than the short.
3
“Long letters” would include double consonants, z, c, y. The existence in metrical practice, if
not in theory, of a provision that any letter might be “pronounced long” would account for the
licence that is apparent in Homeric verse, and which reflects an oral tradition. The rules of quantity
were much more strictly observed in drama.
Consonant (Wikipedia).
Origin of the term
The word consonant comes from Latin cōnsonantem, accusative of cōnsonāns (littera)
“sounding-together (letter)”, a loan translation of Greek σύμφωνον sýmphōnon.[1] As
originally conceived by Plato,[2] sýmphōna were specifically the stop consonants,
described as “not being pronounceable without an adjacent vowel sound”.[3] Thus the
term did not cover continuant consonants, which occur without vowels in a large minority
of languages, for example at the ends of the English words bottle and button. (The final
vowel letters e and o in these words are only a product of orthography; Plato was
concerned with pronunciation.) However, even Plato’s original conception of consonant is
inadequate for the universal description of human language, since in some languages, such
as the Salishan languages, stop consonants may also occur without vowels (see Nuxálk),
and the modern conception of consonant does not require cooccurrence with vowels.
References
1
Robert K. Barnhart, ed., Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Previously published as The
Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, originally ©1988 The H.W. Wilson Company; Edinburgh,
reprinted 2001: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd., p. 210.
2
Plato, Cratylus 424 C; Theaetetus 203 B.
3
R.H. Robins, A Short History of Linguistics, 2nd Ed.; ©1967 R.H. Robins, ©1979 Longman
Group Ltd.; paper edition, 5th printing 1985, p. 23.
<...>
Consonants and vowels
Consonants and vowels correspond to distinct parts of a syllable: The most sonorous
part of the syllable (that is, the part that is easiest to sing), called the syllabic peak or
nucleus, is typically a vowel, while the less sonorous margins (called the onset and coda)
are typically consonants. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC, where C
stands for consonant and V stands for vowel. This can be argued to be the only pattern
found in most of the world’s languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them.
However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut: there are
syllabic consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the world’s languages.
15
One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, or glides.
On the one side, there are vowel-like segments which are not in themselves syllabic, but
which form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil [ˈbɔɪ̯l]. On
the other, there are approximants which behave like consonants in forming onsets, but are
articulated very much like vowels, as the y in English yes [ˈjɛs]. Some phonologists model
these as both being the vowel /i/, so that the English word bit would phonemically be
/bit/, beet would be /bii̯t/, and yield would be phonemically /i̯ii̯ld/. Similarly, foot
would be /fut/, food would be /fuu̯ d/, wood would be /u̯ ud/, and wooed would be
/u̯ uu̯ d/. However, there is a (perhaps allophonic) difference in articulation between these
segments, with the [j] in [ˈjɛs] yes and [ˈjiʲld] yield and the [w] of [ˈwuʷd] wooed having
more constriction and a more definite place of articulation than the [ɪ] in [ˈbɔɪ̯l] boil or
[ˈbɪt] bit or the [ʊ] of [ˈfʊt].
The other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, that is, segments which are
articulated as consonants but which occupy the nucleus of a syllable. This may be the case
for words such as church in rhotic dialects of English, although phoneticians differ in
whether they consider this to be a syllabic consonant, /ˈtʃɹ̩tʃ/, or a rhotic vowel, /ˈtʃɝtʃ/:
Some distinguish an approximant /ɹ/ that corresponds to a vowel /ɝ/, for rural as /ˈɹɝl/
or [ˈɹʷɝːl̩]; others see these as the a single phoneme, /ˈɹɹ̩l/.
Other languages utilize fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech
and several languages in Congo and China, including Mandarin Chinese. In Mandarin,
they are historically allophones of /i/, and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and
Maddieson[4] call these “fricative vowels” and say that “they can usually be thought of as
syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels.” That is, phonetically they are consonants,
but phonemically they behave as vowels.
Many Slavic languages allow the trill [r̩ ] and the lateral [l̩] as syllabic nuclei (see Words
without vowels), and in languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a
syllable is (it may be that not all syllables have nuclei), though if the concept of ‘syllable’
applies, there are syllabic consonants in words like /sx̩ s/ ‘seal fat’.
16
II. ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
Aristotle, De Anima ii. 8 (419b 4—421a 6) (tr. J. A. Smith).
Now let us, to begin with, make certain distinctions about sound and hearing.
[5] Sound may mean either of two things (a) actual, and (b) potential, sound. There
are certain things which, as we say, ‘have no sound’, e.g. sponges or wool, others which
have, e.g. bronze and in general all things which are smooth and solid – the latter are said
to have a sound because they can make a sound, i.e. can generate actual sound between
themselves and the organ of hearing.
Actual sound requires for its occurrence (i, ii) two such bodies and [10] (iii) a space
between them; for it is generated by an impact. Hence it is impossible for one body only to
generate a sound – there must be a body impinging and a body impinged upon; what
sounds does so by striking against something else, and this is impossible without a
movement from place to place.
As we have said, not all bodies can by impact on one another produce sound;
impact on wool makes no sound, while the impact on [15] bronze or any body which is
smooth and hollow does. Bronze gives out a sound when struck because it is smooth;
bodies which are hollow owing to reflection repeat the original impact over and over again,
the body originally set in movement being unable to escape from the concavity.
Further, we must remark that sound is heard both in air and in water, though less
distinctly in the latter. Yet neither air nor water [20] is the principal cause of sound. What
is required for the production of sound is an impact of two solids against one another and
against the air. The latter condition is satisfied when the air impinged upon does not retreat
before the blow, i.e. is not dissipated by it. That is why it must be struck with a sudden
sharp blow, if it is to sound – the movement of the whip must outrun the dispersion of the
air, just as one might get in a stroke at a heap or whirl of sand as it was traveling rapidly
past.
[25] An echo occurs, when, a mass of air having been unified, bounded, and
prevented from dissipation by the containing walls of a vessel, the air originally struck by
the impinging body and set in movement by it rebounds from this mass of air like a ball
from a wall. It is probable that in all generation of sound echo takes place, though it is
frequently only indistinctly heard. What happens here must be analogous to what happens
in the case of light; light is always reflected – otherwise it would not be diffused and
outside what was [30] directly illuminated by the sun there would be blank darkness; but
this reflected light is not always strong enough, as it is when it is reflected from water,
bronze, and other smooth bodies, to cast a shadow, which is the distinguishing mark by
which we recognize light.
It is rightly said that an empty space plays the chief part in the production of
hearing, for what people mean by ‘the vacuum’ is the air, which is what causes hearing,
when that air is set in movement as one continuous mass; but owing to its friability it emits
no [35] sound, being dissipated by impinging upon any surface which is not smooth.
[420a] When the surface on which it impinges is quite smooth, what is produced by the
original impact is a united mass, a result due to the smoothness of the surface with which
the air is in contact at the other end.
What has the power of producing sound is what has the power of setting in
movement a single mass of air which is continuous from the impinging body up to the
organ of hearing. The organ of hearing is physically united with air,34 and because it is in
air, the air inside is moved concurrently with the air outside.
17
Hence animals do not hear [5] with all parts of their bodies, nor do all parts admit of the
entrance of air; for even the part which can be moved and can sound has not air
everywhere in it. Air in itself is, owing to its friability, quite soundless; only when its
dissipation is prevented is its movement sound. The air in the ear is built into a chamber
just to prevent this dissipating movement, in order that the animal may accurately [10]
apprehend all varieties of the movements of the air outside. That is why we hear also in
water, viz. because the water cannot get into the air chamber or even, owing to the spirals,
into the outer ear. If this does happen, hearing ceases, as it also does if the tympanic
membrane is damaged, just as sight ceases if the membrane covering the pupil is damaged.
It is also a test of deafness whether the [15] ear does or does not reverberate like a horn;
the air inside the ear has always a movement of its own, but the sound we hear is always
the sounding of something else, not of the organ itself. That is why we say that we hear
with what is empty and echoes, viz. because what we hear with is a chamber which
contains a bounded mass of air.
Which is it that ‘sounds’, the striking body or the struck? Is not the answer ‘it is
both, but each in a different way’? Sound is a [20]
34
i.e. it has air incorporated in its structure.
movement of what can rebound from a smooth surface when struck against it. As we have
explained35 not everything sounds when it strikes or is struck, e.g. if one needle is struck
against another, [25] neither emits any sound. In order, therefore, that sound may be
generated, what is struck must be smooth, to enable the air to rebound and be shaken off
from it in one piece.
The distinctions between different sounding bodies show themselves only in actual
sound;36 as without the help of light colours remain invisible, so without the help of actual
sound the distinctions between acute and grave sounds remain inaudible. Acute and grave
are here metaphors, transferred from their proper sphere, viz. that of [30] touch, where they
mean respectively (a) what moves the sense much in a short time, (b) what moves the
sense little in a long time. Not that what is sharp really moves fast, and what is grave,
slowly, but that the difference in the qualities of the one and the other movement [420b] is
due to their respective speeds. There seems to be a sort of parallelism between what is
acute or grave to hearing and what is sharp or blunt to touch; what is sharp as it were stabs,
while what is blunt pushes, the one producing its effect in a short, the other in a long time,
so that the one is quick, the other slow.
[5] Let the foregoing suffice as an analysis of sound. Voice is a kind of sound
characteristic of what has soul in it; nothing that is without soul utters voice, it being only
by a metaphor that we speak of the voice of the flute or the lyre or generally of what (being
without soul) possesses the power of producing a succession of notes which differ in
length and pitch and timbre. The metaphor is based on the fact that all these differences are
found also in voice. Many animals are voiceless, e.g. all non-sanguineous animals and
among [10] sanguineous animals fish. This is just what we should expect, since voice is a
certain movement of air. The fish, like those in the Achelous, which are said to have voice,
really make the sounds with their gills or some similar organ. Voice is the sound made by
an animal, and that with a special organ. As we saw, everything that makes a sound does
so by the impact of something (a) against something else, (b) [15] across a space, (c) filled
with air; hence it is only to be expected that no animals utter voice except those which take
in air.
18
Once air is inbreathed, Nature uses it for two different purposes, as the tongue is used both
for tasting and for articulating; in that case of the two functions tasting is necessary for the
animal’s existence (hence it is found more widely distributed), while articulate speech is a
luxury
35
419b 6, 13.
36
i.e. when these bodies, e.g. the strings of a lyre, are actually sounding.
subserving its possessor’s well-being; similarly in the former case [20] Nature employs the
breath both as an indispensable means to the regulation of the inner temperature of the
living body and also as the matter of articulate voice, in the interests of its possessor’s
well-being. Why its former use is indispensable must be discussed elsewhere.37
The organ of respiration is the windpipe, and the organ to which this is related as
means to end is the lungs. The latter is the part of the body by which the temperature of
land animals is raised above that of all others. But what primarily requires the air drawn in
by [25] respiration is not only this but the region surrounding the heart. That is why when
animals breathe the air must penetrate inwards.
Voice then is the impact of the inbreathed air against the ‘windpipe’, and the agent
that produces the impact is the soul resident in these parts of the body. Not every sound, as
we said, made by an [30] animal is voice (even with the tongue we may merely make a
sound which is not voice, or without the tongue as in coughing); what produces the impact
must have soul in it and must be accompanied by an act of imagination, for voice is a
sound with a meaning, and is not merely the result of any impact of the breath as in
coughing; in voice the breath in the windpipe is used as an instrument to knock with
against the walls of the windpipe. This is confirmed by our [421a] inability to speak when
we are breathing either out or in – we can only do so by holding our breath; we make the
movements with the breath so checked. It is clear also why fish are voiceless; they have no
windpipe. And they have no windpipe because they do not breathe [5] or take in air. Why
they do not is a question belonging to another inquiry.38
37
De Resp.478a 28; P.A. 642a 31—b4.
38
Cf. De Resp. 474b 25-9, 476a 6-15; P.A. 669a 2-5.
Aristotle, On the Generation of Animals, IV. 7 (786b 8—788b1) (tr. Arthur Platt).
As to the voice, it is deep in some animals, high in others, in others again well-pitched and
in due proportion between both extremes. Again, in some it is loud, in others small, and it
differs in smoothness and roughness, flexibility and inflexibility. We must inquire then
into the causes of each of these distinctions.
We must suppose then that the same cause is responsible for high and deep voices
as for the change which they undergo in passing from youth to age. The voice is higher in
all other animals when younger, but in cattle that of calves is deeper. We find the same
thing also in the male and female sexes; in the other kinds of animals the voice of the
female is higher than that of the male (this being especially plain in man, for Nature has
given this faculty to him in the highest degree because he alone of animals makes use of
speech and the voice is the material of speech), but in cattle the opposite obtains, for the
voice of cows is deeper than that of bulls.
19
Now the purpose for which animals have a voice, and what is meant by “voice” and
by “sound” generally, has been stated partly in the treatise on sensation, partly in that on
the soul. But since lowness of voice depends on the movement of the air being slow and its
highness on its being quick, there is a difficulty in knowing whether it is that which moves
or that which is moved that is the cause of the slowness or quickness. For some say that
what is much is moved slowly, what is little quickly, and that the quantity of the air is the
cause of some animals having a deep and others a high voice. Up to a certain point this is
well said (for it seems to be rightly said in a general way that the depth depends on a
certain amount of the air put in motion), but not altogether, for if this were true it would
not be easy to speak both soft and deep at once, nor again both loud and high. Again, the
depth seems to belong to the nobler nature, and in songs the deep note is better than the
high-pitched ones, the better lying in superiority, and depth of tone being a sort of
superiority. But then depth and height in the voice are different from loudness and
softness, and some high-voiced animals are loud-voiced, and in like manner some soft-
voiced ones are deep-voiced, and the same applies to the tones lying between these
extremes. And by what else can we define these (I mean loudness and softness of voice)
except by the large and small amount of the air put in motion? If then height and depth are
to be decided in accordance with the distinction postulated, the result will be that the same
animals will be deep-and loud-voiced, and the same will be high-and not loud-voiced; but
this is false.
The reason of the difficulty is that the words “great” and “small”, “much” and
“little” are used sometimes absolutely, sometimes relatively to one another. Whether an
animal has a great (or loud) voice depends on the air which is moved being much
absolutely, whether it has a small voice depends on its being little absolutely; but whether
they have a deep or high voice depends on their being thus differentiated in relation to one
another. For if that which is moved surpass the strength of that which moves it, the air that
is sent forth must go slowly; if the opposite, quickly. The strong, then, on account of their
strength, sometimes move much air and make the movement slow, sometimes, having
complete command over it, make the movement swift. On the same principle the weak
either move too much air for their strength and so make the movement slow, or if they
make it swift move but little because of their weakness.
These, then, are the reasons of these contrarieties, that neither are all young animals
high-voiced nor all deep-voiced, nor are all the older, nor yet are the two sexes thus
opposed, and again that not only the sick speak in a high voice but also those in good
bodily condition, and, further, that as men verge on old age they become higher-voiced,
though this age is opposite to that of youth.
Most young animals, then, and most females set but little air in motion because of
their want of power, and are consequently high-voiced, for a little air is carried along
quickly, and in the voice what is quick is high. But in calves and cows, in the one case
because of their age, in the other because of their female nature, the part by which they set
the air in motion is not strong; at the same time they set a great quantity in motion and so
are deep-voiced; for that which is borne along slowly is heavy, and much air is borne along
slowly. And these animals set much in movement whereas the others set but little, because
the vessel through which the breath is first borne has in them a large opening and
necessarily sets much air in motion, whereas in the rest the air is better dispensed. As their
age advances this part which moves the air gains more strength in each animal, so that they
change into the opposite condition, the high-voiced becoming deeper-voiced than they
were, and the deep-voiced higher-voiced, which is why bulls have a higher voice than
calves and cows. Now the strength of all animals is in their sinews, and so those in the
20
prime of life are stronger, the young being weaker in the joints and sinews; moreover, in
the young they are not yet tense, and in those now growing old the tension relaxes,
wherefore both these ages are weak and powerless for movement. And bulls are
particularly sinewy, even their hearts, and therefore that part by which they set the air in
motion is in a tense state, like a sinewy string stretched tight. (That the heart of bulls is of
such a nature is shown by the fact that a bone is actually found in some of them, and bones
are naturally connected with sinew.)
All animals when castrated change to the female character, and utter a voice like
that of the females because the sinewy strength in the principle of the voice is relaxed. This
relaxation is just as if one should stretch a string and make it taut by hanging some weight
on to it, as women do who weave at the loom, for they stretch the warp by attaching to it
what are called “laiai”. For in this way are the testes attached to the seminal passages, and
these again to the blood-vessel which takes its origin in the heart near the organ which sets
the voice in motion. Hence as the seminal passages change towards the age at which they
are now able to secrete the semen, this part also changes along with them. As this changes,
the voice again changes, more indeed in males, but the same thing happens in females too,
only not so plainly, the result being what some call “bleating”“ when the voice is uneven.
After this it settles into the deep or high voice of the succeeding time of life. If the testes
are removed the tension of the passages relaxes, as when the weight is taken off the string
or the warp; as this relaxes, the organ which moves the voice is loosened in the same
proportion. This, then, is the reason why the voice and the form generally changes to the
female character in castrated animals; it is because the principle is relaxed upon which
depends the tension of the body; not that, as some suppose, the testes are themselves a
ganglion of many principles, but small changes are the causes of great ones, not per se but
when it happens that a principle changes with them. For the principles, though small in
size, are great in potency; this, indeed, is what is meant by a principle, that it is itself the
cause of many things without anything else being higher than it for it to depend upon.
The heat or cold also of their habitat contributes to make some animals of such a
character as to be deep-voiced, and others high-voiced. For hot breath being thick causes
depth, cold breath being thin the opposite. This is clear also in pipe-playing, for if the
breath of the performer is hotter, that is to say if it is expelled as by a groan, the note is
deeper.
The cause of roughness and smoothness in the voice, and of all similar inequality,
is that the part or organ through which the voice is conveyed is rough or smooth or
generally even or uneven. This is plain when there is any moisture about the trachea or
when it is roughened by any affection, for then the voice also becomes uneven.
Flexibility depends on the softness or hardness of the organ, for what is soft can be
regulated and assume any form, while what is hard cannot; thus the soft organ can utter a
loud or a small note, and accordingly a high or a deep one, since it easily regulates the
breath, becoming itself easily great or small. But hardness cannot be regulated.
Let this be enough on all those points concerning the voice which have not been
previously discussed in the treatise on sensation and in that on the soul.
Aristotle, Hist. Animal., IV. 9 (534b 29—535a 2) (tr. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson).
Voice [fonh=] and sound [yofoj] are different from one another; and language
[dialektoj] differs from voice and sound. The fact is that no animal can give utterance to
voice except [30] by the action of the pharynx, and consequently such animals as are
21
devoid of lung have no voice; and language is the articulation of vocal sounds by the
tongue. Thus, the voice and larynx can emit vowel sounds; consonantal sounds are made
by the tongue and the lips; and out of these language is composed.
Consequently, animals that [535a] have no tongue at all or that have a tongue not
freely detached, have no language; although they may be enabled to make sounds by other
organs than the tongue.
Aristotle, Hist. Animal., IV. 9 (536a 2-3) (tr. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson).
For this creature [the dolphin] has a voice, for it is furnished with a lung and a
windpipe; but its tongue is not loose, nor has it lips, so as to give utterance to an articulate
sound.
N.B. To say that the dolphin “has a voice” means that it can therefore utter vowel sounds,
“for it is furnished with a lung and a windpipe; but its tongue is not loose, nor has it lips, so
as to give utterance to an articulate sound”. But ‘an articulate sound” is a sound of vowel
and consonant in combination.
[Aristotle], Probl., X. 38 (895a 4-6) (ed. Loeb, tr. W. S. Hett).
Dia\ ti/ ma=llon a)/nqrwpoj polla\j fwna\j Why does man show great variety of voice, but
a)fi/hsin, ta\ de\ a)/lla mi/an, a)dia/fora o)/nta other animals have only one, unless they are of
t%= ei)/dei; different species?
<h)\> kai\ tou= a)nqrw/pou mi/a fwnh/, a/)lla Or has man only one voice, though many
dia/lektoi pollai/; varieties of speech?
[Aristotle], Probl., X. 39 (895a 7-14) (ed. Loeb, tr. W. S. Hett).
Dia\ ti/ de\ au(/th a)/llh, toi=j de\ a)/lloij ou)/; Why does this speech take different forms,
when it does not with other animals?
h)\ o(/ti oi( me\n a)/nqrwpoi gra/mmata polla\ Is it because man can utter a number of letters,
fqe/ggonta, tw=n de\ a)/llwn ta\ me\n ou)de/n, but of the other animals some utter none and
e)/nia de\ du/o h)\ tri/a tw=n [10] a)fw/nwn; some only two or three consonants?
tau=ta de\ poiei= meta\ tw=n fwnhe/ntwn th\n These consonants combined with vowels make
dia/lekton. articulate speech.
e)/sti de\ o( lo/goj ou) to\ t$= fwn$= shmai/nein; Now speech consists of conveying a meaning
a)lla) toi=j pa/qesin au)th=j, kai\ mh\ o(/ti a)lgei= not by the voice, but by certain affections of it,
h)\ xai/rei. and not only shows pain and pleasure.
Now the letters are certain affections of the

ta\ de\ gra/mmata pa/qh e)sti th=j fwnh=j.
voice.
o(moi/wj de\ o(/ te pai=dej kai\ ta\ qhri/a

Children and beasts show their meaning in the
same way, for children cannot yet pronounce
dhlou=sin: ou) ga/r pw ou)de\ ta\ paidi/a
the letters.
fqe/ggontai ta\ gra/mmata.
22
Aristotle, De Part. Animal., II. 17 (660a 15-661a 30) (tr. William Ogle).
(Greek to be added) The tongue is placed under the vaulted roof of

the mouth.
In land animals it presents but little diversity.
But in other animals it is variable, and this

whether we compare them as a class with such
as live on land, or compare their several species
with each other.
It is in man that the tongue attains its greatest

degree of freedom, of softness, and of breadth;
the object of this being to render it (20) suitable
for its double function.
For its softness fits it for the perception of

savours, a sense which is more delicate in man
than in any other animal, softness being most
impressionable by touch, of which sense taste is
but a variety.
This same softness again, together with its

breadth, adapts it for the articulation of letters
(= he ton grammaton diarthrosis) and for (25)
speech.
For these qualities, combined with its freedom

from attachment, are those which suit it best for
advancing and retiring in every direction.
That this is so is plain, if we consider the case of

those who are tongue-tied in however slight a
degree.
For their speech is indistinct and lisping; that is

to say there are certain letters which they cannot
pronounce.
In being broad is comprised the possibility of

becoming narrow; for in the great the small is
included, but not the great in the small.
What has been said explains why, among birds,

those that are most capable of pronouncing
letters are such as have the broadest tongues;
and why the viviparous and sanguineous

quadrupeds, where the tongue is hard and thick
and not free in its motions, have a very limited
vocal articulation.
23
Some birds have a considerable variety of notes.
These are the smaller kinds.
But it is the birds with talons that have the

broader tongues.
All birds use their tongues to communicate with

each other.
But some do this in a greater degree than the

rest; so that in some cases it even seems as
though actual instruction were imparted from
one to another by its agency.
These, however, are matters which have already

been discussed in the Researches concerning
Animals.
As to those oviparous and sanguineous animals

that live not in the air but on the earth, their
tongue in most cases is tied down and hard, and
is therefore useless for vocal purposes;
in the serpents, however, and in the lizards it is

long and forked, so as to be suited for the
perception of savours.
So long indeed is this part in serpents, that

though small while in the mouth it can be
protruded to a great distance.
In these animals it is forked and has a fine and

hair-like extremity, because of their great liking
for dainty food.
For by this arrangement they derive a twofold

pleasure from savours, their gustatory sensation
being as it were doubled.
Aristotle, De Gen. Animal., V. 7 (787b 10-788a 16) (ed. & tr. Loeb).
e)/sti me\n ou)=n pa=sin h( i)sxuj e)n toi=j neu/roj, Now the strength of all animals is in their
dio\ kai\ ta\ a)kma/zonta i)sxu/ei ma=llon. sinews, and so those in the prime of life are
a)/narqra ga\r ta\ ne/a ma=llon kai\ a)/neura. stronger, the young being weaker in the joints
and sinews;
e)/ti de\ toi=j me\n ne/oij ou)/pw e)pite/tai, toi=j de\ moreover, in the young they are not yet tense,
geghrako/sin h)/dh a)nei=ta h( suntoni/a. dio\ and in those now growing old the tension
a)/mfw a)sqenh= kai\ a)du/nata pro\j th\n relaxes, wherefore both these ages are weak and
ki/nhsin. powerless for movement.
24
ma/lista d) oi( tau=roi neurw/deij, kai\ h( And bulls are particularly sinewy, even their
kardi/a. dio/per su/ntonon e)/xousi tou=to to\ hearts, and therefore that part by which they set
mo/rion %(= kinou=si to\ pneu=ma, w(/sper xordh\n the air in motion is in a tense state, like a sinewy
tetame/nhn neuri/nhn. string stretched tight.
dhloi= de\ toiau/th th\n fu/sin ou)=sa h( kardi/a (That the heart of bulls is of such a nature is
tw=n bow=n t%= kai\ o)stou=n e)ggi/nesqai e)n shown by the fact that a bone is actually found
e)ni/aij au)tw=n. ta\ d) o)sta= zhtei= th\n tou= in some of them, and bones are naturally
neu/rou fu/sin. connected with sinew.)
)Ektemno/mena de\ pa/nta ei)j to\ qh=lu All animals when castrated change to the female
metaba/llei, kai\ dia\ to\ a)ni/esqai th\n i)sxu\n character, and utter a voice like that of the
th\n neurw/dh e)n th= a)/rx$= o(moi/an a)fi/hsi females because the sinewy strength in the
fwmh\n toi=j qh/lesin. principle of the voice is relaxed.
h( d) a)/nesij paraplhsi/a gi/netai w(/sper a)\n This relaxation is just as if one should stretch a
e)i/ tij xordh\n katatei/naj su/ntonon string and make it taut by hanging some weight
poi/h/seie t%= e)ca/yai ti bar/oj, oi(=on dh\ onto it, as women do who weave at the loom,
poiou=sin ai( tou\j i(stou\j u(fai/nousai. kai\ for they stretch the warp by attaching to it what
ga\r au(=tai to\n sth/mona katatei/nousi are called ‘laiai’.
prosa/ptousai ta\j kaloume/naj laia/j.
ou(/tw ga\r kai\ h( tw=n o)/rxewn fu/sij For in this way are the testes attached to the
prosh/rthtai pro\j tou)j spermatikou\j seminal passages, and these again to the blood-
po/rouj, ou(=toi d) e)k th=j flebo/j h(=j h( a)rxh\ e)k vessel which takes its origin in the heart near the
th=j kardi/aj pro\j au)t%= t%= kinou=nti th\n organ which sets the voice in motion.
fwnh/n.
dio/per kai\ tw=n spermatikw=n po/rwn Hence as the seminal passages change towards
metaballo/ntwn pro\j th\n h(liki/an e)n $(= h)/dh the age at which they are now able to secrete the
du/nantai to\ spe/rma e)kkri/nein, semen, this part also changes along with them.
summetaba/llei kai\ tou=to to\ mo/rion.
tou/to de\ metaba/llontoj kai\ h( fwnh\ As this changes, the voice again changes, more
metaba/llei, ma=llon me\n toi=j a)/rresin, indeed in males, but the same thing happens in
sumbai/nei de\ tau)to\ kai\ e)pi\ tw=n qhleiw=n, females too, only not so plainly, the result being
a)ll) a)dhlo/teron, kai\ gi/netai o(/ kalou=si/ what some call ‘bleating’ when the voice is
tinej tragi/zein, o(/tan a)nw/maloj $)= h( fwnh/. uneven.
meta\ de\ tau=ta kaqi/statai ei)j th\n th=j After this it settles into the deep or high voice of
e)piou/shj h(liki/aj baru/thta h)\ o)cufwni/an. the succeeding time of life.
a)fairoume/nwn de\ tw=n o)/rxewn a)ni/etai h( If the testes are removed the tension of the
ta/sij tw=n po/rwn, w(/sper a)po\ th=j xordh=j passages relaxes, as when the weight is taken
kai\ tou= sth/monoj a)fairoume/nou tou= off the string or the warp; as this relaxes, the
ba/rouj. tou/tou d) a)nieme/nou kai\ h( a)rxh\ h( organ which moves the voice is loosened in the
kinou=sa th\n fwnh\n e)klu/etai kata\ t\n au)to\n
same proportion.
lo/gon.
25
dia\ me\n ou)=n tau/thn th\n ai)ti/an ta\ This, then, is the reason why the voice and the
e)ktemno/mena metaba/llei ei)j to\ qh=lu th/n te form generally changes to the female character
fwnh\n kai\ th\n a)/llhn morfh/n, in castrated animals;
dia\ to\ sumbai/nein a)ni/esqai th\n a)rxh\n e)c it is because the principle is relaxed upon which
h(=j u(pa/rxei t%= sw/mati h( suntoni/a, depends the tension of the body;
a)ll) ou)x w(/sper tine\j u(polama/nousin not that, as some suppose, the testes are
au)tou\j tou\j o)/rxeij ei)=nai su/namma pollw=n themselves a ganglion of many principles, but
a)rxw=n. a)lla\ mikrai\ metasta/seij mega/lwn
small changes are the causes of great ones, not
per se but when it happens that a principle
ai)ti/ai gi/nontai, ou) di) au(ta/j, a)ll) o(/tan
changes with them.
sumbai/n$ a)rxh\n summetaba/llein.
ai( ga\r a)rxai\ mege/qei ou)=sai mikrai\ t$= For the principles, though small in size, are
duna/mei megalai ei)si/n. great in potency;
tou=to ga\r e)sti to\ a)rxh\n ei)=nai, to\ au)th\n this, indeed, is what is meant by a principle, that
me\n ai)ti/an ei)=nai pollw=n, tau/thj d) a)/llo it is itself the cause of many things without
a)/nwqen mhqe/n. anything else being higher than it for it to
depend upon.
26
1. On the division of voiced sound into elements and their composition into syllables.
Aristotle, Poetics ch. 20 (1456b 20-37) (Lat. William of Moerbeke; tr. B.A.M.).
Locutionis autem omnis hee sunt partes: But of language as a whole these are the parts:
elementum, sillaba, coniunctio, nomen, verbum, ‘element’, ‘syllable’, ‘conjunction’, ‘name’,

articulus, casus, oratio. ‘verb’, ‘article’, ‘case’, ‘speech’.
Elementum quidem igitur vox indivisibilis, non An element, therefore, is an indivisible vocal
omnis autem sed ex qua nata est fieri sound, but not every one from which an
intelligibilis vox intelligible vocal sound is naturally apt to result
(et enim bestiarum sunt indivisibiles voces, (for there are indivisible vocal sounds belonging
quarum nullam dico elementum), to the beasts none of which I call an ‘element’),
huius autem partes vocalis et semivocalis et but the parts of these are vowel and semivowel
muta. and mute [= ‘consonant’].
Est autem vocalis quidem sine adiectione Now a vowel indeed is [an indivisible vocal
habens vocem audibilem; sound] having an audible sound without
application <, such as a and o>;
semivocalis autem cum adiectione habens but a semi-vowel one having an audible sound
vocem audibilem, velut ‘s’ et ‘b’; with closure, such as ‘s’ and [‘r’];
muta autem que cum adiectione secundum but a mute is that which, even with application,
quidem nullam habet vocem, cum habentibus has of itself no sound, but is made audible
autem aliquam vocem facta audibilis, velut ‘g’ [when sounded together] with things having
et ‘d’. sound [i.e. vowels], like ‘g’ and ‘d’.
Hec autem differunt figurisque oris et locis, et But these differ by both the shape and location
asperitate et lenitate, et longitudine et brevitate, of the mouth, and by roughness or smoothness
adhuc autem acuitate et grauitate et medio; [sc. of the breathing], and by length and
quibus per singula in metricis congruit shortness, but besides by acuteness, lowness and
speculari. [what is] intermediate [between these]; each of
which it is appropriate for those learned in
metrics to consider.
Sillaba autem est vox non significativa But a syllable is a non-significant vocal sound
composita ex non vocali et vocem habente; composed from a non-vowel [i.e. a mute] and
[an element] having sound;
et enim ipsius ‘gr’ sine ipso ‘a’ sillaba et cum for ‘gr’ itself without ‘a’ itself <is not> a
‘a’, puta ‘gra’. syllable, and (is a syllable) with ‘a’, for
example, ‘gra’.1
Sed horum considerare differentias metrice est. But it pertains to the metrical art to consider the
differences of these things.
1
As I argue elsewhere, in order to avoid a manifest contradiction the text should be corrected to read, “For g
r without a is NOT itself is a syllable; but with a, as gra IT IS”.
27
2. The division of voiced sound: parallel translations.
(tr. Ingram Bywater) (tr. S. H. Butcher)
A vowel is a Letter having an audible sound A vowel is that which without impact of tongue
without the addition of another Letter. or lip has an audible sound.
A semivowel, one having an audible sound by A semivowel that which with such impact has
the addition of another Letter; e.g. S and R. an audible sound, as S and R.
A mute, one having no sound at all by itself, but A mute, that which with such impact has by
becoming audible by an addition, that of one of itself no sound, but joined to a vowel sound
the Letters which have a sound of some sort of becomes audible, as G and D.
their own; e.g. D and G.
(tr. Theodore Buckley) (tr. B.A.M.)
And a vowel, indeed, is that which has an Now a vowel is [an indivisible vocal sound]
audible sound, without percussion; such as a having an audible sound without application <,
and o. such as a and o>;
But a semivowel is that which has an audible but a semi-vowel one having an audible sound
sound, with percussion; as s and r. with application, such as ‘s’ and ‘‘r’;
And a mute is that which, even with the but a mute is that which, even with application,
concurrence of the tongue, has of itself, indeed, has of itself no sound, but is made audible
no sound, but becomes audible in conjunction [when sounded together] with things having
with the things which have a certain sound; as g sound [i.e. vowels], like ‘g’ and ‘d’.
and d.
Aristotle, Hist. Animal., IV. 9 (534b 29-33) (tr. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson).
[dia/lektoj] differs from voice and sound. The fact is that no animal can give utterance to
Aristotle, De Part. Animal., II. 16 (660a 3-10) (ed. Loeb, tr. A. L. Peck).
o( me\n ga\r lo/goj o( dia\ th=j fwnh=j e)k tw=n Now vocal speech consists of combinations of
gramma/twn su/gkeitai, the various letters or sounds,
th=j de\ glw/tthj mh\ toiau/thj ou)/shj mhde\ some of which are produced by an impact of the
tw=n xeilw=n u(grw=n ou)k a)\n h)=n fqe/ggesqai ta\ tongue, others by closing the lips, and if the lips
plei=sta tw=n gramma/twn. were not supple,
or if the tongue were other than it is, the greater

ta\ me\n ga\r th=j glw/tthj ei)si\ prosbolai/, ta\
part of these could not possibly be pronounced.
de\n sumbolai\ tw=n xeilw=n.
28
poi/aj de\ tau=ta kai\ po/saj kai\ ti/naj e)/xei For further particulars about the various
diafora/j, dei= punqa/nesqai para\ tw=n differences between these sounds you must
metrikw=n. consult the authorities on Metre.
3. Parallel Translations.
(tr. Perseus) (tr. A. L. Peck)
Now speech through the voice is composed of Now vocal speech consists of combinations of
letters, the various letters or sounds,
and most of these letters would be impossible to some of which are produced by an impact of the
pronounce were the lips not moist, nor the tongue, others by closing the lips, and if the lips
tongue such as it is. were not supple,
For some are formed by the closure of the lips or if the tongue were other than it is, the greater
and others by applications of the tongue. part of these could not possibly be pronounced.
But of what sort and how many such differences For further particulars about the various
these things have, must be sought from those differences between these sounds you must
skilled in metrics. consult the authorities on Metre.
Aristotle, De Part. Animal., II. 16 (660a 3-10) (ed. Perseus; rev. B.A.M.).
o( me\n ga\r lo/goj o( dia\ th=j fwnh=j e)k tw=n Now speech through the voice is composed of
gramma/twn su/gkeitai, littera,
th=j de\ glw/tthj mh\ toiau/thj ou)/shj mhde\ and most of these littera would be impossible to
tw=n xeilw=n u(grw=n ou)k a)\n h)=n fqe/ggesqai ta\ pronounce were the lips not moist, nor the
plei=sta tw=n gramma/twn. tongue such as it is.
ta\ me\n ga\r th=j glw/tthj ei)si\ prosbolai/, ta\ For some are formed |by applications of the
de\n sumbolai\ tw=n xeilw=n. tongue,| |and others by the closure of the lips|.
poi/aj de\ tau=ta kai\ po/saj kai\ ti/naj e)/xei But of what sort and how many such differences
diafora/j, these things have,
dei= punqa/nesqai para\ tw=n metrikw=n. must be sought from those skilled in metrics.
Aristotle, De Part. Animal., II. 17 (660a 24-25) (tr. William Ogle).
(Greek to be added) This same softness again [sc. of the tongue],

together with its breadth, adapts it for the
articulation of letters [he ton grammaton
diarthrosis] and for (25) speech.
29
4. The division of voiced sound: an analysis.
Aristotle, Poetics ch. 20 (1456b 34-37) (tr. B.A.M.).
e)/stin de\ tau=ta fwnh=en me\n <to\> a)/neu Now a vowel indeed is [an indivisible vocal
prosbolh=j e)/xon fwnh\n a)kousth/n, sound] having an audible sound without
application1 <, such as a and o>;
h(mi/fwnon de\ to\ meta\ prosbolh=j e)/xon fwnh\n but a semi-vowel one having an audible sound
a)kousth/n, oi(=on to\ S kai\ to\ R, with application, such as ‘s’ and ‘‘r’;
a)/fwnon de\ to\ meta\ prosbolh=j kaq’ au(to\ but a mute is that which, even with application,
me\n ou)demi/an e)/xon fwnh/n, meta\ de\ [30] tw=n has of itself no sound, but is made audible
e)xo/ntwn tina\ fwnh\n gino/menon a)kousto/n, [when sounded together] with things having
oi(=on to\ G kai\ to\ D. sound [i.e. vowels], like ‘g’ and ‘d’.
an indivisible vocal sound either

has an audible sound per se or not
involves prosbole (i.e. an ‘application’) or not
needs to be sounded with a vowel in order to be made audible or not
• has an audible sound per se without prosbole: the vowel

• has an audible sound with prosbole: the semi-vowel
• has no audible sound without prosbole, but needs to be sounded with a vowel in
order to be made audible: the mute or consonant
Note. As we see from the De Partibus Animalium text cited above, Aristotle understands
the pronunciation of elementary speech sounds to involve the prosbole or ‘application’ of
the tongue, and the sumbole or ‘closure’ of the lips. But from the Poetics we see that he
draws distinctions between elements which have sound of themselves and those which do
not. But, as the reader will observe, in the following text the commentator Ingram Bywater
mistakenly takes the words meta\ prosbolh=j to mean “with the addition of a vowel”,
when the presence or absence of a vowel is manifestly an additional differentia:
Ingram Bywater, Aristotle on the Art of Poetry, Commentary. 20. 1456b 26 a)/neu
prosbolh=j [= “without addition”], pp. 264-265.
…The general [264-265] sense, then, according to this view of prosbolh/, will be
that the vowels are audible by themselves (a)/neu prosbolh=j); whereas the semivowels
and mutes (the consonants) require the support or addition of a vowel (meta\ prosbolh=j)
to make them audible.2 This was certainly the distinction in later grammar: Dionysius
Thrax p. 11 Uhlig su/mfwna de\ le/gontai o(/ti au)ta\ me\n kaq )e(auta\ fwnh\n ou)k e)/xei,
suntasso/mena de\ meta\ tw=n fwnhe/ntwn fwnh\n a)potekei.=—Sextus Emp. Adv. math.
1. 102 a)/fwna de/ e)sti ta\ . . . meta\ tw=n a)/llwn sunekfwnou/mena.—Diomedes 418 P.
mutae dictae quod per se sine adminculo vocalium non possunt enuntiari.
1
Sc. “of the tongue, and closure of the lips”; the additon of which words would bring the text into line with
Aristotle’s related observations, cited above.
2
Note that Butcher correctly takes prosbolh to refer to the ‘application’ of the tongue.
30
Dionysius Thrax, Grammar of Dionysios Thrax (tr. Thomas Davidson), p. 328.
7. ...They are called vowels (fwnh/enta) because they form a complete sound (fwnh/) by
themselves.... They are called consonants because by themselves they have no sound, but
produce a sound only when combined with vowels.
Priscian, Inst. gramm., xvi. 10-11 (pp. 114-115) (ed. Hertz, tr. B.A.M.).
Further, just as among the elements, some are vowels, which complete a vocal
sound by themselves, but others consonants, which are unable to complete a vocal sound
without vowels, so also in words we advert to the fact that certain ones, like vowels, can be
spoken by themselves, as is especially the case with imperative verbs and nouns or
pronouns often with vocatives or adverbs, which are applied to antecedent actions or
speeches, as when we cry “Good! Right! Well said!” to those who do or say something at
the right moment. But there are other words which, like consonants, cannot be uttered to
complete the sense without the help of the other parts of speech (which imitate vowels in
this), like prepositions or conjunctions. For they always consignify—that is, they signify
when conjoined to the others—but by themselves they do not.1
St. Thomas Aquinas, In X Meta., lect. 3, n. 10 (tr. B.A.M.).
And likewise if all beings were tones, there would be a number of beings because
of some subjects [there is] number itself, namely of the elements; that is, of the letters. And
consequently the vowel-letter [litera vocalis] which is first among litera, since without
them consonants could not give back a sound, would be one.2
Evidence for the pronunciation of Ancient Greek Β (beta) as [b] (from a website).3
Greek grammarians (e.g., Dionysius Thrax) divide consonants into two primary categories:
the aphona (beta, gamma, delta, kappa, pi, tau, theta, phi, and chi), and the hemiphona
(zeta, ksi, psi, lambda, mu, nu, rho, sigma). In Aristotle’s Poetics (1456b) the aphona (of
which beta is a member) are described as “having contact” (= “meta prosboles”),4 but not
being pronounceable without a vowel. In modern parlance we would say that aphona are
the plosives, pronounced instantaneously, while hemiphona are fricatives, and those other
consonants that can be pronounced continuously, without the need for a following vowel.
If beta were fricative, it would be classified as one of the hemiphona.
1
Praeterea, quemadmodum elementorum alia sunt vocalia, quae per se voce perficiunt, alia consonantia,
quae sine vocalibus perficere vo- [10] cem nequent, sic etiam in dictionibus animadvertimus quasdam ad
similitudinem vocalium per se esse dicendas, ut in verbis maxime imperativis vel nominibus vel pronominibus
saepe vocativis vel adverbiis, quae adiciuntur antecedentibus actionibus vel orationibus, cum clamamus
‘bene, recte, diserte’ ad illos, quo oportune aliquid agunt vel dicunt. aliae vero dictio- [15] nes sunt, quae ad
similitudinem consonantium sine adiumento aliarum partium orationis, quae imitantur in hoc vocales,
proferri ad perfectionem sensus non possunt, ut praepositiones vel coniunctiones. eae etenim semper
consignificant, id est coniunctae aliis significant, per se autem non.
2
et similiter si omnia entia essent toni, esset quidem numerus entium, quia aliquorum subiectorum ipsi
numero, scilicet elementorum, idest literarum. et per consequens litera vocalis quae est prima inter literas,
cum sine ea consonantes sonum reddere non possint, essent unum.
3
(http://www.foundalis.com/lan/betapro.htm [11/23/07])
4
It should be noted that, were the text to add sumbole to prosbole, its assigning the formation of consonants
to the ‘closure’ of the lips would be in perfect agreement with the modern view. See Buck below.
31
5. The division of consonants according to the foregoing:
• “consonants” properly so called: the aphona (beta, gamma, delta, kappa, pi, tau,
theta, phi, and chi): “having contact”: the plosives, which require a following
vowel
• “semi-vowels”: the hemiphona (zeta, ksi, psi, lambda, mu, nu, rho, sigma): “not
having contact”: the fricatives, which do not require a following vowel
Carl Darling Buck, Comparative Greek and Latin Grammar. (Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press, 1933), n. 37, pp. 32-33.
SOME GENERAL FEATURES OF LINGUISTIC HISTORY
MECHANISM OF SPEECH AND CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS
Of the consonants some are formed with complete closure, by which the stream of
air is wholly blocked, followed by a sudden release of the breath, as, for example, p with
closure of the lips. These are called “stops” (“explosives”, “mutes”). The nasal consonants
are stops, so far as concerns the passage of the breath [32-33] through the mouth (the
closure is the same for m as for p), but the flow of breath through the nose is continuous.
The release may be followed by an added puff of breath, as in uphill. Then we have
aspirated stops (aspirates). Our English initial stops in words like pen are distinctly
aspirated by comparison with the French.
Others are formed with close approximation (not complete closure) and resulting
friction, as f with friction between the lower lip and upper teeth. These are called
“fricatives” (“spirants”).
6. The division of consonants according to Buck:
• The “stops” or “explovises” or “mutes”: “Of the consonants some are formed
with complete closure, by which the stream of air is wholly blocked, followed by a
sudden release of the breath, as, for example, p with closure of the lips. These are
called “stops” (“explosives”, “mutes”). The nasal consonants are stops, so far as
concerns the passage of the breath through the mouth (the closure is the same for m
as for p), but the flow of breath through the nose is continuous.”
• The “fricatives” or “spirants”: “Others are formed with close approximation (not
complete closure) and resulting friction, as f with friction between the lower lip and
upper teeth. These are called “fricatives” (“spirants”).”
See also:
Poetics Chapter 20: The Elements of Language (Papers In Poetics)
32
7. Supplement on the discovery of the consonant: “Roman Law, the Evolution of
Ideas, and Writing Technologies.” Thomas Vesting, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 18-20.1
4. Writing technologies
(2) These are very intricate and highly contested questions in the specialized literature.
However, for various reasons which I try to explore more precisely in my book, I have a
lot of sympathy for a position mainly introduced by I. Gelb in his book “A Study of
Writing”, first published in 1952 with the subtitle “The Foundations of Grammatology”.
(3) If we follow Gelb, the introduction of the Greek vocalic system can and should not be
regarded as a new and original creation. Its Semitic origin is beyond any doubt. Even an
uninitiated epigrapher, Gelb stated, cannot fail to observe the identity or great similarity of
form in the signs of the Greek alphabet and those of the Semitic writings.
(4) However, for Gelb the Greek alphabet makes a difference. Compared with its
forerunners, it represents an evolutionary jump in the history of writing. It is the first
writing system that really isolated and by that step generated the consonant as a
single sign of language. The word “sign” here is of great importance. Why? Because, the
consonants do not exist in oral speech.2 The consonants by strict definition are themselves
‘dumb’, ‘mute’, ‘unpronounceable’, aphona, aphtonga, as Plato sometimes said. Or, to put
it in another way: They are called “con-sonants’, sum-phona, because they only sound in
company with. The consonant therefore has its identity only as a
19
visual sign. Or, to slightly modify an observation Gilbert Ryle made in 1960: While
phonemes like b and c are not phonetic atoms, characters like b and x are graphic
atoms (57). That is, in a nutshell, why Gelb considers the Greek alphabet to be the
first true and full alphabet, while all other so-called alphabets for him actually
remained cases of syllabic writing. “If the alphabet is defined as a system of signs
expressing single sounds of speech, then the first alphabet which can justifiably be so
called is the Greek alphabet.” (I. Gelb, A Study of Writing, 1952/1965, p.166)
(5) Because of Gelb’s lucid reconstruction of the history of writing, many scholars like, for
example, the classicist Eric Havelock, in dozens of publications traced the capacity for
abstract analysis back to the emergence of the Greek alphabet. For Havelock, it was
exactly this difference between alphabetic writing and its forerunners that could help us to
understand the emergence of epistemic knowledge in Greek philosophy and dialectics. And
for Havelock the linkage between the Greek alphabet and abstract thinking was exactly
that the writing technology confronted its observers to written abstractions and by that to
go beyond the empiricism of orality. “The Greek system got beyond empiricism, by
abstracting the nonpronounceable, nonperceptible elements contained in the syllables.
1
(www.jura.uni-frankfurt.de/fb/fb01/ifoer1/vesting/Dokumente/online-pub/Roman_Law-Vortrag.
pdf [2/5/08])
2
That consonants are ‘mute’ follows from the fact that they cannot be pronounced without a following vowel
sound, just as one cannot make a ‘b’ sound without saying ‘buh’ or some such thing, a state of affairs
presumably underlyying the claim that they “do not exist in oral speech”—that is, in isolation.
33
We now style these elements’”con-sonants’ (sum-phona, …). Their creation separated out
an unpronounceable component of linguistic sound and gave it a visual entity.” 11
(6) As I said, I have a lot of sympathy with this standpoint, but I have not fully made up
my mind yet. Nevertheless, for me one thing seems to be clear: Gelb’s and Havelock’s
theory have very strong force, not at least because they have been and still are proven
again and again tenable (for instance, in a newer linguistic publication by Ch. Stetter).
These publications especially confirm that alphabetic-writing cannot fully be understood in
a concept of representation: The mere consonant, the phoneme as such, is a discovery of
script. It does not represent an entity of oral language.
11
E. Havelock, The muse learns to write, 1986, p. 60. [N.B. For the complete excerpt, see below.]
20
(7) If we thus take this path of reconstruction for granted, then it becomes very clear
why in Plato’s late dialogues considerations about diaeresis are so often connected
with considerations about the division and recombination of letters and syllables,
nouns and verbs; and why in Plato considerations about divisions are also connected
with that entity Plato calls “something great and fair and complete”: the proposition
(Cratylus, 425 c). The paradigm for epistemic knowledge is the study of grammar
(téchne grammatiké), but the study of grammar would have never been likely to
emerge without the invention of Greek alphabetic writing. So with the adaptation of
epistemic knowledge, Roman jurisprudence, for the first time, made sense of a new type of
knowledge in the field of law that was invented in Greece. And with the import of
epistemic knowledge Roman jurisprudence adapted a type of knowledge that’s emergence
was intrinsically tied together with the evolution of a new medium: Greek alphabetic
writing.
Eric Havelock, The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy From
Antiquity to the Present (Yale University Press: 1986), p. 60.
It is easy to see why pre-Greek systems never got further than the syllable. This
‘piece’ of linguistic sound is actually pronounceable and so empirically perceptible. The
consonants by strict definition are by themselves ‘dumb,’ ‘mute,’ ‘unpronounceable’
(aphona, aphthonga—Plato’s terms, borrowed he says from previous sources). The Greek
system got beyond empiricism by abstracting the nonpronounceable, nonperceptible1
elements contained in the syllables. We now style these elements ‘con-sonants’ (sum-
phona, the more accurate Greek term replacing aphona, because the are ‘sounded in
company with’). Their creation separated out an unpronounceable component of linguistic
sound and gave it visual identity. The Greeks did not ‘add vowels’ (a common
misconception: vowel signs had already shown up in Mesopotamian Cuneiform and
Linear B) but invented the (pure) consonant. In so doing, they for the first time
supplied our species with a visual representation of linguistic noise that was both
economical and exhaustive: a table of atomic elements which by grouping themselves in
an inexhaustible variety of combinations can with reasonable accuracy represent any actual
linguistic noise. The invention also supplied the first and last instrument perfectly
constructed to reproduce the range of previous orality.
1
One may presume that a consonant is called ‘nonperceptible’ for the reasons adduced above.
34
8. On Gelb and the systems of writing.
Gelb, I J. A Study of Writing. 2nd Ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.1
Gelb began a new phase in the study of writing systems by introducing “Grammatology”, a
scientific approach to the study of writing which borrows methodology from linguistics
(for a good history of the study of writing systems, see Daniels, “The Study of Writing
Systems” in The World’s Writing Systems, ed Peter T Daniels and William Bright.
(Oxford, 1996), 3-18). Gelb presents a basic view of the evolution of writing from
narrative art to symbol to pictographic system. Next, the leap of phonetization allows the
correspondence of symbols with either words or sounds. From this developed syllabic
systems and finally the alphabet. Gelb has been criticized for over-systematizing in his
principles of uniform development and economy (see Daniels, “Fundamentals of
Grammatology”). The principle of uniform development states that writing always
develops from logographic to syllabic to alphabetic; thus Gelb argued that the early
West-Semitic scripts were not alphabetic but syllabic since the later Ethiopian syllabic
script could not have developed from a true alphabetic script. Just as certain cuneiform
signs can indicate a consonant plus the full range of vowels (e.g., wi, we, wa, wu), he
maintained that the West-Semitic letters actually indicated a consonant plus an unmarked
vowel. The matres lectionis then function as phonetic complements to mark the proper
vowel. Only when the Greek system developed individual vowel letters was a true alphabet
created.
DANIELS Peter T. “Fundamentals of Grammatology”, JAOS 110/4, 727-731.
In this short article Daniels responds to his teacher IJ Gelb’s suggestion that the early
West-Semitic scripts are not alphabets but syllabaries similar to the Ethiopic script (see
Gelb, A Study of Writing, 2nd Ed (1963)). He argues that Gelb’s “principal of
unidirectional development” (i.e., scripts always progress from logographic to syllabic to
alphabetic) was an over-generalization. Instead, he suggests that the standard three-fold
typology of writing systems should be expanded to include the “abjad” and the “abugida”
which represent the Phoenician and Ethiopic scripts respectively. The “abjad” does not
denote syllables, but only the individual consonants, while the “abugida” uses a base
symbol to denote the consonant which is appended with a vowel mark. Daniels does not
see the great intellectual leap in script development as the creation of vowel letters,
but the isolation of the sound stream into phonological segments smaller than the
syllable.
Richard Sproat, Review of Daniels & Bright, The World’s Writing Systems.
LINGUIST List 7.400. Sat Mar 16 1996 (excerpt).2
The book is divided into thirteen main parts. In the first part, Daniels introduces the field
of grammatology, giving a brief history, and a broad typology of writing systems. The
typology includes some familiar terms:
1
(http://balshanut.wordpress.com/2007/08/05/gelb-ij-a-study-of-writing-2nd-ed-chicago-university-
of-chicago-press-1963/ [2/6/08])
2
(http://www.linguistlist.org/issues/7/7-400.html [2/6/08])
35
“logosyllabary” for writing systems like Chinese where the individual characters of the
script simultaneously represent both morphemes and syllables; “syllabary”, where the
individual characters represent syllables (or at least CV morae, following on Poser’s 1993
LSA presentation, which is lamentably unavailable in written form); and “alphabet”,
where the individual characters represent phonemes. Less familiar terms are: “abjad”
(“formed from the first letters of the most widespread example, the Arabic script, in their
historic order”), where the basic characters of the script denote consonants (and only
peripherally, vowels), typical examples being Semitic scripts as used for Semitic languages
(adaptations of Semitic scripts to other languages such as Hebrew for Yiddish, Arabic for
Uyghur or indeed Phoenician for Greek, often end up functioning as alphabets); and
“abugida” (derived from the first four vowels and first four consonants of the traditional
order of the Ethiopic script) where the characters denote consonants with a designated
inherent vowel, and other vowels are denoted by diacritics on the basic consonant symbols.
Examples of abugidas are Indian and Indian-derived scripts; and of course Ethiopic.
Finally there is a “featural” script, namely Korean Hankul, where “the shapes of the
characters correlate with distinctive features of the segments of the language” (cf. Sampson
1985). It is actually not clear from the above definition in what sense Daniels means that
Hankul is featural, and thus constitutes a separate type of script. There is no question that
that some of the basic Hankul symbols are derived graphically from aspects of vocal tract
shapes, and that they are combined to form the basic letters of the script in a somewhat
compositional way. On the other hand it is certainly not the case that Hankul represents
features in the same sense as a phonologist represents them in a distinctive feature matrix
(DeFrancis 1989). Indeed, Koreans (at least non-linguistically informed Koreans) evidently
think of Hankul as being composed of segmental letters (again, DeFrancis 1989), so it may
perhaps make the most sense to view Hankul as being an intelligently constructed
alphabet. Note that Daniels’ terms “abjad” and “abugida” are only somewhat consistently
used in contributions to this volume: the term “alphasyllabary” (which is Bright’s preferred
term) is often used instead of “abugida”.
9. Supplement: On the origin of writing.
of Chicago Press, 1933), n. 44, pp. 42-43.
WRITING AND ITS RELATION TO SPEECH
44. Writing has its ultimate origin in art, in the crude pictures which spring from
the impulse to artistic expression in prehistoric man.1 The use of pictures to convey
messages or record events was adventitious, and picture writing arose independently in
different parts of the earth. It was extensively employed by the American Indians and was
understood by those of different tribes, being quite independent of the spoken language.
For in pure picture writing the picture stands for an object or idea, not the word for
it in any particular language. So long as the relation holds, whether or not the
pictorial form remains obvious, it is an ideogram. But the sign may come to be felt as
representing the familiar word for the idea, and the ideogram becomes a phonogram.
Thus a crude picture of the sun in the heavens will convey the same idea, no matter
whether one’s own word for is sun, sol,, h(/lioj, or what not. It may be conventionalized
1
To this remark one should compare Aristotle’s remarks in the Poetics on the causes of imitation.
36
and lose all resemblance to the object, and still remain an ideogram for the sun. When it
comes to be felt as representing the group of sounds making up the word for it in a given
language, namely, if we take the English word for illustration, [svn], it is now a
phonogram. But as a pure phonogram for [svn] it is ambiguous, as it may represent
sun or son. To determine which, one must combine with the phonogram a determinative
or classifier, [42-43] for example a “heavenly body” determinative for sun or a “human
being” determinative for son.1 Such a combination of phonograms and determinatives is
characteristic of Egyptian hieroglyphics, Assyrian cuneiform, and Chinese writing.
The evolution of the phonogram from the ideogram is the most significant step in
the history of writing, the one which first brings writing into relation to speech. The
syllabary and alphabet are successive simplifications of the phonogram (but the imaginary
illustration of a phonogram chosen above, [svn] would be already adapted to a syllabary
system). The simplified syllabaries like the Cyprian with signs for the single
consonant plus vowel, and eventually the alphabets, developed mostly according to
the acrophonic principle, as if the phonogram for [svn] became the sign for [sv] and
then for [s].
The distinction between ideogram and phonogram, syllabary or alphabet, must not
be confused with that of the external form of the writing, namely pictorial or linear (in
which the pictorial origin is no longer obvious). The Egyptian hieroglyphics continued
pictorial in form, but certain of the pictures constituted an alphabet of 24 letters, which was
employed as early as 3000 B.C. Conversely Assyrian and Chinese writing are linear in
form, but not alphabetic.
1
On this matter, compare the following: Porphyry, Commentary on the Categories (In: Porphyry: On
Aristotle’s Categories. Translated by Steven K. Strange (Ithaca, New York, 1992), pp. 39-40: “Q. Why does
he begin with homonyms {= equivocals}, not with synonyms {= univocals}, if synonyms {univocals} are
things that share both the same name and the same account, and something sharing both its account and its
name would be a clearer case than something that has only [39-40] its name in common with something else?
A. I claim that Aristotle discusses homonyms {equivocals} first because he holds that being is a homonym
{equivocal} and because predications (kategoriai) are homonymously {equivocally} said to be predications
of that of which they are predicated.
Q. Why does he not discuss homonymy {equivocity} before discussing homonyms {equivocals}, given
that ‘homonymy’{equivocity} is a word, whereas homonyms {equivocals} are things, and you claim that he
is primarily concerned in this treatise with words, not with things?
A. Because what produces homonymy {equivocity} in words is not the character of the expression itself,
but rather things are found to be different and in no way have anything in common yet acquire one and the
same expression as their name. Until it is recognised that a word applies to a number of things that do not
share the same account, there cannot be homonymy {equivocity}”.
37
III. ON PHONE (‘VOICE’) AND PSOPHOS (‘SOUND’) IN SUM.
Aristotle, De Anima II. 8 (420a 19-27) (tr. J. A. Smith).
Which is it that ‘sounds’, the striking body or the struck? Is not the answer ‘it is
both, but each in a different way’? Sound is a [20] movement of what can rebound from a
smooth surface when struck against it. As we have explained35 not everything sounds when
it strikes or is struck, e.g. if one needle is struck against another, [25] neither emits any
sound. In order, therefore, that sound may be generated, what is struck must be smooth, to
enable the air to rebound and be shaken off from it in one piece.
Aristotle, De Anima II. 8 (420b 5—421a 5) (tr. J. A. Smith).
[5] Let the foregoing suffice as an analysis of sound. Voice is a kind of sound
characteristic of what has soul in it; nothing that is without soul utters voice, it being only
by a metaphor that we speak of the voice of the flute or the lyre or generally of what (being
without soul) possesses the power of producing a succession of notes which differ in
length and pitch and timbre. The metaphor is based on the fact that all these differences are
found also in voice. Many animals are voiceless, e.g. all non-sanguineous animals and
among [10] sanguineous animals fish. This is just what we should expect, since voice is a
certain movement of air. The fish, like those in the Achelous, which are said to have voice,
really make the sounds with their gills or some similar organ. Voice is the sound made by
an animal, and that with a special organ. As we saw, everything that makes a sound does
so by the impact of something (a) against something else, (b) [15] across a space, (c) filled
with air; hence it is only to be expected that no animals utter voice except those which take
in air. Once air is inbreathed, Nature uses it for two different purposes, as the tongue is
used both for tasting and for articulating; in that case of the two functions tasting is
necessary for the animal’s existence (hence it is found more widely distributed), while
articulate speech is a luxury
35
419b 6, 13.
36
i.e. when these bodies, e.g. the strings of a lyre, are actually sounding.
subserving its possessor’s well-being; similarly in the former case [20] Nature employs the
breath both as an indispensable means to the regulation of the inner temperature of the
living body and also as the matter of articulate voice, in the interests of its possessor’s
well-being. Why its former use is indispensable must be discussed elsewhere.37
37
De Resp.478a 28; P.A. 642a 31—b4.
The organ of respiration is the windpipe, and the organ to which this is related as
means to end is the lungs. The latter is the part of the body by which the temperature of
land animals is raised above that of all others. But what primarily requires the air drawn in
by [25] respiration is not only this but the region surrounding the heart. That is why when
animals breathe the air must penetrate inwards.
Voice then is the impact of the inbreathed air against the ‘windpipe’, and the agent
that produces the impact is the soul resident in these parts of the body.
38
Not every sound, as we said, made by an [30] animal is voice (even with the tongue we
may merely make a sound which is not voice, or without the tongue as in coughing); what
produces the impact must have soul in it and must be accompanied by an act of
imagination, for voice is a sound with a meaning, and is not merely the result of any impact
of the breath as in coughing; in voice the breath in the windpipe is used as an instrument to
knock with against the walls of the windpipe. This is confirmed by our [421a] inability to
speak when we are breathing either out or in – we can only do so by holding our breath; we
make the movements with the breath so checked. It is clear also why fish are voiceless;
they have no windpipe. And they have no windpipe because they do not breathe [5] or take
in air. Why they do not is a question belonging to another inquiry.38
38
Cf. De Resp. 474b 25-9, 476a 6-15; P.A. 669a 2-5.
Aristotle, Hist. Animal., IV. 9 (534b 29-33) (tr. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson).
[dia/lektoj] differs from voice and sound. The fact is that no animal can give utterance to
1. The difference between logos and lexis.
Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers 7.57 (tr. A. A. Long & D. N.
Sedley; rev. B.A.M.; Gr. added from ed. R. D. Hicks).
Vocal sound [fwnh\] and language [le/cij] differ, because vocal sound [fwnh\] may
be merely noise [h)=xo/j], but only language is articulate [e)/narqron mo/non]. And language is
different from speech, because speech is always significant, but language can lack
significance [a)/shmoj], such as blituri, whereas speech is not so at all. Furthermore, saying
[le/gein] is different from uttering [or ‘pronouncing’, profe/resqai]. For vocal sounds are
uttered [or ‘pronounced’], but it is things [pra/gmata] which are said [le/getai] – they,
after all, are actually sayables [lekta\].
The Suda, Lambda 658, s.v. Logos [‘speech’] (ed. The Suda On Line; tr. B.A.M.,
based on Marcelo Boeri).
Speech [lo/goj] is significative vocal sound [fwnh\ shmantikh/], derived from

thought [a)po dianoi/aj e)kpempome/nh]. It has two hundred meanings. But language
[le/cij] differs from speech. For language can be meaningless, such as ‘blituri’, while
speech cannot in any way be meaningless. Saying [le/gein], too, differs from uttering [or
‘pronouncing’, profe/resqai]; for vocal sounds are uttered, but things [pra/gmata], which
are sayable [lekta\], are spoken [le/getai].
39
2. Some dictionary definitions taken from Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A
Greek-English Lexicon.
psoph-os , ho,
A. noise (prop. of one thing striking against another, Arist.de An.420a21; or of
insects, which produce a sound, but not by the larynx, Id.HA535a28; opp. phônê,
Id.de An.420b29, HA535b31, al.; psophos monon [to sigma] Pl.Tht.203b, cf.
Lg.669d, Aristox. ap. D.H.Comp.14); first in h.Merc.285, ater psophou; glôssês ps.
E. HF229; philêmatôn S.Fr.537 ; psophoi anemôn Pl.R.397a; of rolling stones,
X.An.4.2.4; of footsteps, psophôi tôi ek tou prosienai autous antipatagountos tou
anemou Th.3.22, cf. Hdt.7.218; of knocking at a door, Ar.Ra.604 (lyr.),
Pl.Smp.212c; cf. psopheô 11; crash of a falling building, Th.4.115; also of musical
instruments, lôtou, kitharas, E.Ba.687, Cyc.443; of a trumpet, Paus.2.21.3.
2. mere sound, noise, tou sou ps. ouk an strapheiên your noise will
never turn me, S.Aj.1116; kenos ps. E.Rh.565 ; eudoxia psophos esti
mainomenôn anthrôpôn Diog. ap.Arr.Epict.1.24.6; psophoi mere
sounds, of high-sounding words or names, ho mê phronôn . .
psophois halisketai Men.737 , cf. Alciphr.2.3, Luc. DMeretr.15.3,
Arr.Epict.2.6.19; psophou pleôs, of Aeschylus, Ar.Nu. 1367; ho ps.
tôn rhêmatôn, of his language, Id.Ra.492.
phôn-ê , hê,
A. sound, tone, prop., the sound of the voice, whether of men or animals with lungs
and throat (hê phônê psophos tis estin empsukhou Arist.de An.420b5 , cf. 29,
HA535a27, PA664b1); opp. phthongos (v. phthongos 11):
I. mostly of human beings, speech, voice, utterance, ph. arrêktos Il.2.490;
ateirea ph. 17.555; ph. de hoi aither’ hikanen, of Ajax‘ battle-cry, 15.686; of
the battle-cry of an army, Trôôn kai Akhaiôn . . ph. deinon aüsantôn 14.400:
pl., of the cries of market-people, X.Cyr.1.2.3; ho tonos tês ph. Id.Cyn.6.20,
D.18.280, Aeschin.3.209; oxeia, barutera, leia, trakheia ph., Pl.Ti.67b; ph.
malakê Ar.Nu.979 (anap.); miara, anaidês, Id.Eq.218,638: with Verbs,
phônên rhêxai Hdt.1.85, Ar.Nu.357 (anap.); ph. hienai Hdt.2.2, 4.23,
Pl.Phdr.259d, etc.; ph. hêsei E.HF1295; proïesthai Aeschin.2.23; arthroun
X.Mem.1.4.12; diarthrôsasthai Pl.Prt.322a; enteinasthai Aeschin.2.157; ph.
eparei D.19.336; phônêi with his voice, aloud, Il.3.161 , Pi.P.9.29; eipe têi
phônêi ta aporrêta Lys.6.51; dia zôsês phônês Anon.Geog.Epit.1p.488M.;
miai ph. with one voice, Luc. Nigr.14; apo phônês, c. gen., dictated by . . ,
Choerob.in Thd.1.103 tit., Marin. in Euc.Dat.p.234 M., Olymp. in Grg.p.1
N., Pall. in Hp.2.1 D.: pl., hai ph. the notes of the voice, Pl.Grg.474e;
skhêmasi kai phônais Arist. Rh.1306a32: prov., phônêi horan, of a blind
man, S.OC138 (anap.); pasan, to legomenon, ph. hienta, i.e. using every
effort, Pl.Lg.890d, cf. Euthd.293a; pasas aphienai phônas Id.R.475a,
D.18.195; phônas aprepeis proïento PTeb.802.15 (ii B. C.).
2. the cry of animals, as of swine, dogs, oxen, Od.10.239, 12.86,396;
of asses, Hdt.4.129; of the nightingale, song, Od.19.521; anthrôpos
pollas phônas aphiêsi, ta de alla mian Arist.Pr.895a4 .
40
3. any articulate sound, opp. inarticulate noise ( [psophos] ), ph.
kôkumatôn S.Ant.1206 ; hôsper phônês ousês kata ton aera pollakis
kai logou en têi phônêi Plot.6.4.12: stoikheion esti ph. adiairetos
Arist.Po.1456b22; also esp. of vowel sound, opp. to that of
consonants, Pl.Tht.203b, Arist.HA535a32; in literary criticism, of
sound, opp. meaning, Phld.Po.5.20 (pl.), [p. 1968] 21.
4. of sounds made by inanimate objects, mostly Poet., kerkidos ph.
S.Fr.595; suringôn E.Tr.127 (lyr.); aulôn Mnesim.4.56 (anap.); rare
in early Prose, organôn phônai Pl.R.397a ; freq. in LXX, hê ph. tês
salpingos LXX Ex.20.18 ; ph. brontês ib. Ps.103(104).7; hê ph.
autou hôs ph. hudatôn pollôn Apoc.1.15 .
5. generally, sound, defined as aêr peplêgmenos, plêgê aeros, Zeno
Stoic.1.21, Chrysipp.ib.2.43.
II. faculty of speech, discourse, ei phônên laboi S.El.548 ; pareskhe phônên
tois aphônêtois tina Id.OC1283 .
2. language, hdt.4.114, 117; ph. anthrôpêïê Id.2.55 ; agnôta ph.
barbaron A.Ag.1051 ; phônên hêsomen Parnêsida Id.Ch.563 , cf.
E.Or.1397 (lyr.), Th.6.5, 7.57, X.Cyn.2.3, Pl.Ap.17d, etc.; tôn
barbarôn prin mathein tên ph. Id.Tht.163b; kata tên Attikên tên
palaian ph. Id.Cra. 398d , cf. 409e.
III. phrase, saying, tên Simônidou ph. Id.Prt. 341b ; hê tou Sôkratous ph.
Plu.2.106b, cf. 330f, etc.; of formulae, stoikheiômata kai ph.
Epicur.Ep.1p.4U., cf. Sent.Vat.41 (= Metrod. Fr.59); hai skeptikai ph.
S.E.P.1.14 , cf. Jul.Or.5.162b, etc.
IV. report, rumour, LXXGe.45.16.
b. message, Sammelb.7252.21 (iii/iv A. D.).
V. loud talk, bragging, Epicur.Sent.Vat. 45.
phthong-os , ho (both Poet. and Prose),

A. any clear, distinct sound, esp. voice of men, Il.5.234, etc.; of the Sirens,
Od.12.41,159; phthongôi eperkhomenai 18.199 ; ph. araion oikois A.Ag.237 (lyr.);
goôn ouk asêmones ph. S.OC1669 ; ph. oikeiou kakou voice, telling of . . ,
Id.Ant.1187; ton Haimonos ph. ib.1218, cf. 1214; of birds, alektruonôn ph.
Thgn.864 ; agnôta . . ph. ornithôn S.Ant.1001 , cf. 424; phthongos out’ ornithôn
oute thalassês E.IA9 (anap.); kunôn kai probatôn kai orneôn Pl.R.397a .
2. speech, Hellados phthongon kheousan A.Th.73; ph. emmetros,
opp. peza, poetical speech, Phld.D.3.13; utterance, saying,
Trag.Adesp.417.
II. generally, sound, anemôn Simon.37.11; daimonos pedarsiou . . pterôtos
ph. Ar.Av.1198 (= Trag.Adesp.47); phônês men ou, phthongou de
metekhonta tinos, of semi-vowels, Pl.Phlb. 18c, cf. Arist.Aud.801b2, 804b9;
aneu phthongou kai êkhês Pl.Ti.37b , cf. Epicur.Ep.1p.32U.; eis tous ph. kai
tas sullabas Pl.Cra.389d , cf. Plu.Alex.27, Gal.15.6.
2. of musical sounds, lôtos phthongon keladei E.El.716 (lyr.); luras
Pl.Lg.812d, etc., cf. phthongous alurous thrênoumen Alex. 162.6
(anap.).
b. pl., notes on a musical instrument; strings of lyre,
D.Chr.10.19; stops of flute, Philostr.VA5.21; cf. Corn.ND14.
41
dialekt-os , hê,
A. discourse, conversation, Hp.Art.30; theois pros anthrôpous Pl.Smp.203a;
discussion, debate, argument, Id.Tht.146b; opp. eris, Id.R.454a.
2. common language, talk, d. hê pros allêlous Arist.Po.1449a26; hê
eiôthuia d. Id.Rh. 1404b24 .
II. speech, language, Ar.Fr.685; kainên d. lalôn Antiph. 171; d. amniou,
opp. ta endon drakontos, Hermipp.3; articulate speech, language, opp.
phônê, Arist.HA535a28; tou anthrôpou mia phônê, alla dialektoi pollai
Id.Pr.895a6 ; but also, spoken, opp. written language, D.H.Comp.11.
2. the language of a country, Plb.1.80.6, D.S.5.6, etc.: esp. dialect,
as Ionic, Attic, etc., Diog.Bab.Stoic.3.213, D.H.Comp.3, S.E.M.1.59,
Hdn.Gr.2.932; also, local word or expression, Plu.Alex.31.
III. way of speaking, accent, D.37.55.
2. pl., modes of expression, Epicur.Ep.1p.24U.
IV. style, panêgurikê, poiêtikê d., D.H.Comp.23,21: esp. poetical diction,
Phld.Po. 2 Fr.33, al.
V. of musical instruments, quality, ‘idiom’, Arist. de An.420b8.
dialekt-ikos , ê, on,
A. conversational, khoros Demetr.Eloc.167 .
2. d. organa organs of articulate speech, opp. phônêtika, Gal.16.204.
II. skilled in dialectic, ho erôtan kai apokrinesthai epistamenos Pl.Cra.390c
; ê kai d. kaleis ton logon hekastou lambanonta tês ousias; Id.R.534b ;
dialectical, Arist. Metaph.995b23; d. sullogismos Id.Top.100a22 ; pros tous
d., title of work by Metrodorus, D.L.10.24, cf. Phld.Rh.1.279 S., al.
III. hê dialektikê (sc. tekhnê) dialectic, discussion by question and answer,
invented by Zeno of Elea, Arist.Fr.65; philosophical method, hôsper
thrinkos tois mathêmasin hê d. epanô keitai Pl.R.534e: to -kon Id.Sph. 253e;
peri -kês, title of work by Cleanthes, D.L.7.174.
2. the logic of probabilities, hê d. peirastikê peri hôn hê philosophia
gnôristikê Arist.Metaph.1004b25, cf. Rh.1354a1.
IV. Adv. -kôs dialectically, Pl.Phlb.17a, etc.; for the sake of argument, opp.
kat’ alêtheian, Arist. Top.105b31, cf. de An.403a2; by argument on general
principles, opp. scientifically, Phld.Rh.2.134 S., Mus.p.89 K.: Comp. -
ôteron Pl.Men. 75d ; more logically, Dam.Pr.97.
This text is based on the following book(s):
Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented
throughout by. Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford.
Clarendon Press. 1940.
ISBN: 0198642261
42
3. Supplement: Aristotle’s teaching on sound and voice according to John Philoponus,
as excerpted by the Suda.
(a) The Suda, s.v. Phônê [‘voice’; ‘vocal sound’] Adler number: phi,653 (In. The Suda
Online, tr. Marcelo Boeri; slightly rev. B.A.M.).
Phônê: hoti eidos hê phônê tou psophou. [Voice:] Voice [is] a form of sound.
esti de phônê plêxis aeros, ê aêr peplêgmenos. Voice is a stroke of air or air stricken.
ou gar pas psophos phônê, hôsper oude ho ek For not every sound is voice, such as it is not
tôn apsuchôn hoion kumatôn ê anemôn voice a sound coming from unanimated things,
ginomenos: either; for instance, waves or winds.[1]
all’ empsuchou tinos psophos estin hê phônê. ou By contrast, voice is a sound of something
mên de pas psophos empsuchou phônê: animated, even though not every sound of
something animated is voice.
oude ho dia cheirôn krotos oude to Neither the noise produced through the hands
chrempsasthai oude to bêxai: nor clearing one’s throat or coughing are voice.
phônê gar estin empsuchou psophos, dia tôn For voice is a sound of something animated
phônêtikôn ginomenos moriôn, hoion coming through parts endowed with voiced
pneumonos te kai tôn anapneustikôn moriôn, kai speech,[2] such as the sounds coming through
tês tracheias artêrias kai tês pharungos. parts of lung as well as parts designed for
respiration: a rough artery and windpipe.[3]
kai oude dia toutôn hopôsoun tou psophou But voice does not come through any of these
ginomenou, things when a sound is produced.
dioper oude ho bêttôn legetai phônein: That is why it is said that the one who is
coughing does not give voice.
all’ hotan meta phantasias sômatikês tauta However, when these things are set in motion
kinêthêi, tote ho ginomenos hupo toutôn accompanied by a bodily impression,[4] then,
psophos phônê kaleitai. the sound produced by these is named voice.
tria de tauta theôreitai peri tên tou anthrôpou The following three things are taken into
phônên, rhuthmos, harmonia, lexis. account with regard to human voice: (i) rhythm,
(ii) harmony, (iii) language.
echei de ho men rhuthmos peri ton chronon tês (i) Rhythm is concerned with time (long or
ekphônêseôs ton makron kai ton brachun: short) of pronunciation.[5]
dio kai tôn phônêentôn ta men en pleioni For this reason, among uttered things, those that
chronôi ekphônoumena makra ônomasan, ta de are voiced in much time are also denominated
en elattoni brachea. long, while those that are voiced in less time are
called short.
ek de tês toutôn pros allêla suntheseôs to And the appropriate rhythm of words arises
euruthmon tôn epôn ginetai. from the mutual composition of these things.
43
hê de harmonia peri tên tou oxeos kai bareos (ii) Harmony is concerned with the due
summetrian echei, disposition of the acute and the grave.
hê de lexis peri tên diatupôsin tôn sullabôn, ex (iii) language is concerned with the perfect
hês hê tôn legomenôn sêmainetai ennoia. formation of the syllables, from which the
concept of the spoken things is meant [or ‘by
which the thought of the things said is signified’
(B.A.M.)].
epei oun tauta men echei kuriôs hê tou Now since the human voice is strictly these
anthrôpou phônê, mimountai de pôs tauta kai ta things, and such things in a certain sense also
mousika organa, dia touto kat’ analogian imitate the musical instruments, because of this
legontai kai auta phônein. it is said by analogy that they also utter.[6]
hoti diakrinousi tên phônên apo tou psophou They distinguish voice from sound in two
dichôs, ek te tou tropou tês geneseôs kai ek tou manners: by the mode of its generation and by
telous. the mode of its end.
ek men oun tou tropou tês geneseôs, hoti hê Now by the mode of its generation because
phônê ginetai tou eispneusthentos aeros voice arises when the inhaled air is squeezed out
ekthlibomenou têi sustolêi tou thôrakos kata tên by a contraction of the chest according to the
enuparchousan autôi psuchikên dunamin kai psychic power inherent in it; and when the air
prospiptontos têi tracheiai artêriai kai tôi falls upon a rough artery, is reduced in such an
enapeilêmmenôi en autêi aeri, artery by the air [itself].
hos têi athroai plêgêi athruptos apopallomenos Such air, in rebounding a stroke at once and in
aei tuptei ton prosechê aera heôs tês akoês. being unbroken, is beating the proximate air all
the time up the hearing.
esti gar to men achanes tou stomatos to mechri For the empty of the mouth up to the root of the
tês rhizês tês glôttês pharunx: tongue is the windpipe.
ekeithen duo angeia pherontai, to men epi ton From that place two cavities are set in motion:
thôraka, kai kaleitai artêria, to de heteron pros the one, which is also called artery, toward the
tôi tenonti, kai kaleitai oisophagos. chest; the other in the sinew, which is called
gullet, as well.
ginetai de dia tês tracheias artêrias hê parodos And the breath’s passing occurs through the
tou pneumatos, hê te kata tên eispompên kai tên rough artery, and such a passing happens both in
ekpompên, hoper tôi eirêmenôi tropôi inhaling and exhalation, which produces,
ekpneomenon poiei psophon, hos kaleitai according to the already mentioned mode, a
phônê, hotan meta tinos sêmantikês phantasias breathed out sound that is called voice when
ginêtai. such a sound arises accompanied by a
significant impression.
ek men oun tou tropou tês geneseôs tautêi Thus by the mode of its generation voice differs
diapherei hê phônê tôn psophôn. from sounds in this fashion.
ek de tou telous, hoti hê phônê kath’ hormên By the mode of its end [voice differs from
tina tou zôiou ginetai kai prossêmainei ti: sound] because voice arises and connotes
something in accordance with a certain impulse
of the animal.
44
dio kai meta phantasias. For that reason such a voice is accompanied by
an impression as well.
dio kai hoi tôn alogôn psophoi phônai. Therefore, the sounds of the irrational animals
are also voices.
kai gar ho kuôn, hopênika phantasian echei tou For a dog, when it has an impression of
allotriou, hulaktei: hotan de tou oikeiou, sainei. someone alien to it, barks, and when it has an
impression of someone familiar to it, fawns.
kai epi tôn allôn zôiôn hôsautôs sêmantikai eisin In the other animals voices of the psychic
hai phônai tôn psuchikôn dunameôn kai faculties and dispositions are also meaningful in
diatheseôn. the same way.
kai gar trophês oregomena ê allou tinos For while desiring food or any other thing, they
kechrêtai phônêi. make use of voice.
Notes.
Source (with slight changes): John Philoponus, Commentary on Aristotle‘s de anima

375.9-376.1 and 378.29-379.15.
[1] The distinction between utterance or voice (phone) and sound (psophos) is extremely subtle and
was widely discussed by different philosophers. We find a similar discrimination in the Stoic
sources where utterance is said to be different from “expression” or “speech” (le/cij) on the ground
that a vocal sound is also an utterance but only articulated speech (to\ e)/narqron) is an expression
(le/cij; see Diogenes Laertius 7.57). The more or less systematic study of fwnh/ in Stoic
philosophy was considered under dialectic and le/cij was regarded as a kind of fwnh/ (Diogenes
Laertius 7.44). According to the Stoic Posidonius, a poi/hma is a le/cij in metre or rhythm, i.e. a
le/cij going outside of prose in its structure (Diogenes Laertius 7.60). Diogenes of Babylon, for
example, took the human fwnh/ to be all articulate and sent forth in a deliberate way (DL 7.55). But
this specific passage belongs to Philoponus‘ Commentary on Aristotle‘s de an. (420b5ff.), where
Aristotle, after having explained some issues concerning sound and hearing, starts distinguishing
utterance from sound. In Aristotle‘s view, utterance is a type of sound proper to what is animated
or has soul in it (e)/myuxon). So for him a name is an utterance (or voice) significant by convention
but without time (Int. 16a19-20). With the expression ‘by convention’ Aristotle refers to the fact
that, in his view, no name is a name naturally but only when it has become a symbol (Int. 16, 27-
28).
[2] That is to say, phonetic parts. All animals endowed with such phonetic parts are able to produce
some utterance or voice, but human beings are the only ones capable of producing articulated
discourse. For, as Aristotle observes, inarticulate noises of beasts reveal something but they don’t
qualify as names and thereby as a significant utterance (see again Int. 16a28-29).
[3] Or fa/rugx which, according to Aristotle, is the organ of respiration (de An. 420b22-23).
[4] This assertion is clarified by Aristotle himself: what causes the impact must be also animated
(following the MSS that give e)/myuxon)) and must be accompanied by a certain impression (or
representative image; phantasia), for utterance is indeed a significant sound (de An. 420b31-33).
[5] The Greek is e)kfw/nhsij, a cognate of fwnh/, and its meaning is almost the same: uttered
sound, pronunciation.
[6] What now follows here is a quotation of Philoponus 378.29-379.15.*
*N.B. Note that Philoponus’ remark is based on De Anima; cf. II. 8, 420b 6-8 (tr. B.A.M.):
45
h( de\ fonh\ yo/foj ti/j e)stin e)my/xou. But voice is the sound belonging to a thing with
soul.
tw=n ga\r a)yu/xwn ou)qe\n fwnei=, For no inanimate thing has a voice,
a)lla\ kaq) o(moio/thta le/getai fwnei=n, though they are said to give voice by a likeness,
oi(=on au)lo\j kai\ lu/ra kai\ o(/sa a)/lla tw=n as the aulos, the lyre, and other inanimate things
a)yu/xwn a)po/tasin e)/xei kai\ me/loj kai\ that have prolongation, melody, and idiom.
dia/lekton.
(b) According to Boethius:
Boethius, In Librum Aristotelis De Interpretatione Libri Sex Editio Secunda, Seu

Majora Commentaria (ed. Migne, PL, tr. B.A.M.).
Prius ergo quid vox sit diffiniendum est. First of all then, what voice is must be defined.
Hoc enim perspicuo et manifesto omnis libri For when this is made clear, the intention of the
hujus patefiet intentio. whole of this book will be evident.
Vox est aeris per linguam percussio, quae per Voice is a percussion of the air by the tongue,
quasdam gutturis partes, quae arteriae vocantur, which is uttered by an animal through certain
ab animali profertur. parts of the throat called arteries [i.e. the
windpipe].
Sunt enim quidam alii soni qui eodem There are also certain other sounds which are
perficiuntur flatu, quos lingua non percutit, ut produced by the same breath which the tongue
est tussis. does not strike, such as a cough.
Haec enim flatu fit quodam per arterias For this results from a breath coming out of the
egrediente, sed nulla linguae impressione windpipe, but is formed by no impression of the
formatur, atque ideo nec illis subjacet elementis, tongue, and therefore neither is placed under the
scribi enim nullo modo potest. elements, for in no way can it be written.
Quocirca vox haec non dicitur, sed tantum Therefore this is not called ‘voice’, but only
sonus. sound.
Illa quoque potest esse diffinitio vocis, ut eam And so let us say that the definition of voice can
dicamus sonum esse cum quadam imaginatione be that it is a sound accompanied by a certain
significandi. imagination of signifying.
Vox namque cum emittitur, significationis For when the voice is emitted, it is uttered for
alicujus causa profertur. the sake of some signification [or ‘meaning’].
Tussus vero cum sonus sit, nullius significati- But a cough, though it is a sound, (is not
onis causa, surrepit potius quam profertur. emitted) for the sake of any signification; it just
comes out rather than is uttered.
Quare quoniam flatus noster ita sese habet, ut si So when our breath so has itself that if it is
ita percutiatur atque formetur, ut eum lingua struck and formed in such a way that the tongue
percutiat, vox sit. strikes it, it is voice [or ‘vocal sound’].
46
Si enim lingua ita percutiat, ut terminato For if the tongue so strikes it that the voice
quodam et circumscriptio sono vox exeat, comes forth in a certain finite and distinct
locutio fit quae Graece dicitur le/xij. sound, it becomes ‘locution’ [or ‘an utterance’],
which is called le/xij in Greek.
Locutio enim est articulata vox, neque enim For locution is articulate vocal sound; for we do
hunc sermonem, id est le/xin, dictionem not call this word le/xij a dictio [‘word’],
dicemus, idcirco quid fa/sin dictionem because we translate fa/sin by dictio, but le/xij
interpretamur, le/xin, locutionem. by locutio.
Cujus locutionis partes sunt litterae, quae cum The parts of locution are the ‘letters’* which,
conjunctae fuerint, unam efficiunt vocem when they have been conjoined, effect one
conjunctam compositamque, quae locutio conjoint and composite vocal sound, which is
praedicatur. called ‘locution’.
* I.e. indivisible vocal sounds, nowadays called phonemes.
Sive autem aliquid quaecunque vox significet, Now whether a vocal sound signify something,
ut est hic sermo, homo, sive omnino nihil, sive as this word ‘man’, or nothing at all, or can
positum alicui nomen significare possit, ut est signify if given as a name to something, as does
blictiri; haec enim vox cum per se nihil ‘blictiri’—for this vocal sound, although it does
significet, posita tamen ut alicui nomen sit, not signify anything by itself, given as a name
significabit, sive per se quidem nihil significet, to something, will signify—or whether it signify
cum aliis vero juncta designet, ut sunt, nothing by itself, but might designate
conjunctiones, haec omnia locutiones vocantur, [something] when joined with other [words],
ut si propria locutionis forma vox composita like conjunctions, they are all called ‘locutions’,
quae litteris describatur. as if the proper form of locution [were to be]
composite vocal sound which can be written out
in letters.
Ut igitur sit locutio, voce opus est, id est eo In order for there to be locution, therefore, there
sono quem percutit lingua, et ut vox ipsa sit per is need for a vocal sound; that is, that sound
linguam determinata in eum sonum qui inscribi which the tongue strikes, and that the vocal
litteris possit, similiter opus est eo sono quem sound itself be determined by the tongue into
percutit lingua. the kind of sound which can be written in
letters, likewise there is need for the sound
which the tongue strikes.
Sed ut haec locutio significativa sit, illud But in order for a locution to be significative, it
quoque addi oportet ut sit aliqua significandi is necessary to add that there be a certain
imaginatio, per quam id quod in voce vel in imagination of signifying by which what is in
locutione est proferatur. the voice or in the locution is uttered.
Aut certe ita dicendum est si in hoc flatu quem And so it can certainly be said that if in the
per arterias emittimus, sit linguae sola breath we emit through the windpipe there be
percussio, vox est. only a percussion of the tongue, it is vocal
sound.
Si vero talis percussio sit, ut in litteras redigat But if the percussion is such that the sound can
sonum, locutio est. be rendered in letters, it is locution.
Quod si vis quoque quaedam imaginationis But if a certain power of imagination be added,
addatur, illa significativa vox redditur. that vocal sound is rendered significative.
47
Concurrentibus igitur his tribus, linguae And so when these three things come together,
percussione, articulato vocis sonitu, the percussion of the tongue, the articulate
imaginatione aliqua proferendi, fit interpretatio. sound of voice, and the uttering of it with a
certain imagination, interpretation results.
Interpretatio namque est vox articulata per For interpretation is articulate vocal sound
seipsam signifcans. signifying by itself.
Quocirca non omnis vox interpretatio est, sunt But not every vocal sound is ‘interpretation’, for
enim caeterorum animalium voces, quae there are vocal sounds belonging to the rest of
interpretationis vocabulo non tenentur. the animals which are not included under the
word ‘interpretation’.
Nec omnis locutio interpretatio est, idcirco quia Neither is every locution interpretation because,
(ut dictum est) sunt locutiones quaedam, quae as has been said, there are certain utterances
significatione carent et cum per se quaedam non which lack meaning and although they do not
significent, juncta tamen cum aliis significant, signify anything by themselves, nevertheless
ut conjunctiones. when they are joined with other [words] do
signify, like conjunctions.
Interpretatio autem in solis per se significativis Interpretation, however, consists solely in

et articulatis vocibus permanent (?). articulate vocal sounds signifying by
themselves.
Quare convertitur, ut quidquid sit intepretatio, Wherefore the following conversion of

illud significet. Et quidquid significat, statements holds good, that whatever is an
interpretationis vocabulo nuncupetur. interpretation, that signifies—and whatever
signifies is named by the word ‘interpretation’.
Unde etiam ipse quoque Aristoteles in libris That is why Aristotle in the books which he
quos de Arte poetica scripsit, locutionis partes wrote about the poetic art [cf. Poetics ch. 20,
esse syllabas et conjunctiones etiam tradit, 1456b 20ff.] also taught that syllables and
quarum syllabae, in eo quod sunt syllabae, nihil conjunctions are parts of locution, of which the
omnino significant. syllables as syllables signify nothing at all.
Conjunctiones vero consignificare quidem But conjunctions in fact can consignify, but
possunt, per se vero nihil designant. designate nothing by themselves.
Interpretationis vero partes hoc libro constituit In this book, however, he has established the
nomen et verbum, quae scilicet per seipsa name and verb as parts of an interpretation,
significant. which, of course, signify by themselves.
Nihilominus quoque orationem interpretationem And nevertheless it cannot be denied that speech
esse constat, quae et ipsa cum vox sit et is interpretation which, since it is vocal sound
significativis partibus juncta, significatione non joined from parts which are significative, does
caret. not lack signification.
Quare quoniam non de oratione sola, sed etiam Wherefore not of speech alone, but also of the
de nomine et verbo, nec vero de sola locutione, name and the verb, and not of locution alone,
sed etiam de significativa locutione, quae est but also of significative locution, which is
interpretatio, in hoc libro ab Aristotele tractatur, interpretation, are treated by Aristotle in this
book,
48
idcirco quoniam verbis atque nominibus, et and as the name ‘interpretation’ designates
significativis locutionibus nomen interpre- verbs, names, and significative utterances as
tationis aptatur, a communi nomine eorum de well, this book is entitled On Interpretation
quibus in hoc libro tractatur, id est from the common name of the things which are
interpretatione, ipse quoque de Interpretatione treated in this book; that is, interpretation….
liber inscriptus est….
Boethius, Commentarium In Librum Aristotelis Perihermeneias Primae Editionis. Liber

Primus. [Introductio] (ed. Migne, PL 64, tr. B.A.M.).
/3l/ ...Et prius quae sit huius operis intentio But the intention of the work we have before us
breuiter demonstrandum est. Inscribitur etenim must be briefly explained: for in Greek the book
liber Graece PERIHERMENEIAS quod Latine is entitled PERHERMENEIAS, which in Latin
“De interpretatione” significat. means “On Interpretation”.
Quid ergo sit interpretatio paucis absoluam. What “interpretation” is must therefore be
cleared up.
Interpretatio est uox significatiua per se ipsam ‘Interpretation’ is significative vocal sound
aliquid significans. signifying something by itself.
Siue enim nomen sit, quod per se significat, ut For whether it be a name, which signifies by
est “homo”; siue uerbum, ut est “curro”; itself, as is ‘man’—or whether a verb, as is ‘[I]
run’—
siue quod grammatici participium uocant, siue or whether what the grammarians call the
pronomen est, participle [,as is ‘running’]—or whether it is a
pronoun [,as is ‘I’]—
siue ex his iuncta oratio, ut est “Homo currit”, or whether [it is] speech conjoined from these,
as is ‘Man runs’—
siue quolibet alio modo uel nomen uel uerbum or whether in any other way either a name or a
uel ex his oratio iuncta per se aliquid significet, verb or speech conjoined from these might
interpretatio nominatur. signify something by itself, it is named
interpretation.
Quare cum sint quaedam in orationis partibus Wherefore, since among the parts of speech1
quae per se nihil significant, aliis tamen iuncta there are certain ones which signify nothing by
designant, ut sunt coniunctiones uel themselves, yet do convey a meaning when
praepositiones, haec interpretationes esse non joined to the others, as do conjunctions or
dicimus. prepositions, these things we do not call
‘interpretations’.
Interpretatio enim siue simplex est, ut nomen et For interpretation is either simple, like the name
uerbum, siue composita, ut ex his iuncta and verb, or complex, like speech conjoined and
copulataque oratio, uel per se ipsam significare coupled from these, or should signify by itself,
debet, si simplex est, uel ex his quae per se if it is simple, or being conjoined from these
significant iuncta esse, si composita est. [words] which signify by themselves, if it is
composed.
1
Notice how Boethius speaks of “parts of speech” rather than of “language” in this earlier commentary.
49
Quare interpretatio est uox aliquid per se ipsam Wherefore ‘interpretation’ is vocal sound
significans. signifying something by itself.
Sed quoniam uerba nominaque interpretationes But since verbs and names are interpretations,
/33/ sunt, oratio quoque omnis quae ex so also every [instance of] speech joined from
significantibus per se praedicamentis iungitur things signifying predicaments by themselves is
interpretatio nuncupatur, named ‘interpretation’,1
et sunt plurimae interpretationes, inter quas illa and there are many interpretations, among
quoque est oratio, in qua uerum falsumue which are those speeches in which the true and
inueniri potest, id est enuntiatiua, de qua hoc the false may be found, that is, the enunciative,
libro tractandum est: idcirco igitur Aristoteles which is to be treated in this book: for that
de communi nomine et continenti libro titulum reason Aristotle entitled the book under the
scripsit. common and comprehensive name.
(c) According to St. Thomas Aquinas:
St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Peri Herm., lect. 4, n. 3 (tr. B.A.M.).
et ideo quinque ponit in definitione nominis. And so he puts down five things in the
definition of a name.
primo, ponitur vox per modum generis, per First, ‘vocal sound’ [or ‘voice’] is put down by
quod distinguitur nomen ab omnibus sonis, qui way of a genus, by which the name is
non sunt voces. distinguished from other sounds which are not
voices.
nam vox est sonus ab ore animalis prolatus, cum For ‘voice’ is a sound uttered by the mouth of
imaginatione quadam, ut dicitur in ii de anima. an animal, as is said in the second book of the
De Anima (ch. 8, 420b 6ff.).
additur autem prima differentia, scilicet But the first difference, namely, ‘significative’,
significativa, ad differentiam quarumcumque is added to differentiate it from whatever vocal
vocum non significantium, sive sit vox litterata sounds are not significant, whether the voice be
et articulata, sicut biltris, sive non litterata et formed in letters and articulate, like ‘biltris’,2 or
non articulata, sicut sibilus pro nihilo factus. not formed in letters and not articulate, like a
hiss made for no reason.
et quia de significatione vocum in superioribus And because the signification of vocal sounds
actum est, ideo ex praemissis concludit quod was treated above, he therefore concludes from
nomen est vox significativa. the things premised that a name is a
significative vocal sound.
1
That is, the sort of terms logicians call categorematic are called ‘interpretations’.
2
Cf. Boethius’ In Librum Aristotelis De Interpretatione, Editio Secunda seu Majora Commentaria, ed. J. P.
Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. LXIV, p. 13, col. b.
50
IV. ON LANGUAGE AS A SYSTEMATIC MEANS OF HUMAN COMMUNI-
CATION.
1. Some definitions of language.1
Human speech; the expression of ideas by words or significant articulate sounds, for the
communication of thoughts. Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English
Language (New York, 1828), “Language”
Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words.

Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into
thoughts. Henry Sweet
Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions

and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Edward Sapir
Language is most often defined as an organized system of speech that allows humans to
communicate with each other. Encyclozine.com
The institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of
habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. R. A. Hall
A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group

cooperates. Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager
language, a system of conventional spoken or written symbols by means of which human

beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, communicate.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
A system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,
used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings. Webster’s New World
Dictionary (Third College Edition)
The systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society
for communication and self-expression. David Crystal
William Wallace, O.P., The Elements of Philosophy, Ch. 9: Philosophy of the

Humanities. Sec. 75. Philosophy of Language, p. 179 (cf. The New Catholic
Encyclopedia, s.v. ‘Language’).
1. Language (8:365c) is a systematic means of human communication, particularly by

arrangement of vocal sounds conventionally representing concepts, feelings, objects, etc.
Like eating and sleeping it is common to all mankind; unlike them it is not instinctive but
must be learned by every individual from other members of the social group to which he
belongs. It is a kind of behavior that is man’s alone, that he shares with no other living
creature. Without it, man’s uniquely complex knowledge and control of his environment
would be inconceivable.
1
Excerpted from a Web Site.
51
2. Some characteristics of language.
Francis P. Dineen, S.J. An Introduction to General Linguistics. Ch. 1. Linguistics as a

Scientific Study of Language. Some Characteristics of Language (New York, 1967), p.
10. (bold by B.A.M.)
Linguists have found by experience that there are several characteristics of

language that provide a basis for accurate description. The first is that all languages are
sound and, as a consequence, can be represented as linear.1 Second, all languages are
systematic, both in the permissible combinations of language sounds2 and in the
combination of meaningful elements of the language.3 Third, language is meaningful,
since the sounds speakers make are connected with factors other than language itself.
When the relation between the sounds the speakers make and their meanings is
investigated we find that the relation is both arbitrary and conventional.
Ibid., p. 11.
The units and relations that the linguist discusses when describing a language are
generally selected as a consequence of the nature of spoken language. Since language is
sound, all the units will be stated basically in terms of sounds or sound differences. Since
language is meaningful, all the units will be established according to the meanings or
meaning differences that they signal. Since language is arbitrary, the connection between
sounds and meanings will always be indirect. All sounds will, therefore, at least make a
difference in meaning, and some sounds and sound sequences will have a constant,
conventional connection with some feature of the nonlinguistic environment. Since the
primary focus of the description is on the patterns of sounds and sound sequences of a
language, the description is called formal; since another primary focus of the description is
on the contrasts among units and patterns of units, the description is called structural. In
brief, each linguistic unit will be definable in terms of its characteristic composition,
distribution, and function.
Ibid., p. 12.
The units of which a language is composed can also be defined in terms of their
function—that is, in terms of what they do or in terms of the use made of them. It is the
over-all function of language to communicate meanings, and this is done through sounds
and sound differences. Every unit of language will, therefore, have at least a differential
function. It will distinguish one message from another, even though it does not have a
meaning itself. This is the usual function of the individual sounds. Other units of language,
in addition to their differential function, will have a referential function. That is, there
will be a conventional connection between the unit and some aspect of the nonlinguistic
environment. An obvious example of this would be the name for anything, which can be
said to have a referential function when it is used to point to some subject of discussion
and a differential function, because it makes clear that we are discussing what it name and
not something else.
1
Cf. speech considered as a species of discrete quantity.
2
Cf. the discussion of dialektos as meaning ‘idiom’ below.
3
I discuss this matter in my paper “Poetics Chapter 20”.
52
Francis P. Dineen, S.J. An Introduction to General Linguistics. Ch. 2. The Study of
Language As Sound. (New York, 1967), p. 20.
One aspect of both traditional grammar and linguistics is talking about language,
and any efficient system of communication requires shared experience as its basis. The
most universal experience all of us have of language is speaking it and hearing it. We have
already seen that most writing systems do not conform exactly to the sounds people make
in speaking, so that it is easy to appreciate the need for some accurate method of
transcribing the sounds of languages. Phonetics provides us with an accurate means of
describing language sounds, and phonemics with an efficient system of writing the sounds.
Since the linguist takes sound to be the basic manifestation of language, it will be useful to
give a brief sketch of how the sounds of English can be described phonetically and
phonemically. We will then be able to appreciate the shortcomings of earlier work and the
progress that has been made in language study in recent years.
The sounds of a language can be described in three principal ways: according to (1)
their composition, (2) their distribution, and (3) their function. Phonetics is primarily
concerned with the composition of sounds, while phonemics treats the distribution and
function of sounds.
Ibid., pp. 20-21.
The sounds of a language can be studied in terms of the articulatory movements

required to produce them or as disturbances in the air in the form of sound waves or
according to the manner in which they strike [20-21] our ears. Articulatory phonetics is
concerned with the first sort of study while acoustic phonetics deals with the second. The
third type of investigation is often called impressionistic phonetics.
Ibid., p. 22.
Sounds in languages are generally produced when air which has been taken into the
lungs is expelled through the two exits open to it, the mouth, the nose, or both. In Figure 1
[not reproduced here] it can be seen that the air from the lungs passes through the trachea.
The air in normal breathing takes the same route, but since breathing is a constant factor
and is not generally used for conventional language functions, its audible sound and its
wave form are usually ignored in phonetics.

Language As Sound. The Production of Language Sounds (New York, 1967), pp. 22-
23.
In the channel above the trachea is the larynx, a cartilaginous enclosure in which
are contained the vocal chords. From the outside the larynx is called the Adam’s apple. If
we look down into the throat with a laryngoscope or a mirror properly placed, we can see
that the vocal cords resemble two lips hinged together at the front. When they are
completely closed air cannot pass through them from the lungs.
53
The liplike closure is called the glottis, and the stoppage it effects is called a glottal stop.
In normal breathing the lips are spread open, resembling the sides of a printed capital A; in
whispering the cords close down to about the middle of the A opening. When engaged in
the production of the [22-23] vowels, the vocal cords open and close at very high rates of
speed, often hundreds of times per second. The vibration causes the air stream coming
from the lungs through the trachea and the vocal cords to pulsate in the typical fashion
called voice, and a sound produced in such a manner is called voiced sound. The vibration
of the larynx can be readily felt by putting a finger on or near the Adam’s apple and
humming; it is also noticeable when holding the hand on the top of the head.
The wave form of the air after passing through the vocal cords can be differentiated
in many ways, depending on the shape of the cavities through which it passes (for
example, the pharyngeal, oral, and nasal cavities) or on an overlay of friction imparted to
it by narrowing the passage of exit. If the velum is lowered, there is no velic closure of the
nasal cavity and the voiced sounds passing through the nasal cavity acquire a quality called
nasality. Many other important modifications can be introduced, depending on the
contacts made by the various movable and immovable parts of the mouth.
V. ON ARTICULATION.

Language As Sound. The Points of Articulation in English (New York, 1967), p. 23.
To articulate something is to break it down into segments, links, or joints.

Language sounds are said to be articulated with respect to each other through interruption
or change of quality. While “change of quality” is not an articulatory description, it is
possible to detect the correspondence between the organic adjustments that give rise to
qualitative differences and the wave forms caused by such sounds by means of electronic
analysis. Devices such as the sound spectrograph show that speech is generally a
continuous passage from one type of articulation to another, but the ear appears to
discriminate centers or peaks in this continuous flow. It is these centers that the
phonetician principally attempts to describe and symbolize. Transitions from one such
state of the articulatory organs to the next are often difficult to analyze and describe.

Language As Sound. Manners of Articulation: Consonants (New York, 1967), p. 24.
Because it is fairly easy to feel the approach of a movable organ to an immovable

one, or their contact, consonantal articulations are easier to describe than vocalic. If we
define a vowel as a sound resulting from the unrestricted passage of the air stream
through the mouth or nasal cavity without audible friction or stoppage, we can define
a consonant as the opposite—a sound that involves stoppage, preventing the air
stream from escaping through the mouth, or a constriction of the air stream that
results in audible friction. Since no stream of air through the passages is wholly without
friction, this is a relative matter. While vowel sounds are generally voiced, they need not
be, as whispering shows. Some languages regularly employ both voiced and whispered
vowels.
54
James Craig La Drière, “Prosody” (from Preminger, ed. Encyclopedia of Poetry and
Poetics, bold added by B.A.M.).
Vocal sound is the result of vibration produced by constriction of the current of air
projected from the lungs (by movements of the diaphragm and other muscles of abdomen
and chest) through the larynx, throat, and mouth, with resonance in chest and head and
modification of the current and vibrations by varying articulation of the parts of organs in
these passages, especially in the mouth.
Continuity and interruption or remission of sound depend upon and correspond to the
muscular actions and pressures of expiration (during which normal speech-sound occurs)
and inspiration of air and the pauses between them (which though considerable in
breathing at rest are neither frequent nor lengthy in continuous speech, in which inspiration
normally follows expiration with no interval of rest); it is therefore primarily to the
mechanisms of respiratory pressure that most of the massing and grouping of sounds, and
in general their quantitative acoustic effects (especially of intensity and duration, but also
largely of pitch) are due.
Larger and intermediate groupings are determined by action of the diaphragm supported by
the muscles of the abdominal and thoracic walls; the smallest aggregatory (and rhythmic)
unit, the syllable, as it occurs in polysyllabic utterance in most languages, appears to be the
product of a single pressure (“chest-pulse”) of the smaller intercostal muscles. (Uttered in
isolation the syllable, like all whole-utterance units, is produced by pressure from the
abdomen. In polysyllabic utterances it is a slighter pulsation within a larger stretch of
sound produced by sustained abdominal pressure. This is the physiological foundation of
the “rhythmic group,” for which see below).
Obstruction of the current of air and articulatory modification of vibration and

resonance produce qualitative differentiation of sounds, upon which phonemic
discrimination of segments of sound is based.
Qualitative differences among sounds are usually described and classified in

terms of the articulations involved in their production; but the foundation of phonemic
distinctions is a generalizing discrimination of acoustic differences which corresponds at
times only loosely to articulatory, or to very sensitive auditory, differentiation. (The
phonemes of a language are roughly represented by the letters of an alphabet; hence the
name alliteration for repetitive figuration of qualitative similarities in sounds).
Quality in vocal sound may be generally described as the acoustic effect of articulatory
action, broadly including all varieties of constriction and obstruction (vocalic,
consonantal, liquid, etc.) or of vibration and resonance (voiced, voiceless; oral, nasal,
etc.) as well as distinction of organ, part, or place (glottal, palatal, dental, labial, etc.;
dorsal, lateral, apical, etc.; front, back, high, low, etc.) or mode (open, closed,
rounded, unrounded; plosive, spirant, affricate, etc.) of articulation. Each vowel or
consonant is a composite “bundle” of several such qualitative properties or (sub-
phonemic) component “features” (now being systematically classified by Jakobson and
others), and the relations upon which qualitative structure of sounds depends are relations
among these properties or features rather than among the composite sounds or segments
(phonemes) as such.
55
Some qualitative differences, e.g., that between voiced and unvoiced sounds, involve
accompanying difference in quantity. But qualitative differentiation of sounds, though its
figuration (alliteration, assonance, rhyme) may be combined with and even assimilated to
rhythmic structure, is never directly a factor in the production of rhythm, since rhythm is a
structure of quantitative relations. The properties of sound directly relevant to rhythmic
structure are the quantitative or quantifiable properties of intensity, duration, and pitch.
Intensity (loudness or volume) and duration are obviously quantitative in perceptual effect
as well as physically measurable. Pitch (corresponding roughly to frequency of vibration
and thus easily quantified, though not subject to extensive or intensive measurement) has
an ambiguous perceptual effect, in part quantitative, in part qualitative. As it is used in
language, variation of pitch is normally associated with other variation that is quantitative
and, whether independently or because pitch is easily conflated in perception with
associated features, its effect is quantitative, increasing the prominence of the sound altered
by its variation. The quantitative or prosodic properties of sound are used in language not
for their absolute or “inherent” characters (as pitch is used in music) but, in contrasting
juxtaposition with other variants of the same property in adjacent sounds within an
utterance, to provide “relational” oppositions which have semantic effects or syntactic
functions. The prosodic features are therefore often distinguished as “relational” from the
“inherent” features by which segmental phonemes are characterized, because the
phonologically functional characteristics of the individual phonemic segments are
discernible in isolated utterance of single phonemes, whereas it is only in continuous
successive utterance of sounds that prosodic contrasts can be observed. A similar
distinction now in common use opposes prosodic features as “suprasegmental” to the
(qualitative) features of the phonemic “segments” of sound upon which they are imposed;
phonologically regulated occurrences of prosodic entities (“prosodic phonemes”) may
then be called “suprasegmental phonemes,” patterns of these called “superfixes,” and
prosodic superfixes called “suprasegmental morphemes” when they have a fixed
“morphological” function in the syntax of a language. (British linguists who follow J.R.
Firth make different distinctions, otherwise grounded, among prosodic and “phonematic”
entities: cf. R. H. Robins, “Aspects of prosodic analysis,” Univ. of Durham Philosophical
Society, Proc. I, ser. B, no. 1, 1957).
The various contrasts provided by the prosodic features are used in some
languages for lexical distinctions, between words or functional classes of words (e.g.,
English contrast, n. = ó o, vb. = o ó), but their most general linguistic use is that of
ordering and grouping sounds to produce phonological units that function
syntactically. The mechanisms of this ordering and aggregation of sounds are those of
“accent” (of intensity, “dynamic”; or of pitch, “tonic”), of “intonation” (systematic
successive arrangement of pitch-values) and of “pause” and “timing” (dilation or holding,
contraction, and interruption of sound; transition with “juncture” of various degrees of
“openness” between sounds); these mechanisms and their effects (fusion, reduction or
promotion, elision of sounds) may involve accompanying qualitative changes. One of their
effects is the production of what is usually called (rhythmic) “cadence,” i.e., pattern of
successive or positional relation of prominent (“strong” or “emphatic”) elements to less
prominent (“weak” or “unemphatic”) elements. The prominence and weakness relevant for
cadence may be of intensity, of duration, or of pitch; these factors may operate singly and
distinctly or in combinations; and the phonological patterns of a single language (e.g.,
ancient Gr. and L., modern Czech, Chinese) may produce distinct “natural” cadences of
more than one kind. [= dialektos]
56
Cadence involves the two aspects of “span” (the number of elements over which a
unitary pattern extends) and “direction”(the positional or successional order of the
elements).
Direction is usually classified as “rising” (o ó, o o ó), “falling” (ó o, ó o o), “mixed” or

“undulating” or “rocking” (o ó o, ó o ó), and “level” or “even” (ó ó, o o); these last and
other cadence-units (as ó) exhibiting neither “rise” nor “fall,” and often the undulating
cadences which include both, are also called “neutral”; cadence is called “alternating”
when “emphatic” and “unemphatic” elements of equal span succeed each other in a series
(especially when the series begins and ends with the same value) and more loosely when
equivalence of span is only approximated.
James Craig La Drière, “Prosody” (from Preminger, ed. Encyclopedia of Poetry and
Poetics, emphasis added by B.A.M.
Sounds are differentiated in quality (discriminable character or kind) and in

quantity (measurable degree or amount of sonority or of general or specific acoustic
magnitude, including that of duration in time; temporal duration is the only common
property of sound and silence, and the only positive attribute of silence, which is thus
essentially quantitative).
of Chicago Press, 1933), nn. 36-37, pp. 31-35.
SOME GENERAL FEATURES OF LINGUISTIC HISTORY
MECHANISM OF SPEECH AND CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS
36. Speech sounds (hereafter called simply “sounds”) are vibrations of air produced by
the organs of speech (their genetic aspect) and perceived by the organs of hearing (their
acoustic aspect). The production and perception are co-ordinated through the motor and
auditory centers in the brain, and it is this combined mental image which is the element of
continuity in the history of a sound. For the sound once uttered vanishes. When we speak
of the change of a given sound, as of a_ to o_, as if it had an independent life of its own,
we are merely employing a convenient figure of speech.
It is the genetic aspect that is the main basis of the classification of sounds and will
be considered in the following.
The number of distinct sounds that can be produced by the organs of speech is
infinite, and those actually employed in language would run to many hundreds. But in any
one language there is only a limited number, usually between the limits of thirty and sixty.
These are the pattern sounds or “phonemes” of the particular language.
37. The lungs, controlled by the chest and abdominal muscles, act like bellows and
furnish the stream of air. This passes up through the windpipe to the chamber at the top,
the larynx, in which are situated the vocal cords, and hence to the mouth and nose, which
act as resonance chambers of variable shape.
57
The vocal cords are not like violin strings, but are the edges of two folds of
membrane, more like the edges of flaps of rubber. They may be drawn together and made
tense by muscular action, so that they are set in vibration. In breathing they are left open,
and in the production of some sounds they are equally inactive, while in others they
vibrate. According as there is or is not vibration of the vocal cords, sounds are classified as
“voiced” (“sonant”) or “voiceless” (“breathed”, “surd”). The vowels are voiced, and so
usually the liquids and nasals. The stops and fricatives (cf. below), including the sibilants,
occur in pairs, voiceless (also with stronger aspiration) and voiced (also with [31-32] weaker
aspiration), as English p:b, t:d, f:v, s:z, etc. The vibration can be felt by putting one’s
finger on the “Adam’s apple”, or more clearly through the skull when the ears are covered
tight by the hands. Contrast the s of sin with the z of zero, each pronounced by itself
without [the] following vowel.
The vocal cords are also subject to alterations in length and tensity, with
consequent variation in the frequency of vibrations. These constitute differences in pitch
(tone, intonation), which in our own current speech (as distinguished from song) are
observed mainly in sentence modulation, as in the rising tone of interrogation, but in some
languages as ancient Greek and Sanskrit are the dominant elements of word-accent.
Apart from the action of the vocal cords, the distinguishing characteristics of our
sounds are the result of overtones produced in the resonance chambers of the mouth or
nose. Of these two the less important and the simpler is the nose. This functions only in the
nasal sounds produced when the nasal passage is left open. If the stream of air is cut off in
the mouth and issues only through the nose and mouth we have nasal vowels as in French.
The nose is a rigid chamber, not subject to alteration in shape, and the difference between
the various nasal sounds is caused by different mouth positions.
In distinction from the nasals, all other vowel sounds are “oral”. The nasal passage,
open in breathing, is cut off by raising the velum or soft palate, and the mouth alone acts as
the resonance chamber. Owing to the mobility of the jaws, lips, and especially the tongue,
the chamber of the mouth may assume a great variety of shapes, resulting in as many
different sounds.
Of the consonants some are formed with complete closure, by which the stream of
air is wholly blocked, followed by a sudden release of the breath, as, for example, p with
closure of the lips. These are called “stops” (“explosives”, “mutes”). The nasal consonants
are stops, so far as concerns the passage of the breath [32-33] through the mouth (the
closure is the same for m as for p), but the flow of breath through the nose is continuous.
The release may be followed by an added puff of breath, as in uphill. Then we have
aspirated stops (aspirates). Our English initial stops in words like pen are distinctly
aspirated by comparison with the French.
Others are formed with close approximation (not complete closure) and resulting
friction, as f with friction between the lower lip and upper teeth. These are called
“fricatives” (“spirants”).
The distinctions so far made, as stop, fricative, nasal, voiceless, or voiced, may be
conventionally called “orders”, as contrasted with the “series” (or “classes”) depending
upon the position where the closure or friction takes place.
Between lips and throat there is a continuous range of possible points of contact. A
rough division of this into three main areas and the recognition of three series, labial,
dental, and guttural (palatal), is the general basis of classification, and sufficient for some
languages. But labials include bilabials, as p, b, m, and labiodentals, as f, v. The dental
stops, t, d, differ considerably in different languages, as the French, which are pure dentals,
58
from the English in which the tongue touches the gums back of the teeth; and sometimes
there are two distinct series in the same language, as in Sanskrit. The area back of the
dental is the most extensive, and “guttural”, used here as the general term, covers the
greatest diversity. There is some difference between the gutturals of English card and kin,
much more between those of German kann and Kind or doch and ich, and frequently one
must recognize two distinct guttural series, a front (“palatal”, “prae-palatal”) and back
(“velar”).
The series represented in English are then:
Labials.—The bilabial stops, voiceless p, voiced b; the labio-dental fricatives, voiceless

f, voiced v; the nasal m.
Dentals.—The stops, voiceless t, voiced d; the (interdental) fricatives, written th,
voiceless in thin, voiced in then; the nasal n.
Gutturals.—The stops, voiceless k, c (as in cat), voiced g, (as in [33-34] get); the guttural
nasal [ŋ],1 as in ink [iŋk],1 finger [fiŋgɘ(r)], ring [riŋ]. There is no guttural fricative, of
which German ch is an example.
The “sibilants” from a special class of fricatives and are so named from their
acoustic character, rather than from the manner of production. In the voiceless s of sin and
the voiced z of zero (often written s as in rose) the tongue forms a narrow channel through
which the breath is projected onto the teeth, with a resulting hissing sound. In the voiceless
[š] of shake, sure and the voiced [Z] of azure, the channel is broader and the stream of air
more spread out.
The “liquids”, as the term is now applied (it has no precise descriptive value), are l
and r. The l is produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the palate, leaving openings at
the sides through which the breath passes. For the r the sides of the tongue form the
contact, leaving a channel down the middle through which the breath passes over the tip of
the tongue. But in both there are several variable factors, and there is the greatest variety
among the l- and r- sounds of different languages.
The vowels are produced without closure or friction. Their differences depend upon
the various shapes of the resonance chamber caused by the position of the lips and tongue.
The lips may be rounded or unrounded. The tongue may be raised high in the front of the
mouth or in the back, or it may lie flat; its position may be intermediate. Hence vowels are
distinguished as rounded or unrounded, and by extremes as front or back and as close
(high) and open (low). Thus the u of pull is a close (high) back rounded vowel, while the i
of pit is a close (high) front unrounded vowel. The French u and the German U are front
rounded vowels, Open and close are relative terms and one speaks of an open or close o or
an open or close e. [34-35]
1
Here and in the following square brackets are sometimes used to enclose phonetic transcriptions
(in accordance with a current practice), but the brackets are omitted where there seems to be no
danger of ambiguity. [remainder of note omitted]
The semivowels, w of wet and y of yet, are produced with virtually the same
position as the vowels u and i, but with a rapid glide to the following vowel, so that they
have the function of consonants.
The h is merely a strong breathing. There is no independent mouth position, which
is that of the coming vowel.
59
1. On what ‘speech’ consists in.
[Aristotle], Probl. X. 39 (tr. B.A.M.)
Now speech1 consists in conveying a meaning not by the voice [= phone], but by
certain affections of it [= pathesin],2 and not only shows pain and pleasure. But the letters3
are certain affections of the voice.
James Mark Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, s.v. Articulation.
Articulation (vocal) [Lat. articulatio, a joining together]: Ger. Artikulirung; Fr.

articulation; Ital. articolazione. The act of co-operation among the organs of speech in
larynx and mouth, whereby, through modification or check of the breath-current, distinct
speech-sounds are produced. The character of speech-sounds is determined by the noises
generated as the breath-current passes the articulated organs, or by the resonance
dependent on the form of the resonance cavity in mouth and nose created in the
articulation, or by both. See Vietor, Elemente d. Phonetik, 2nd ed., §§ 1 ff. Whitney’s
definition (Proc. Amer. Philol. Assoc., 1881, 22) is: ‘Articulation is virtually
syllabication—a breaking of the stream of utterance into joints, by the intervention of
closer utterances or consonants between the opener utterances or vowels.’ This does not
represent with any exactness the present scientific use of the term, though it may be
etymologically more correct.
2. On the universal elements in grammar.
R. H. Robins, “Noun and Verb in Universal Grammar” (In: Diversions of

Bloomsbury: Selected Writings on Linguistics. Amsterdam, 1970, pp. 295-296) (First
Published in: Language 28 [1952] 289-298).
In the article by Burt and Ethel Aginsky referred to at the outset, the universal
elements of grammar are given as segments, morphemes, and significant sequences of
morphemes.40 These, and some other terms employed in grammatical analysis—word
(minimal free form), suffix, prefix, juncture, aggluti- [295-296]
40
Word 4.168.72 (1948). [= Burt W. and Ethel G. Aginsky, Word 4.168-72 (1948)]
nation, inflection, and so on—can be claimed by us as universally applicable, because, for

us, all language consists of events in one dimension, time. In employing such terms we are
doing no more than segmenting the unidimensional stream of speech into various
meaningful pieces more or less independent; we are not attributing to the language itself
or to its component parts any categories of meaning, however, abstract, that are found in
the semantics of our own language. These categories are, therefore, of an altogether
different order from word-classes (nouns, verbs, and the rest) and the secondary categories
associated with them.
§
1
= logos, a species of which is dialektos, = phone enarthros, ‘articulate vocal sound’.
2
Cf. Poet. 25 on the ‘passions’ of the voice.
3
= grammata, = stoicheia, ‘elementary speech sounds’, = ‘phonemes’.
60
VI. ON SPEECH AS A SPECIES OF DISCRETE QUANTITY.
Aristotle, Cat. 6 (4b 20 ff.) (Lat. tr. Boethius; Eng tr. B.A.M.).
Quantitas autem, aliud quidem est discretum, But some quantity is discrete and some is
aliud autem continuum; continuous;
et aliud quidem ex habentibus positionem ad se and some quantity consists of parts having
invicem suis partibus constat, aliud autem ex position with respect to each other, some
non habentibus positionem. consists of parts not having position.
Est autem discreta quantitas, ut numerus et A discrete quantity is such as number and
oratio. speech.
Continua vero, ut linea, superficies, corpus. A continuous quantity is such as line, surface, or
body,
Amplius autem et praeter haec est tempus et and besides these there is time and place….
locus….
Similiter autem et oratio discretorum est. Likewise speech is also among the discrete.
Quod autem oratio quantitas sit manifestum est; But that speech is a quantity is obvious, for it is
mensuratur enim syllaba brevi et longa. measured by the short and long syllable.
Dico autem oratio cum voce factam, ad nullam And I mean speech made with the voice; for its
enim communem terminum particulae ejus parts are joined at no common boundary,
copulentur.
Non enim est communis terminus ad quem for there is not a common boundary at which the
syllabae copulenter, sed unaquaeque divisa est, syllables are joined, but each is divided and by
ispa secundum seipsam. itself.
tr. Glen Coughlin:
In the case of number, though, one could not see how the parts have a certain position with
regard to each other or lie somewhere, or which of the parts conjoin with others. Nor those
of time. For not one of those parts of time endure; but what is not enduring, how would
that have a certain position?
But you would say rather that there is a certain order, by there being a before and an after
of time. And so too in the case of number, by one being counted before two, and two
before three. And thus there could be a certain order, though you certainly could not find
position.
And so too speech. For none of its parts endure, but it is spoken and one can no longer find
it, whence, its parts could not have position, if indeed none endures.
Therefore, some are constituted from parts having position, some not from ones having
position.
61
1. According to the Summa Totius Logicae Aristotelis.
Ignotus Auctor, Summa Totius Logicae Aristotelis, tract. III, cap. iii (tr. B.A.M.).
TR3 CP02
oratio est vox aggregata ex distinctis syllabis Speech is vocal sound [or voice] composed
eam mensurantibus, et in partibus suis non from distinct syllables measuring it, and not
habens permanentiam. having permanence in its parts.
ad intelligendum autem praedictam definiti- In order to understand the aforesaid definition it

onem, sciendum quod vox non ponitur hic pro must be borne in mind that voice is not put
qualitate: est enim vox in tertia specie qualitatis, down here for a quality—for vocal sound is in
ut infra patebit; sed pro aliquo quod fuit in voce: the third species of quality, as will be clear
below—but for something that flows* in the
voice,
* Reading fluit with the Marietti edition of the

text.
quia in tali voce sunt multae dictiones et sylla- since in such vocal sound there are many words
bae, quae licet indivisibiles sint, tamen sunt and syllables which, although they are indivisi-
successivae: ble, nevertheless are successive:
nam una succedit alteri. for one succeeds another.
unde in talibus syllabis est duo considerare: Whence in such syllables there are two things to
scilicet indivisibilitatem earum, et successi- consider: their indivisibility and succession.
onem.
talis autem indivisibilitas non est indivisibilitas Now such indivisibility is not the indivisibility
unitatis, alioquin oratio esset numerus: of a unit, otherwise speech would be number:
sed est indivisibilitas mensurans durationem, but it is an indivisibility measuring duration, in-
secundum quod tales plures syllabae indivisi- sofar as many such indivisible syllables endure
biles plus durant quam una. longer than one does.
unde si in oratione consideramus indivisibilita- Whence if in speech we consider the indivisi-

tem syllabarum, per hoc convenit cum numero. bility of the syllables, in this respect it agrees
with number.
si vero ibi consideratur mensura durabilitatis, But if the measure of the endurance (of the
quae tamen non est semper stans, sed est suc- syllables) be considered there, which neverthe-
cessiva; less is not always standing still, but is success-
sive—
in hoc convenit cum tempore, quod est mensura in this regard it agrees with time, which is a
<successiva et>** successivorum, ut infra <successive> measure <and (a measure)> of
patebit. successive things, as will be clear below.
** The Latin words added to the text are taken

from the Marietti edition.
62
non tamen oratio est numerus simpliciter, sed Nevertheless, speech is not number simply, but
est numerus pertinens ad mensuram durationis: is number pertaining to the measure of duration:
nec est tempus continuum, quod nihil aliud est nor is it continuous time, which is nothing other
quam successio continuata semper divisibilis; than an always divisible continued succession—
sed est successio aliquorum indivisibilium, puta but it is a succession of indivisibles, for ex-
syllabarum. ample, of syllables.
sciendum est autem, quod philosophus libro But it must be borne in mind that in the book of
praedicamentorum dicit, quod oratio mensuratur the Predicaments the Philosopher says that
syllaba brevi et longa. speech is measured by the short and long sylla-
ble.
alius textus habet quod syllaba brevis et longa Another text has that the long and short syllable
mensuratur oratione. is measured by speech.
mensuratur autem oratio syllaba eo modo, sicut But, as has been stated, speech is measured by
dictum est, quod numerus mensuratur unitate the syllable in the way that number is measured
quae indivisibilis est, in quantum hujusmodi: by a unit, which is indivisible insofar as it is of
similiter etiam oratio mensuratur syllaba, quae this sort: likewise speech is also measured by
ut dictum est, indivisibilis est. the syllable which, as has been stated, is
indivisible.
in hoc autem quod dicitur, talis syllaba brevis Now in saying this, ‘by such a short or long
est vel longa, non est intelligendum quod talis syllable’, it is not to be understood that such
brevitas vel longitudo pertinet ad tempus shortness or length pertains to continuous time
continuum, ita videlicet quod oratio sit in such a way that speech is composed from
aggregata ex multis temporibus continuis: many continuous times—otherwise it would not
alioquin non esset alia species a tempore: be a species other than time—
partes enim temporis non faciunt aliam speciem for the parts of time do not make a species other
a tempore. than time.
sed indivisibili durationi syllabae aliquando But continuous time sometimes1 coexists with
coexistit tempus continuum, seu simul cum eo the indivisible duration of the syllables, or exists
existit: with it at the same time:
quod tempus aliquando est breve, et aliquando but the time sometimes is short and sometimes
longum: unde tempus continuum est mensura long: whence continuous time is a measure of
successivorum quae sunt in motu. successive things which are in motion.
syllabae vero existunt in quodam indivisibili, et But the syllables consist in something indivi-
sine motu, licet sint cum mutatione et success- sible and without motion, although they involve
sione, sub aliqua tamen mensura, ut dictum est. change and succession, yet under a certain
measure, as has been stated.
unde mensura quae est tempus, et mensura quae Whence the measure which is time, and the
est ipsius syllabae, licet sint diversae mensurae measure which is the very syllables, although
durationum seu durabilium, tamen possunt they are diverse measures of duration or
simul existere. endurance, nevertheless can exist at the same
time.
1
Should one read aliqualis rather than aliquando here?
63
et sic syllaba dicetur brevis vel longa, non ex And in this way a syllable will be called short or
longitudine vel brevitate continua quae sit in ea, long not from the continuous length or shortness
cum ipsa sit indivisibilis; which is in it, since it is indivisible—
sed ex longitudine et brevitate temporis con- but from the length or shortness of the con-
tinui, quod ei coexistit. tinuous time which coexists with it.
aliqui tamen dicunt, quod licet syllabae non sint Nevertheless, some say that although the syl-
motus, tamen fiunt per motum. lables are not motion, they still come to be
through motion.
cum autem omnis motus mensuretur tempore But since every motion will be measured by
continuo, propter hoc syllabae dicuntur longae continuous time, for this reason the syllables are
vel breves, ex longitudine vel brevitate temporis called long or short from the length or shortness
continui mensurantis motus per quos syllabae of the continuous time measuring the motion
fiunt. through which the syllables come to be.
alii dicunt aliter de oratione. But others speak of speech otherwise.
secundum enim eos cum numerus causetur ex For according to them since number is caused
divisione continui, et nihil addat supra con- by the division of the continuum and adds
tinuum nisi divisionem in qua quodlibet est in- nothing to the continuum except the division in
divisum, et tamen est alia species quantitatis which anything is undivided, and yet it is a
quam continua; species of quantity other than the continuous—
ita accidit de oratione respectu temporis: nam in this way it happens with respect to time, for
oratio est multa tempora divisa, quorum quod- speech is many divided times, any one of which
libet est indivisum; et tamen est alia species a is undivided, and yet it is a species other than
tempore. time.
et sic patet de quantitate discreta etc.. And thus it is clear about discrete quantity, etc.
Duane Berquist, Commentary on the Categories. 6/21/96
Now what’s the next thing he does when he goes towards speech? What’s the first
thing he says?
Likewise, speech is of discrete. That speech is a how much is clear.
But he does try to manifest that speech is a quantity. I think everybody who meets
speech is a little bit puzzled by that. So Aristotle stops and gives a reason why this is in fact a
quantity. And notice he uses the word measure there, which is a kind of confirmation of what
I was quoting from Thomas in the Metaphysics, that Aristotle is distinguishing the species of
quantity by diverse measures. You have the exact word there. It reminds me of Thomas’s
point when Aristotle distinguishes the four kinds of causes in the Physics, and the last and
least known, of course, is the end. When he gets to the end he shows that it is a cause. He
doesn’t do that with the other three causes. Thomas says he does that because it’s not as well
known. Speech is measured by the long and the short syllable. We would measure by the
accented and unaccented syllable. He’s talking about the phone, the vocal sound. But notice
there’s a different measure, there, in the case of speech and in the case of number. Number is
64
measured by the one. This is measured by the long and short syllable. There’s a different kind
of measure, therefore etc. But do the parts meet at a common boundary in the case of the
syllables? No. If you have the word “animal”, where do the syllables meet? They don’t.
Now would one say that a syllable is measured by time? Later on, Aristotle is going to
talk about the accidental quantities. There’s some question about speech. One might wonder
whether speech is an accidental quantity, as white is said to be large because it is spread over
a large surface, so it is not the white as such but the surface over which it is spread, and we
speak of an action or motion as being long because it took a long time. Someone might say
we call the syllable long because it takes a long time, and the other short because it takes a
short time. If that were all there was to it, then you would have to put speech with the
accidental quantities. You would say there’s not in reality a different kind of quantity than
you have with time and the rest. On the other hand, you might say we are not concerned, here,
with things as things in this book. What we are concerned with in the category of quantity is
distinguishing them by a diverse kind of measure. You use something different to measure
with. We don’t simply measure speech by time, but by the long and the short syllable. We’d
say Shakespeare writes in iambic pentameter. Is it the amount of time the line takes that we
are talking about? No. How do you get this 5? Because we’re measuring by the unaccented
and the accented syllable. You have five iambs, what you’re measuring, your unit you might
say, is four unaccented syllables and one accented syllable. Then you go to another meter, and
you have three syllables, and your unit is two accented, one unaccented syllable. You seem to
have a different kind of measure, and therefore a different kind of measured, and therefore a
different species of quantity as far as the Categories is concerned. When you look at quantity
in the Metaphysics, and you’re more interested in real diversity, maybe you won’t have as
many.
2. Some further observations on the syllable.
Aristotle, Metaph., XIV. 5 (1092a 22-28) (ed. & tr. W. D. Ross).
e)/dei de\ tou\j le/gontaj e)k stoixei/wn ei)=nai Those who say that existing things come from
ta\ o)/nta kai\ tw=n o)/ntwn ta\ prw=ta tou\j elements and that the first of existing things are
a)riqmou/j, dielome/nouj pw=j a)/llo e)c a)/llou the numbers, should have first distinguished the
e)sti/n, ou(/tw le/gein ti/na tro/pon o( a)riqmo/j senses in which one thing comes from another,
e)stin e)k tw=n a)rxw=n. and then said in which sense number comes
from its first principles.
By intermixture? [= ‘mixture’]
po/teron mi/cei;
But (1) not everything is capable of
a)ll’ ou)/te pa=n [25] mikto/n, intermixture,
and [25] (2) that which is produced by it is

to/ te gigno/menon e(/teron, different from its elements,
and on this view the one will not remain

ou)k e)/stai te xwristo\n to\ e(\n ou)d’ e(te/ra separate or a distinct entity; but they want it to
fu/sij: oi( de\ bou/lontai. be so.
a)lla\ sunqe/sei, w(/sper sullabh/; By juxtaposition [= ‘composition’], like a

syllable?
65
a)lla\ qe/sin te a)na/gkh u(pa/rxein, But then (1) the elements must have position;
kai\ xwri\j o( now=n noh/sei to\ e(\n kai\ to\ and (2) he who thinks of number will be able to
plh=qoj. think of the unity and the plurality apart;
tou=t’ ou)=n e)/stai o( a)riqmo/j, mona\j kai\ number then will be this—a unit and plurality,
plh=qoj, h)\ to\ e(\n kai\ a)/nison. or the one and the unequal.
3. Note.
A syllable comes from its elements by ‘composition’, not by ‘mixture’, for which
reason the elements must have position (which is a before and after or order in the
elements according to place). Note that ‘having position’ distinguishes the parts making up
a composition from the parts making up a mixture. (In a mixture, the parts exist virtually,
rather then potentially or actually, and hence cannot have position.)
Aristotle, On the Generation of Animals, I ch. 18 (add) (tr. Arthur Platt).
We may also ask whether the semen comes from each of the homogeneous parts
only, such as flesh and bone and sinew, or also from the heterogeneous, such as face and
hands. For if from the former only, we object that resemblance exists rather in the
heterogeneous parts, such as face and hands and feet; if then it is not because of the semen
coming from all parts that children resemble their parents in these, what is there to stop the
homogeneous parts also from being like for some other reason than this? If the semen
comes from the heterogeneous alone, then it does not come from all parts; but it is more
fitting that it should come from the homogeneous parts, for they are prior to the
heterogeneous which are composed of them; and as children are born like their parents in
face and hands, so they are, necessarily, in flesh and nails. If the semen comes from both,
what would be the manner of generation? For the heterogeneous parts are composed of the
homogeneous, so that to come from the former would be to come from the latter and from
their composition. To make this clearer by an illustration, take a written name; if
anything came from the whole of it, it would be from each of the syllables, and if from
these, from the letters and their composition.
So that if really flesh and bones are composed of fire and the like elements, the semen
would come rather from the elements than anything else, for how can it come from their
composition? Yet without this composition there would be no resemblance. If again
something creates this composition later, it would be this that would be the cause of the
resemblance, not the coming of the semen from every part of the body.
66
VII. ON ELEMENTARY SPEECH SOUNDS.
1. ‘Element’ as entering into speech according to Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas.
In ordering the principal meanings of ‘element’ in the Metaphysics, Aristotle

begins by stating that by an ‘element’ he understands
(1) the first constituent of which a thing is composed and which is indivisible in kind into
other kinds; for example, the elements of speech are those of which speech is composed and
into which it is ultimately divisible, while they can no longer be divided into other parts of
speech distinct in kind from them. And even if they are divisible, but the parts are of the
same kind, they are called ‘elements’; for example, a part of water is water, while a part of a
syllable is not a syllable.1
St. Thomas comments on this passage as follows:
Now he manifests this definition in four things in which we use the name ‘element’. For we
say the ‘letters’ themselves are the elements of vocal sound because every vocal sound is
composed of them, and first; which is clear from this, that all vocal sounds are resolved into
‘letters’ as into a last thing. For what is last in resolution must be the first in composition.
Now the ‘letters’ are not ultimately resolved into other vocal sounds different in species. But
if they are divided in any way, the parts into which they are divided would be “of the same
form”, i.e. of one species, just as all the parts of water are water. Now a ‘letter’ is divided
according to the time of its pronunciation, inasmuch as a long ‘letter’ is said to have two
times, but a short [‘letter’], one [time]. Yet, neither are the parts into which the ‘letters’ are
thus divided different according to different species of vocal sound. For it is thus concerning
the syllable: for its parts are diverse according to species: for the sound is other according to
species which makes the vowel and the consonant, from which syllables are composed.2
Man’s speech, then, understood as articulate vocal sound, has as its basis the
syllable as composed of elementary speech sounds, the vowels and consonants; a vowel or
consonant, inasmuch as it can be written, being known as a litera or ‘letter’ (cf. Boethius
above, as well as St. Augustine, De Dialectica, ch. 5).
Now it is clear from the foregoing passages that, whereas the ‘letter’ (which is
clearly a litera vocalis, or vowel sound) is divided into the long and the short, which is a
quantitative division, the syllable is divided into the vowel and the consonant, which is a
qualitative division. But it must also be noted that St. Thomas’ account assumes without
remark the fact that vowels and consonants can only be divided out of syllables, the reason
being that only certain combinations of elementary vocal sounds are possible, and so are
found only in syllables, a point which I treat next.
1
Aristotle, Metaph. V, 3 (1014a 26-35) (tr. H. G. Apostle).
2
St. Thomas Aquinas, In V Meta., lect. 4, n. 5 (tr. B.A.M.): hanc autem definitionem manifestat in quatuor,
in quibus utimur nomine elementi. dicimus enim ipsas literas esse elementa vocis, quia ex eis omnis vox
componitur, et primo. quod ex hoc patet, quia omnes voces in literas resolvuntur, sicut in ultima. quod est
enim ultimum in resolutione, oportet esse primum in compositione. literae autem non resolvuntur ulterius in
alias voces specie diversas. sed, si aliquo modo dividantur, particulae in quas fit divisio, erunt conformes,
idest unius speciei, sicut omnes particulae aquae sunt aqua. dividitur autem litera secundum tempora
prolationis, prout litera longa dicitur habere duo tempora, brevis vero unum. nec tamen partes, in quas sic
dividuntur literae, sunt diversae secundum speciem vocis. non est autem ita de syllaba: nam eius partes sunt
diversae secundum speciem: alius enim sonus est secundum speciem, quem facit vocalis et consonans, ex
quibus syllaba componitur.
67
In sum, in one way vocal sound is divided into literae; but literae are divided
quantitatively into the long and the short, a long being said to have two ‘times’ (=
chronoi), a short, only one. But the syllable itself can only be divided qualitatively into the
vowel and the consonant (and the subdivisions of the consonant).
2. ‘Element’ as said of both the written and the spoken litera.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Peri Herm., lect. 2, n. 7 (tr. B.A.M.).
Second, when he says Those which are written, etc. he treats the signification of writing.
And according to Alexander, he introduced this in order to make clear the preceding
thought by way of a likeness, as though the sense were: those in vocal sound are signs of
the passions of the soul in the same way as letters are signs of vocal sounds.
He also makes this clear by what follows, when he says And in a way neither
letters, etc. introducing this as a sign of the preceding. For that letters signify vocal sounds
is signified by this, that, just as vocal sounds are different among different people, so also
the letters are different. And according to this explanation he does not therefore say and
letters of those which are in vocal sound, but those which are written: the reason being that
they are called ‘letters’ both in utterance and in writing, although more properly, according
as they are in writing, they are called ‘letters’; but according as they are in an utterance, the
are called ‘elements’ of vocal sound. But because Aristotle does not say, and just as those
which are written, but makes a continuous narrative, it is better to say, as Porphyry
explained, that Aristotle proceeds in the last place to complete the order of signification.
For after he had said that names and verbs, which are in vocal sound, are signs of those
which are in the soul, he adds by way of continuation that names and verbs which are
written are signs of the names and verbs of those which are in vocal sound.1
3. On the collocation of elementary speech sounds.
The next point to consider is that, as Aristotle understands it, language arises from
the various compositions or collocations of syllables, giving rise to the several ‘dialects’ or
‘tongues’ spoken by the various ethnic groups, a collocation which, in any tongue or
language, as we have observed, happens only in a limited number of ways. To see how this
is so, it will be helpful here to review Aristotle’s teaching on the voice in relation to
language, already met with above:
1
secundo, cum dicit: et ea quae scribuntur etc., agit de significatione scripturae: et secundum alexandrum
hoc inducit ad manifestandum praecedentem sententiam per modum similitudinis, ut sit sensus: ita ea quae
sunt in voce sunt signa passionum animae, sicut et litterae sunt signa vocum. quod etiam manifestat per
sequentia, cum dicit: et quemadmodum nec litterae etc.; inducens hoc quasi signum praecedentis. quod enim
litterae significent voces, significatur per hoc, quod, sicut sunt diversae voces apud diversos, ita et diversae
litterae. et secundum hanc expositionem, ideo non dixit, et litterae eorum quae sunt in voce, sed ea quae
scribuntur: quia dicuntur litterae etiam in prolatione et scriptura, quamvis magis proprie, secundum quod
sunt in scriptura, dicantur litterae; secundum autem quod sunt in prolatione, dicantur elementa vocis. sed
quia aristoteles non dicit, sicut et ea quae scribuntur, sed continuam narrationem facit, melius est ut dicatur,
sicut porphyrius exposuit, quod aristoteles procedit ulterius ad complendum ordinem significationis.
postquam enim dixerat quod nomina et verba, quae sunt in voce, sunt signa eorum quae sunt in anima,
continuatim subdit quod nomina et verba quae scribuntur, signa sunt eorum nominum et verborum quae sunt
in voce.
68
Vocal sounds and modes of language differ according to locality. Vocal sounds are
characterized chiefly by their pitch, whether high or low, and the kinds of sound capable of
being produced are identical within the limits of one and the same species; but articulate
[vocal] sound, that one might reasonably designate ‘language’ [dialektoj], differs both in
various animals, and also in the same species according to diversity of locality…. Men have
the same voice or vocal sounds, but they differ from one another in speech or language.1
Voice [fonh=] and sound [yofoj] are different from one another; and language [dialektoj]
differs from voice and sound. The fact is that no animal can give utterance to voice except
[30] by the action of the pharynx, and consequently such animals as are devoid of lung have
no voice; and language is the articulation of vocal sounds by the tongue. Thus, the voice and
larynx can emit vowel sounds; consonantal sounds are made by the tongue and the lips; and
out of these language is composed. Consequently, animals that [535a] have no tongue at all
or that have a tongue not freely detached, have no language; although they may be enabled
to make sounds by other organs than the tongue.2
For this creature [the dolphin] has a voice, for it is furnished with a lung and a windpipe; but
its tongue is not loose, nor has it lips, so as to give utterance to an articulate sound.3
Now speech through the voice is composed of letters, and most of these letters would be
impossible to pronounce were the lips not moist, nor the tongue such as it is. For some are
formed by the closure of the lips and others by applications of the tongue. But of what sort
and how many such differences these things have, must be sought from those skilled in
metrics.4
Why does this speech take different forms, when it does not with other animals? Is it because
man can utter a number of letters, but of the other animals some utter none and some only
two or three consonants? These consonants combined with vowels make articulate speech
[dialektoj]. Now speech consists in conveying a meaning not by the voice [ fonh=], but by
certain affections [or ‘passions’, paqesin] of it, and not only shows pain and pleasure. But
the letters are certain affections of the voice.5
But voice is the sound belonging to a thing with soul. For no inanimate thing has a voice,
though they are said to give voice by a likeness, as the aulos, the lyre, and other inanimate
things that have prolongation, melody, and idiom [dialektoj].6
Notice that in this final text dialektos refers to a musical quality of the voice. In order to
understand this usage, we must turn to further witnesses. Let us begin with the following
passage from the Peripatetic Adrastus as reported by Theon of Smyrna:7
(tr. R & D. Lawlor) (tr. Andrew Barker)
1
Aristotle, Hist. Animal. IV, 9 (536b 9-14, 19-20) (tr. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson).
2
Ibid. IV. 9 (534b 29—535a 2).
3
Ibid. IV. 9 (536a 2-3).
4
Aristotle, De Part. Animal., II. 16 (tr. W. Ogle) (660a 3-10).
5
[Aristotle], Probl. X. 39 (895a 7-14) (tr. W. S. Hett; rev. B.A.M.).
6
Aristotle, De An. II. 8, 420b 6-8: h( de\ fonh\ yo/foj ti/j e)stin e)my/xou. tw=n ga\r a)yu/xwn ou)qe\n fwnei=,
a)lla\ kaq) o(moio/thta le/getai fwnei=n, oi(=on au)lo\j kai\ lu/ra kai\ o(/sa a)/lla tw=n a)yu/xwn a)po/tasin
e)/xei kai\ me/loj kai\ dia/lekton.
7
Theon of Smyrna, Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato, Book II: Music. On Consonances
(49.6-21) (tr. Andrew Barker, Gk ed. Hiller added by B.A.M.).
69
VI. Adrastus, the student of Aristotle, in his well (49.6) Adrastus the Peripatetic, who discusses
known treatise On Harmony and Consonance, harmonia and concordance more intelligibly
says: [than Thrasymachus], speaks as follows.
Likewise, in discourse, whether written or Just as the wholes [holoscherê] constituting the
spoken, verbs and nouns are the most important primary parts [prôta merê] of written sound [en-
parts; grammtou phônês] and of all speech [pantos tou
logou] are the verbs and nouns [rhêmata kai
onomata],
the essential parts of verbs and nouns are the (10) and their parts are the syllables, which
syllables composed of letters; themselves arise from letters,
and letters are the primary signs of language, while the letters are the primary sounds, ele-
being elementary, indivisible and the shortest mentary, indivisible and smallest
element,
since discourse is composed of letters and, in (for speech is put together out of letters as its
the end, resolves into letters. first constituents and is resolved into them as its
last),
In the same way, that which makes up the so also the wholes that are parts of melodic and
principal part of sound and of all melody are the attuned sound [tês emmelous kai hermosomenês
systems called tetrachords, pentachords and phonês] and of all melody [pantos tou melous]
octachords, which are composed of intervals are what are called systemata (tetrachords, pen-
which are themselves composed of sounds, tachords and octachords): they arise out of
these sounds being the primary and indivisible intervals [ta diastemata], and the intervals out
elements of which all melody is composed, and of notes [ex phthongôn],which once again are
into which it definitively resolves itself…. primary and indivisible and elementary (20)
sounds, out of which, as its first constituents, all
melody is put together, and into which, as its
last, it is resolved.1
The sounds differ from each other through (50) The notes differ from one another in their
tensions, some being higher, others lower. pitches [tais tasesin], since some of them are
higher and some lower; and their pitches [taseis]
These tensions are defined in different manners. are determined according to certain ratios.
1
Analogies between analyses of speech and of melody became common: they seem to have their
origins in Plato Philebus 174ff…and 7 Aristox. El. Harm. 27.18ff. With this description of notes as
‘indivisible’ compare the definition of ‘note’ mentioned in n. 29 to 10 Nicomachus Enchiridion.
(Barker’s note) [N.B. For these and other related texts, see further below.]
Note that the foregoing passage presupposes an understanding of the meaning of melos.
For a Peripatetic definition of the term, cf. the following excerpt from the Aristotelian Pro-
blemata:1
Why is it that among the sensibles the audible [or ‘what is heard’, akouston] alone has
character [êthos]? For even without speech melos nevertheless has character, but neither a
color, a smell, nor a taste has it. Is it because [the audible] alone has movement [kinêsis]?
1
[Aristotle], Probl. XIX. 27 (919b 26-30, 33-34) (Greek ed. Loeb; tr. W. S. Hett; rev. B.A.M.).
70
Though not the movement that sound produces in us, for movement of this sort exists in
other sensibles as well…. This [movement] has a likeness [sc. of ‘character’] both in its
rhythms and in the order of its high and low sounds [en te tois rhutmos kai en te ton
phthongon taxei ton oxeon kai bareon (= melos)],1 but not in their mixture [en te mixei].
As for the question we are investigating, the necessity of putting together the
elements in a certain way, it is well explained in the following passage from Theon:2
(tr. R. & D. Lawlor) (tr. Andrew Barker)
VI. This series of modulations is not situated by The process of advancing in a continuous series
chance, nor without art and according to a single and in a melodic way, however, does not occur
mode, but following certain determined modes either randomly or in just one unique manner,
which must be observed in different types of but according to certain determinate methods
melody. [tinas tropous], in accordance with which the
differences between what are called the ‘genera’
of melody [genôn tês melôidias] are understood.
For in the same way that in discourse, whether For as in speech and in written sound not every
spoken or written, not just any letter combined letter when joined to just any other (20)
with any other letter produces a syllable or a produces a syllable or a word,
word,
likewise in melody; it is not the combination of so also in melody, in respect of attuned sound
just any sounds that produces the well ordered [kata tên hêrmosmenên], not every note placed
sound, or which, in its turn, produces the after just any other within the range of attuned
interval appropriate to modulation; sound makes a melodic interval [emmeles poiei
diastêma],
but it is necessary that this combination take but only, as we have said, when placed
place, as we have just said, following the law of according to determinate methods.3
defined modes.
The following passages from Aristotle’s student, Aristoxenus of Tarentum,4 provide

further evidence of the Peripatetic provenance of this doctrine:
The nature of continuity in melody seems to be similar to that which in speech relates to the
putting together of letters. For in speaking it is natural for the voice, in each syllable, to place
some one of the letters first, others second, third and fourth, and so on for the other numbers.
It does not place just any letter after any other: rather, there is a kind of natural growth in the
process of putting together.5
1
“The movement of the voice [= kinesis tes phones]…in the order of its high and low sounds [en te ton
phthongon taxei ton oxeon kai bareon]”—that is to say, “the order of high and low sounds in the movement
of the voice”—is, of course, the definition of melos.
2
Ibid., Book II: Music. On Consonances (52.13-22) (Gk ed. Hiller added by B.A.M.).
3
Cf. 7 Aristox. El. Harm. 28.18ff. (Barker’s note)
4
Readers familiar with Aristoxenus will recall that in many matters pertaining to harmonics he departed from
his master’s teaching, but in the doctrinal point at issue here he appears to be a faithful disciple of Aristotle.
5
fai/neti de\ toiau/th tij fu/sij ei)=nai tou= sunexou=j e)n t$= mel%di/# oi(/a kai\ e)n t$= le/cei peri\ th\n tw=n
gramma/twn su/nqesin: kai\ ga\r e)n t%= diale/gesqai fu/sei h( fwnh\ kaq ) e(ka/sthn tw=n sullabw=n
prw=to/n ti kai\ deu/teron tw=n gramma/twn ti/qhsi kai\ tri/ton kai\ te/tarton kai\ kata\ tou\j loipou\j
a)riqmou\j w(sau/twj, ou) pa=n meta\ pa=n, a)ll ) e)/sti toiau/th tij fusikh\ au)/chsij th=j sunqe/sewj.
71
In singing, similarly, when the voice places intervals and notes in succession, it appears to
maintain a natural principle of combination, and not to sing every interval after every other,
either when the intervals are equal or when they are unequal.1
Cf. also the following:
And yet the order which relates to the melodic and unmelodic is similar to that concerned
with the combination of letters in speech: from a given set of letters a syllable is not
generated in just any way, but in some ways and not in others.2
Cf. Richard Janko, Philodemus, On Poems, Introduction, Ch. 5: Philodemus’s Sources and
Opponents, p. 172:
Sounds have a natural sequence, as the rules of Greek syllabification prove; combinations of
sounds which are natural, i.e. syllables ending in vowels, are easy to pronounce, whereas
those which are against nature, i.e. those ending in continuants or obstruents, are less
attractive (120).3 pla- and kla- are pleasant, whereas iota is not (122 I-123 16). Of non-
nasal stops, voiceless are better than voiced; the aspirated ones are worst, as they have
unpleasant associations (122-4).
Cf. ibid., footnote 3, p. 259.
Pausimachus considered speech to be a continuous stream of sound, which the ancient reader
(lacking spaces between the words) had to divide into segments by merismo/j: see 92. This
notion goes back at least to Aristoxenus El. Harm. 1. 27, 2. 37 (cited in Introd., p. 170, n. 3);
cf. D.H. Dem. 40. 5 (of h)=xoi), 43. 4 (of a(rmoni/a), Comp. 22. 39.
1
Aristoxenus of Tarentum, Elementa Harmonica I. 27 (ed. Da Rios; tr. Andrew Barker, p. 145) (remaining
Greek to be added). On the kind of whole at issue here, cf. Aristotle, Meta., V, 25-26 (1023b 25ff., where the
Philosopher explains that this is the sort of whole which “so contains the things it contains that they form a
unity” (tr. W. D. Ross). In this sense, as he goes on to state, “...the continuous and limited is a whole, when it
is a unity consisting of several parts”. But such parts cannot be put together in just any way, as he also
explains. An easily-understood sensible example is a jigsaw puzzle, which must be composed of certain parts
put together in a certain way in order for the whole to exist as a unity.
2
Ibid. II. 37 (ed. Da Rios; tr. Andrew Barker, p. 153): e)/sti de\ toiau/th tij h( peri\ to\ e)mmele/j te kai\
e)kmele\j ta/cij oi(/a kai\ h( peri\ <th\n> tw=n gramma/twn su/qesin e)n t%= diale/gesqai: ou) ga\r pa/nta
tro/pon e)k tw=n au)tw=n gramma/twn suntiqeme/nh cullabh\ gignetai, a)lla\ pw\j me/n, pw\j d ) ou)/.
3
Cf. Aristoxenus’ view that sounds have a natural sequence (El. Harm. 1. 27, 2. 37, cited above, p. 170, n.
3), and D. H. Comp. 15. 4 (see n. on 120). (Janko’s note)
72
4. That one harmonia of the same notes differs from another if at one time it is in the
Dorian mode and at another in the Phrygian, which pertains to dialektos or ‘idiom’.
Aristotle, Pol. III. 10 (1276b 6-10) (tr. Antiquior & B.A.M.).
An homines quidem dicendum esse eosdem But should the men be called the same for such
propter talem causam, civitatem autem a reason, but the city different?
alteram?
siquidem est communicatio quaedam civitas, if indeed, the city is a certain community, but
est autem communicatio civium politica; the community is the polity of the citizens;
facta altera specie et differente politica, the polity having been made other in species
necessarium esse videbitur et civitatem esse and different, it will seem to be necessary that
non eamdem, the city not be the same,
sicut et chorum quandoque quidem comicum, just as a chorus, often existing with the same
quandoque autem tragicum alterum esse men, we say is different [if] at one time [it is]
dicimus eisdem saepe hominibus existentibus. comic but at another tragic.
Similiter autem, et omnem aliam And similarly, [we call] every other community
communionem et compositionem alteram, si and composition different if the species of its
species altera compositionis sit, composition is different,
velut harmoniam eorumdem sonorum alteram just as we say a harmony consisting of the
esse dicemus, si quandoque quidem sit Doria, same sounds [notes] is different if at one time it
quandoque autem Phrygia. is Dorian and at another Phrygian.
Sit itaque hunc habet modum, manifestum, If, then, these have the same mode, it is
quod maxime dicendum eamdem civitatem ad obvious that the city ought to be called the
politiam rescpicientes: same looking chiefly to the polity:
nomine autem vocare altero, vel eodem utique, but one may or may not call it by another
et eisdem habitantibus ipsam, et omnino alteris name, the inhabitants being the same and the
hominibus. men wholly different.
Si autem iustum dissolvere vel non dissolvere, But if it is just to dissolve or not to dissolve
quando ad alteram politiam transmutantur [their agreements], when the city has been
civitas, ratio altera. transformed to another polity, is another story.
Aristotle, Pol. III. 10 (1276b 6-10)
o(moi/wj de\ kai\ pa=san a)/llhn koinwni/an kai\ And similarly, every other community and
su/nqesin e(te/ran, a)\n ei)=doj e(/teron h)=? th=j composition (we say is) different if the species
sunqe/sewj, of its composition is different,
a(rmoni/an tw=n au)tw=n fqo/ggwn e(te(ran ei)=nai just as we will call a harmony of the same notes
le/gomen, a)\n o(te\ me\n $)= Fw/rioj o(te\ de\ different if at one time it is in the Dorian mode
Fru/gioj. and at another in the Phrygian.
73
St. Thomas Aquinas, In III Politic, lect. 2, n. 8 (tr. B.A.M.).
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deinde cum dicit aut homines quidem etc., Then when he says, Whether men indeed etc.,
solvens hanc dubitationem ostendit veram solving this difficulty he shows the true notion
rationem unitatis civitatis. of the unity of the city.
et dicit quod propter praedictam successionem And he says that on account of the aforesaid
hominum unius generis potest aliqualiter dici succession of men of one race the multitude of
eadem multitudo hominum; men can in some way be called the same;
non tamen potest dici eadem civitas, si mutetur but still the city cannot be called the same if the
ordo politiae. order of the polity be changed.
cum enim communicatio civium, quae politia For, since the community of the citizens which
dicitur, sit de ratione civitatis, manifestum est is called the polity belongs to the notion of the
quod mutata politia non remanet eadem civitas, city, it is obvious that when the polity is
changed the city does not remain the same,
sicut videmus in illis qui dicunt cantiones in just as we see in those who sing songs in
choreis quod non est idem chorus si quandoque choruses that the chorus is not the same if at
sit comicus, idest dicens cantiones comediales one time it is comic, i.e. singing comedic songs
de factis infimarum personarum, quandoque about the deeds of lowly persons, but at another
autem tragicus, idest dicens tragicas cantiones tragic, i.e. singing tragic songs about the
de bellis principum: beginning of wars.
et ita etiam videmus in omnibus aliis quae and in this way we also see that in all things
consistunt in quadam compositione vel which consist in a certain composition or
communione, quod quandocumque fit alia community, that whenever another species of
species compositionis non remanet identitas: composition comes about an identity does not
remain:
sicut non est eadem harmonia, si quandoque sit just as the harmony is not the same if
dorica, idest septimi vel octavi toni, quandoque sometimes it is Dorian, i.e. of the seventh or
autem phrygia idest tertii vel quarti. eighth tones, but at other times Phrygian, i.e. of
the third or the fourth (tones).
cum igitur omnia talia habeant hunc modum, Since, then, all such things would have this
manifestum est quod civitas est dicenda eadem mode, it is obvious that the city should be
respiciendo ad ordinem politiae; ita quod called the same looking to the order of the
mutato ordine politiae, licet remaneat idem polity, so that the order of the polity being
locus et iidem homines, non est eadem civitas, changed, although the place remain the same
quamvis materialiter sit eadem. and the men the same, the city is not the same,
although it is the same materially.
potest autem civitas sic mutata vocari, vel Now the city changed in this way can be called
eodem vel altero nomine, sive sint iidem, sive either by the same or by another name, whether
alii: they are the same or different.
sed si est idem nomen, erit aequivoce dictum. But if the name is the same, it will be said
equivocally.
74
utrum autem propter hoc quod non remanet But whether, on account of the fact that the city
eadem civitas facta transmutatione politiae, sit does not remain the same when a
iustum, quod conventiones prioris politiae transformation of the polity has been made, it is
adimpleantur, vel non, pertinet ad aliam just that the agreements of the earlier polities
considerationem, quod quidem in sequentibus be performed or not, pertains to another
determinabitur. consideration, which will be determined in
what follows.
Aristotle, Pol. III. 10 (1276b 6-10).
(tr. Antiquior) (tr. B.A.M.)
Similiter autem, et omnem aliam communionem And similarly, every other community and
et compositionem alteram, si species altera composition (we say is) different if the species
compositionis sit, of its composition is different,
velut harmoniam eorumdem sonorum alteram just as we say a harmony consisting of the same
esse dicemus, si quandoque quidem sit Doria, sounds is different if at one time it is Dorian and
quandoque autem Phrygia. at another Phrygian.
Aristotle, Pol. III. 10 (1276b 6-10).
(tr. H. G. Apostle) (tr. H. Rackham)
In a similar manner, we speak of any other kind And similarly with any other common whole or
of association as being different whenever the composite structure we say it is different if the
composition of its members differs, form of its composition is different—
as in the case of a scale whose mode is at one for instance a harmony consisting of the same
time Dorian and at another Phrygian even if the notes we call different if at one time it is
notes are the same. Dorian and at another Phrygian.
Note.
One harmony consisting of the same notes differs from another when the steps
between the notes differ, just as our C-Major scale differs from the C-Minor. It is clear
from this description that a harmony is a kind of disposition—that is, an order of parts in a
thing having parts, but according to form or species.
Aristotle, Pol. III. 10 (1277a 1-12 (tr. ed. Csapo & Slater).
There would not be a single virtue for the citizen and the good man. For the virtue
of a proper citizen must be common to all (it is necessarily in this way that the state is
best), but the virtue of the good man cannot be, unless all citizens must necessarily be good
in a proper state.
Further, the state is composed of unlike elements, just as an animal is composed of
soul and body, and soul, of reason and appetite, and a household out of a man and woman,
and a property of master and slave; and since in the same way a state is composed of all
these and other unlike elements besides, there is necessarily no single virtue common to all
citizens, just as among choreuts there is no single virtue for the koryphaios and the man
standing beside him (parastates).
75
5. Supplement: Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the voice.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, On Literary Composition, Ch. 11 (tr. Stephen Usher), pp.

77-80.
To prove the point, I refer to the case of instrumental music [tês organikês mousês],
whether it accompanies song or dancing [kai tês en ôidêi kai tês en orchêsei charitos]: if it
achieves charm in everything it aims to do, but it fails to introduce variety at the right time
or strays from propriety, we feel the weight of satiety and have an unpleasant impression
of disharmony with the subject. In oratory, as in music, the phrases possess melody,
rhythm, variety and appropriateness; so that here too the ear delights in the melodies, is
stirred by the rhythms, welcomes the variations, and all the time desires what is
appropriate to the occasion. The distinction is simply one of degree.
Now the melody of spoken language [dialektou men oun melos] is measured by a
single interval, which is very close to that which is called a fifth. When the voice rises
towards the acute, it does not rise more than three tones and a semitone; and when it falls
towards the grave, it does not fall from this position by than this interval. However, the
whole utterance during one word is not delivered at the same pitch throughout, but one part
of it is at the acute pitch, another is at [77-78] the grave, another is at both. Of the words
which have both pitches, some have the grave fused with the acute on the same syllable,
and we call these “circumflexed”; others have them falling on separate syllables, and each
retains its own quality. Now in words of two syllables there is no interval intermediate
between low and high pitch; while in polysyllabic words, however long, only one syllable
carries the acute accent among the many others in low pitch.1 But music, both instrumental
and vocal, uses a considerable number of intervals, not the fifth only. Beginning with the
whole octave, it also uses in its melodies the fourth, the third, the tone, the semitone, and
even the quarter-tone quite distinguishably, according to some. Music requires that the
words should be subordinate to the melody, [79-80]
1
[note omitted]
and not the melody to the words. Many lines of verse illustrate this, but none better than the lyric
which Euripides makes Electra address to the Chorus in the Orestes:
Be silent! Silent! Let the sandal’s tread

Be light, no jarring sound.
Depart ye hence afar, and from this bed withdraw.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, On Literary Composition, Ch. 11 (tr. Stephen Usher), pp.

81-82.
The same thing happens with regard to rhythm. For the diction of prose does not
violate or even alter the quantities in any noun or verb, but keeps the syllables long or short
as it has received them from nature. However, the arts of music and rhythm change them
by shortening or lengthening them, so that they often pass into their opposites: the time-
length is not regulated by the quantity of the [81-82] syllables, but the quantity of the
syllables by the time-length.1
76
Now that the difference between music and speech has been shown, a few
remaining points may be made. If the intonation of the voice [phônês melos]—not in song
but in ordinary conversation [ou tês ôidikês alla tês psilês]—has a pleasant effect upon the
ear, it will be called “song-like” rather than “singing” [eumeles legoit an, all ouk emmeles,
lit. ‘melodic rather than in melody’]. So too the measured arrangement of the words
according to their quantity [he d en tois chronois tôn moriôn summetria, lit. ‘the symmetry
of the durations of the parts’], when it preserves the lyrical form [sôizousa to melikon
schêma], is rhythmical rather than in rhythm [eurhuthmos, all ouk enrhuthmos].2 I shall
speak at the proper time of the precise nature of this distinction.
1
Dionysius is here referring especially to the metrical devices of correption, synizesis, and perhaps
syncopation. (See Raven Greek Metre, pp. 24, 37-9)
2
Cf. Aristotle, Rhetoric 3. 8. 1-3; Demosthenes 50 (Vol. I, p. 431).
77
6. On the three things in which a musical instrument resembles the voice, illustrating
the collocation of elementary speech sounds.
Aristotle, De Anima II. 8 (420b 6-9) (tr. J. A. Smith).
Voice is a kind of sound characteristic of what has soul in it; nothing that is without
soul utters voice, it being only by a metaphor that we speak of the voice of the flute [aulos]
or the lyre [kithara] or generally of what (being without soul) possesses the power of
producing a succession of notes which differ in length and pitch and timbre. The metaphor
is based on the fact that all these differences are found also in voice.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In II De Anima, lect. 18, nn. 2-3 (tr. B.A.M.).
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nullum autem inanimatum habet vocem. But no inanimate thing has a voice.
et si aliquando aliquod eorum dicatur habere And if sometimes some one of them is said to
vocem, hoc est secundum similitudinem, sicut have a voice, this is according to a likeness, as
tibia et lyra et huiusmodi instrumenta dicuntur the aulos and the lyre and other instruments of
habere vocem. the sort are said to have a voice.
habent enim tria, eorum soni, in quibus For their sounds have three things in which they
assimilantur voci. are likened to the voice.
quorum primum est extensio. The first is prolongation.
manifestum est enim quod in corporibus For it is obvious that in inanimate bodies sound
inanimatis ex simplici percussione causatur is caused by a simple percussion [‘stroke’,
sonus: ‘blow’]:
unde, cum percussio statim transeat, sonus and so, since the percussion passes away at
etiam cito transit et non continuatur. once, the sound also passes quickly and is not
continued.
sed vox causatur ex percussione aeris ad But voice is caused by a percussion of air
vocalem arteriam, ut post dicetur: against the vocal artery [= ‘windpipe’], as will
be stated hereafter—
quae quidem percussio continuatur secundum a percussion which is continued according to a

appetitum animae, et ideo vox extendi potest et desire of the soul—and so the voice can be
continuari. prolonged and continued.
illa igitur instrumenta, de quibus dictum est, ex The instruments mentioned, then, because they
hoc ipso quod habent quamdam continuitatem have a certain continuity in their sound, have a
in suo sono, habent similitudinem vocis. likeness to the voice.
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secundum autem, in quo assimilantur voci, est But the second thing in which they are likened
melos, idest consonantia. to the voice is melos—that is, consonance.
78
sonus enim corporis inanimati, cum ex simplici For the sound of an inanimate body, since it
percussione proveniat, uniformis est, non comes from a simple percussion, is uniform, not
habens in se diversitatem gravis et acuti: having in itself the diversity of low and high.
unde in eo non est consonantia, quae ex eorum And so there is no consonance in it, which is
proportione causatur. caused by their proportion [i.e. ‘ratio’].
sed vox diversificatur secundum grave et But the voice is diversified according to the low
acutum, eo quod percussio, quae causat vocem, and high by the fact that a percussion which
diversimode fit secundum appetitum animalis causes the voice is produced in diverse ways
vocem emittentis. according to the desire of the animal uttering the
voice.
unde, cum in praedictis instrumentis distinctio And so, since in the instruments mentioned
sit gravis et acuti in sono, eorum sonus est cum there is a distinction of the low and the high in
quadam melodia ad similitudinem vocis. sound, their sound has a certain ‘melody’
similar to the voice.
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tertium, in quo sonus horum instrumentorum The third thing in which the sound of these
habet similitudinem vocis, est locutio, idest instruments has a likeness to the voice is
interpretatio sonorum ad similitudinem locution—that is, an interpretation of sounds
locutionis. similar to locution.
manifestum est enim, quod humana locutio non For it is obvious that human locution is not
est continua; continuous;
unde et in libro praedicamentorum, oratio, quae and so, in the book of the Predicaments, [cf.
in voce profertur ponitur species quantitatis Cat., 6, 4b 20] the speech which is brought forth
discretae. in the voice is placed in the species of discrete
quantity.
distinguitur enim oratio per dictiones, et dictio For speech is distinguished by words, and a
per syllabas; et hoc accidit propter diversas word by syllables; and this happens on account
percussiones aeris ab anima. of diverse percussions of the air by the soul.
et similiter sonus praedictorum instrumentorum And likewise the sound of the aforesaid
distinguitur secundum diversas percussiones, instruments is distinguished according to
utpote diversarum chordarum, vel diversorum different percussions, for example, of different
flatuum, aut aliquorum huiusmodi. strings, or of different breaths, or of other things
of the sort.
N.B. Following Moerbeke’s translation, which reads locutio, St. Thomas understands the
third point of likeness to consist in the power to bring forth the voice discontinuously, the
syllables distinguishing it being either long or short, themselves arising from “diverse
persussions of the air by the soul; but as we shall explain below, the reading dialektos (=
idioma) of our MSS leads to a quite different exegesis.
7. Note on lexis, dialektos, and the three points of resemblance.
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As have seen, in Aristotle’s view ‘speech’ is not merely ‘articulate vocal sound’,
but such sound insofar is it is ‘significative’ or ‘has meaning’. Now as one may gather
from his several accounts excerpted above, in Aristotle’s usage the terms lexis and
dialektos, though they name the same thing in subject, namely articulate vocal sound,
nevertheless differ in account; the name dialektos being used by him to designate
articulate vocal sound according as it arises from a combination of vocal sounds (vowel,
semi-vowel, and mute); but lexis is the term he uses when considering the same thing
according as it is measured by the long and short syllable, and hence prescinding from its
qualitative composition out of vocal sounds. As an example of the former usage, cf.
Historia Animalium, IV. 9 (535a 29-30), where the Philosopher defines ‘language’ [=
dialektos] as “the articulation of vocal sounds by the instrumentality of the tongue”; but in
what immediately follows (at 535a 30) he goes on to explain ‘articulation’ as meaning “a
sound of vowel and consonant in combination”, in which usage the name is manifestly
taken qualitatively. As an example of the latter, consider, for instance, Rhetoric, III. 1
(1430b 30-31), where he says, “As for the arrangement [schema] of the language [= lexis],
number is rhythm, of which metres [or ‘verses’] are a part. Thus, speech [= logos] should
have rhythm, but not metre. For then it will be poetry [= poiêma]” (tr. B.A.M.). Taking the
foregoing passage together with the passage from the Categories referenced above, the
reader will observe that Aristotle uses lexis to designate articulate vocal sound
quantitatively, according as it is measured by long and short syllables, themselves being
caused by “different percussions of the air by the soul”, as we have seen.
Now as many of the witnesses cited note, there is an analogy between speech and
musical sound: for, just as in the notes produced by a musical instrument certain
elementary tones are naturally apt to be composed in certain ways so as to form intervals,
as the tones themselves are composed of certain ‘harmonics’ or partial tones in ‘voices’,
so, too, elementary vocal sounds are composed in certain ways to form syllables.1
Consequently, just as a distinctive way of composing elementary musical tones into
intervals and intervals into ‘systems’ produces the ‘idiom’ characteristic of a harmonic
genus, or the timbre characteristic of a musical instrument, so also a distinctive way of
composing elementary speech sounds, vowels, semi-vowels, and consonants, into
syllables, and the syllables into words, produces a unique ‘tongue’ or ‘idiom’.
Now it is evident that the difference between lexis and dialektos necessarily
impacts the correctness of St. Thomas’ interpretation,2 since the third point of likeness so
understood, namely, as the production of the voice discontinuously, necessarily reduces to
the first point, which is prolongation,3 and thus omits the point of resemblance produced
by the collocation of elementary sounds producing an ‘idiom’, or ‘dialect’, or ‘timbre’.
(a) The three points of likeness:

1
For, as Richard Janko notes (op. cit., p. 172), certain combinations are natural and hence pleasing to the
ear: “Sounds have a natural sequence, as the rules of Greek syllabification prove; combinations of sounds
which are natural, i.e. syllables ending in vowels, are easy to pronounce, whereas those which are against
nature, i.e. those ending in continuants or obstruents, are less attractive”. Likewise, there is a natural
combination of musical sounds constituting a distinct ‘idiom’ or harmonia, as a whole tone combined with
another whole tone and a semi-tone compose a tetrachord of the diatonic genus, according to which
combination it differs from a tetrachord arranged in the enharmonic genus. Similarly, the tones produced by a
lyre differ in the composition of ‘harmonics’ or partial tones from that of a wind instrument, like the aulos,
giving the instrument its characteristic timbre, as will be explained below on the overtone series.
2
And note that the whole problem arises from St. Thomas’ text reading locutio instead of idioma here.
3
For just as the power to sit is not other than the power to stand, so, too, the power to discontinue the voice is
not other than the power to sustain it on a single pitch, and so cannot constitute a separate point of likeness.
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(a) ‘prolongation’ (the producing and sustaining of the voice on a single pitch)
(b) ‘consonance’ (its movement as by ‘steps’ from one tone to another)
(c) ‘idiom’ (the subsequent collocation of tones, as in small whole number ratios)
(b) The three cases to be considered in explaining the analogy:
(1) the speaking voice (itself including two cases)

(2) the singing voice
(3) the voice of a musical instrument
(c) prolongation: the producing (and sustaining) of the ‘voice’ at a single pitch (cf. the
definition of ‘note’ as the incidence or sustaining of the voice on a single pitch):
(1) in the speaking voice:

(a) the production of a vowel sound
(b) the production of the other kinds of littera: a semi-vowel or a mute
(2) in the singing voice: the production of a note
(3) in the voice of a musical instrument: the production of a note
(d) consonance: having produced some first pitch, the producing (and sustaining) of
the ‘voice’ at a subsequent pitch standing in a certain relation to the first pitch
produced:
(1) in the speaking voice:

(a) the movement of the voice from a single pitch to another, not by steps,
constituting the intonation of the speaking voice
(b) such a movement constituting an interval according to a simple whole number
ratio, such as 2:1, producing an octave, or 3:2, a fifth, etc., constituting a ‘harmony’ or
consonance of the voice by steps (cp. the ‘root’ and ‘partials’ of an overtone series)
(2) in the singing voice: the same as (1)(b)
(3) in the voice of a musical instrument: the same as (1)(b)
(e) idiom: the collocation of vocal sounds so produced:
(1) in the speaking voice: the collocation of vowels, semi-vowels, and/or consonants in
a determinate manner, as with the dialect or idiom spoken by a group or people
dwelling in a certain place: Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian as dialects or idioms (=
‘tongues’ spoken by a people)
(2) in the singing voice: the collocation of intervals of notes or tones: the dialect or
idiom spoken by the singing voice: Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, etc. as harmoniai or
‘modes’
(3) in the voice of a musical instrument: the collocation of intervals of notes or tones:
the dialect or idiom spoken by an aulos or kythera: Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, etc.
as harmoniai or ‘modes’1
1
Note that the analogy regards the singing voice and the ‘voice’ of a musical instrument; but the explanation
of dialektos requires the consideration of the speaking voice; there being a counterpart to each element.
81
8. The analogy between speech, poetry, and music.
To better understand the foregoing considerations, it will be helpful to see how the
analogy as spelled out above by Adrastus has its basis in Aristotle.
Cf. Rhet., III. 1 (1430b 30-31) (tr. B.A.M.):
As for the arrangement [or ‘configuration’; schema] of the language [lexis], number is
rhythm, of which metres [or ‘verses’] are a part. Thus, speech [logos] should have rhythm,
but not metre. For then it will be poetry [poiêma].1
Cf. also Poetics ch. 6 (1449b 35) (tr. B.A.M.):
[35] But by ‘language’ [lexis] I mean the composition itself of the metres [or ‘verses’, ten
ton metron sunthesin]….
Cf. also Poetics ch. 6 (1450b 12-15) (tr. B.A.M.):
But fourth is the language consisting in speech [ton men logon he lexis]: but I mean (as was
said before), language is that interpretation which is by naming [lexin einaiten dia tes
onomasias hermeneian], which has the same power in metres [or ‘verses’] as in speech.
In the first text, Aristotle says that speech will be ‘poetry’ (poiêma) when the
language in which it consists is so configured as to have metre, a configuration, as is
explained elsewhere, resulting from a certain ordering of long and short syllables. And
note here that the definition is through genus, ‘configuration’, and difference, ‘language’.
In the second, Aristotle gives another definition of poiêma, although he does not there use
the name; the definition being given through form (‘composition’), and matter (‘metres’).
In the third, the definition is from the end and the means for attaining it. By way of
comparison, just as lexis understood as poiêma—that is, ‘language’ understood as
‘poetry’—consists in a ‘composition of metres’ (Rhet. III. 1, 1430b 30-31),2 so, too,
melopoiia would consist in a composition of melodic phrases (mele)—a melos being the
order of high and low sounds in the movement of the voice (cf. [Arist.], Probl. XIX. 27,
919b 26-30, 33-34). Likewise, in calling lexis a composition of metres, Aristotle is taking
the line of verse as the immediate constituent of poetry, where it is understood that such a
line is itself composed of ‘feet’, and ‘feet’ of ‘times’. Similarly, mele or melopoiia must
consist of a sustema or ‘arrangement’ like the tetrachord, which in turn is composed of a
lesser unit, namely, phthongoi or ‘notes’. (And note also that the phrase “melodic and
attuned sound” in Adrastus is virtually a definition of melopoiia, although he does not
there use the name.)3
9. Definitions applicable to articulate vocal sound in sum:
1
Note that Aristotle defines poiêma as speech having metre. It will be recalled that the Sophist Gorgias in his
Encomium of Helen defined poiêsis in this way, whereas Aristotle understands the latter term as meaning
“plot construction”; cf. Poet. ch. 1.
2
To take some examples: epic poetry consists in a hexameter line of verse composed with another and
another, etc., but elegiac poetry, in such a line composed with a line of pentameter verse forming a couplet,
which in turn is composed with other such couplets, etc.
3
In a separate discussion, I endeavor to show that melopoeia may also be defined as ‘melodic composition’
itself, or ‘sounds in melodic combination’—that is, a disposition (diathesis) consisting in an order of notes
(phthongoi) according to form or species (eidos) (such a form or species constituting the harmoniai).
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(a) poiêma
• by causal predication: that arrangement1 of language which is effected by its

possession of metre (worded by B.A.M.)
• by genus and difference: language (lexis) in the form of speech (logos) so arranged
or configured as to have metre (cf. Rhet., III. 1, 1430b 30-31)2
(b) lexis
• by form and matter: “the composition itself of the metres (or ‘verses’)” (Poet. ch. 6,
1449b 35)
• by that for the sake of which and the means thereto [looking to the signification]:
“that interpretation which is by naming” [or ‘which takes place through naming’;
lexin einaiten dia tes onomasias hermeneian], when, e.g., the names are disposed in
metre (Poet. 6, 1450b 12-15)
(c) dialektos
• by that for the sake of which and the means thereto [looking to the signifier]:
“…and language is the articulation of vocal sounds by the instrumentality of the
tongue” (Hist. Animal., IV. 9, 535a 29-30)
10. Correspondences (going from the ultimate parts, or ‘elements’, up to the wholes
which they compose).
In lexis (= ‘language’) In metris (= ‘metre’, ‘verse’) In melos (= ‘melody’)
1. ‘letters’ (vowels & con- 1. ‘times’ (long or short) 1. ‘notes’ (high or low)
sonants)
2. syllables 2. feet 2. intervals
3. verbs & names (words) 3. metres or lines of verse 3. systems (or arrangements) of
(dactylic hexameter; trochaic intervals (Dorian, Phrygian,
tetrameter, etc.) Lydian, etc.)
4. speech (phrase; sentence) (= 4. verse (metrical composition) 4. melopoeia (‘melodic and

logos) (= poiêma) attuned sound’; ‘melodic com-
position’ or ‘tune’) (=
melopoiia)
11. Correspondences (going from the whole to the parts).
1
And note that ‘arrangement’ or schema here means an order of parts in a thing having parts according to
the figure and species of the whole, which is the third meaning of diathesis or ‘disposition’ Aristotle lays
down in the Metaphysics (cf. V. 19, 1022 b 1-2).
2
Note that in the Poetics Aristotle never uses the word in this sense: rather, in every occurrence it names the
result of the activity of the poetic art, as in the ‘poems’ of Homer.
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Speech is composed of verbs and names (which we call ‘words’); but words are composed
of syllables; and syllables are composed of ‘letters’, understood as vowels and consonants
(the latter being divided into semi-vowels and mutes).
Verse is composed of metres; but metres are composed of feet; and feet are composed of
‘times’, understood (in Greek and Latin) as the long and the short in duration.
Melopoeia is composed of systemata (that is, ‘systems’, or ‘arrangements’, ‘of intervals’),

but systems or arrangements of intervals, or harmoniai, are composed of diastemata
(‘intervals’); and intervals are composed of phthongoi (‘notes’), understood as the high and
low in pitch.
Gathering up the foregoing observations on ‘speech’, we arrive at the following

formulations:
• ‘speech’ (logos as oratio), understood as something brought forth in the voice;

• ‘speech’, understood as ‘thought’ (to dianoeisthai) or the unuttered conversation of
the soul with herself;
• ‘locution’ (lexis; locutio), understood as articulate vocal sound according as it
includes speech, insofar as the latter is itself understood as being composed of long
and short syllables;
• ‘language’ (dialektos), understood as articulate vocal sound according as it is
composed of the several species of vocal sound, the vowel, the semi-vowel, and the
mute (or ‘consonant’), as Aristotle divides them (cf. Poet., ch. 20, 1456b 20ff.);
and finally,
• ‘speech’ (logos; oratio) considered as significative vocal sound.1
1
Considered thus, it is understood to be composed of the name and the verb.
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12. Compendium of definitions.
LOGOS (‘SPEECH’, ‘DISCOURSE’). (1) Speech is significative vocal sound,

deriving from thought1 (The Suda, Lambda 658, tr. Marcelo Boeri; rev. B.A.M.); (2)
according to Plato,2 the result of the intertwining [sumploke] of a verb [rhema] with a
name [onoma], where the former is understood as that which discloses being [ousia] in the
form of praxis or ‘action’ (cf. Sophist 262a), the latter as a significant sound of voice
unveiling being in the form of the one doing the action (ibid.), with the intertwining or
combination being such that there is the expression of action or inaction or of existence or
non-existence (ibid. 262c); or otherwise as “giving an intimation about something which
is, or is becoming, or has become, or will be” (ibid.); (3) according to Aristotle,
“significative vocal sound, some parts of which are significative separately
[kechorismenon; separatim], that is, as an expression [or ‘thing said’, phasis; dictio], but
not as an affirmation” (De Int. I. 4, 16b 27-28);3 or again, according to Aristotle, (4)
“composite significative vocal sound some of whose parts signify something by
themselves [kath auto; secundum se]” (Poet. 20, 1457a 24).4
LEXIS (‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LOCUTION’; ‘DICTION’; ‘VERBAL EXPRESSION’).

(1) Articulate vocal sound understood quantitatively, according as it is measured by long
and short syllables (B.A.M., after Aristotle); that is, (ii) “the distinguishing of speech by
words and a word by syllables by means of diverse percussions of the air by (= at the
command of) the soul” (St. Thomas Aquinas, In II De Anima, lect. 18, n. 4); (2) in the
sense of poiêma or ‘poetry’, “the composition itself of the metres” (Aristotle, Poet. 6,
1449b 35, tr. B.A.M.); or again (ii), “that interpretation which is through naming” (ibid.,
1450b 14).
1
lo/goj e)sti fwnh\ shmantikh/ a)po dianoi/aj e)kpempome/nh.
2
Cf. Sophist 262 c-e (tr. B. Jowett): “Str. When anyone says ‘A man learns,’ should you not call this the
simplest and least of sentences [logoi]? Theaet. Yes. [d] Str. Yes, for he now arrives at the point of giving an
intimation about something which is, or is becoming, or has become, or will be. And he not only names, but
he does something, by connecting verbs with nouns; and therefore we say that he discourses, and to this
connection of words [e] we give the name of discourse [logos]”.
3
“For”, as Aristotle goes on to say, “not every speech is composed from verbs and names, ...but there is
speech which happens to be without verbs, ||for example, the definition of man|; yet a part will always have a
certain significance, for example, in ‘Cleon walks’, ‘Cleon’” (ed. rev. & tr. B.A.M.). Hence, unlike Plato,
Aristotle does not require the presence of “intertwining” for composite vocal sound significative by human
agreement to be ‘speech’. But as we shall see from a passage cited from the Theaetetus below, Plato himself
allowed definitions to be instances of logos. This apparent divergence may be reconciled by recognizing that
while Aristotle’s definition is proper to logic, Plato’s understanding of logos here, while also primarily that
of the dialectician, is nevertheless open to the formulation proper to the grammarian, as may be seen by
considering the following definitions: Dionysius Thrax, Techne Grammatike: logo/j e)sti le/cewj sun/qesij
dia/noian dhlou=sa; “Speech is a composition of words expressing a thought” (tr. B.A.M.); cf. also Priscian,
Inst. gramm. ii. 4. 14: Oratio est ordinatio dictionum congrua, sententiam perfectam demonstrans; “Speech
is a fitting ordering of words, expressing a complete thought” (tr. B.A.M.). Cf. also St. Thomas Aquinas, In I
Peri Herm., lect. 7, n. 4, where he defines oratio perfecta, ‘perfect speech’, as that which “completes a
thought” [perfectae orationis, quae complet sententiam], and “make[s] perfect sense in the soul of the hearer
[(facit) perfectum sensum in animo audientis]”. Hence Plato’s account is to be understood of perfect speech,
rather than of speech simply.
4
The parts which signify separately are, or course, the name or noun and the verb, the former being defined
as “vocal sound significative by human agreement, without time, no part of which is significant separately”,
the latter, as vocal sound signifying with time, “and a sign of something said of something else” (De interp..,
16a 19; 16b 5), it being proper to “substance considered in itself” to be signified by a noun or a pronoun, as
St. Thomas notes (op. cit., lect. 4, n. 7), whereas “the verb signifies action or passion” (ibid., lect. 5, n. 5).
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DIALEKTOS (‘DIALECT’; ‘IDIOM’; ‘LANGUAGE’). Articulate vocal sound
understood qualitatively, according as it is composed of vowels and consonants—that is,
“the articulation of vowel sounds by means of the tongue and of non-vowels or consonants
by means of the tongue and the lips” (cf. Aristotle, Hist. Animal., IV, 9, 535b 29—535a 3).
IDIOM. In language, (1) that quality of a composite vocal sound which results from
the collocation of vowels and consonants in a certain way (worded by B.A.M.); in music,
(2) that quality of a composite vocal sound which results from the collocation of intervals
in a certain way; that is, the quality of a composite vocal sound which results from the
presence of overtones (idem); syn. timbre.
13. On rhythm and metre.
[Aristotle], Probl., XIX. 38.
We delight in rhythm because it has a recognizable and regular number, and makes
us move in an ordered fashion.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In X Meta., lect. 2, n. 15 (tr. B.A.M.).
Likewise also the vocal sounds by which we measure are many. For the quantities
of one metre or of one foot are measured by different syllables, of which some are short
and others long. Likewise also there is the diameter of the circle and also the side of the
square: and any other magnitude measured by two things: for an unknown quantity is not
found except through two known quantities.1
14. On the definitions of rhythm and metre.
Order is in the before and after of things; but the before and after in movement
gives rise to a number; hence in bodily movement rhythm is the number of bodily motion
according to a before and after; not just any number, but some ratio. A definition of rhythm
can be induced according to an analogy with the definition of consonance given by St.
Thomas, commenting on Aristotle (In II Post. Anal., lect. 1, n. 8): “Consonance is a ratio,
i.e. a proportion in numbers of the high and low”.2 Now since harmony is a consonance of
sounds, it follows that harmony is the ratio or proportion in numbers of the high and low in
sound. But rhythm in speech is constituted by a number of long and short syllables in its
pronunciation or expression, as is clear from the following text of St. Thomas (In V Meta.,
lect. 4, n. 5): “Now a ‘letter’ is divided according to the time of its pronunciation,
inasmuch as a long ‘letter’ is said to have two times, but a short (letter), one (time).”3
1
similiter etiam voces quibus etiam mensuramus, plures sunt. quantitas enim unius metri vel unius pedis,
mensuratur ex diversis syllabis, quarum aliae sunt breves, et aliae longae. similiter etiam est diameter circuli
vel quadrati, et etiam latus quadrati: et quaelibet magnitudo mensuratur duobus: non enim invenitur
quantitas ignota nisi per duas quantitates notas.
2
Consonantia est ratio, idest proportio in numerum secundum acutum et grave.
3
Dividitur autem litera secundum tempora prolationis, prout litera longa dicitur habere duo tempora, brevis
vero unum.
86
Again, at In X Meta. V, lect. 2, n. 15, St. Thomas says: “For the quantities of one
metre or of one foot are measured by different syllables, of which some are short and
others long.”1 This understanding is also evident in the account Aristotle gives of the
several kinds of rhythm: “The paean is a third kind of rhythm, related to those under
discussion. For it has the ratio of three to two [i.e. three short syllables and one long, the
latter equal in time to two beats], whereas the others are one to one [i.e. the heroic, with
one long syllable and two shorts], or two to one [i.e. iambic, a long and a short; and
trochaic, a short and a long]. And one-and-one half [i.e. the ratio of three to two] is the
mean ratio, and this is the paean.” (Rhetoric, III. 8, 1409a 3-6, tr. W Rhys Roberts) Hence,
rhythm may be defined as a ratio in numbers of the long and short in syllables; or more
simply as the ratio in syllables of the long and short. Now a given metre is a species of
rhythm differing from it by the regularity of the recurrence of its characteristic foot,
creating in the listener an expectation of its immediate return. So, then, metre can be
defined as a rhythm the regularity of the recurrence of whose characteristic foot creates in
the listener an expectation of its immediate return.
15. Definitions.
RHUTHMOS (‘RHYTHM’). According to its first imposition, (1) numbered

number (common doctrine); properly speaking, (2) the number of the configuration of the
language (cf. Aristotle, Rhet., III. 1, 1430b 30-31); (3) by analogy with Aristotle’s
definition of harmonia, the ratio in numbers of the long and short in durations (sc. of the
syllables)—that is, the configuration of the words according to the long and short in
durations; or more simply, (ii) the ratio in durations of the long and short; also, (4) a
system of durations (‘times’ or chronoi) arranged in ‘feet’; hence, (5) the recurrence of a
“recognizable and regular number” (gnorimon kai tetagmenon aruthmon, [Aristotle],
Probl., XIX. 38, 920b 34-5); or otherwise, (6) an order which follows the melos of the
harmonia (The Suda, s.v. “rhuthmos”).
1
quantitas enim unius metri vel unius pedis, mensuratur ex diversis syllabis, quarum aliae sunt breves, et
aliae longae.
87
VIII. ON THE MOTION OF THE VOICE.
1. According to Boethius and Vitruvius.
Boethius, De Institutione Musica, Liber I (Source: Boethii De institutione musica libri

quinque, ed. Godofredus Friedlein; tr. Calvin M. Bower).
[-199-] De divisione vocum earumque 12. Concerning the classification of voices and
explanatione. the explanation thereof
XII. Sed de his hactenus. Nunc vocum Enough concerning these things. Now we
differentias colligamus. should consider the different kinds of voices.
Omnis vox aut suneches est, quae continua, aut Every voice is either sunexh/j, which is
diastematike, quae dicitur cum intervallo continuous, or diastematixh/, which it is
suspensa. named when it is sustained by means of interval.
Et continua quidem est, qua loquentes vel A voice is continuous when, as in speaking or
prosam orationem legentes verba percurrimus. reciting a prose oration, we hurry over words:
Festinat enim tunc vox non haerere in acutis et the voice hastens not to get caught up in high
gravibus sonis, sed quam velocissime verba and low sounds, but to run through the words
percurrere, expediendisque sensibus very quickly, and the impulse of continuous
exprimendisque sermonibus continuae vocis voice is occupied with pronouncing and giving
impetus operatur. meanings to the words.
Diastematike autem est ea, quam canendo Diastematixh/, on the other hand, is that voice
suspendimus, in qua non potius sermonibus sed which we sustain in singing, wherein we submit
modulis inservimus, less to words than to a sequence of intervals
forming a tune.
estque vox ipsa tardior et per modulandas This particular voice is more deliberate, and by
varietates quoddam faciens intervallum, non measuring out differences of pitch it produces a
taciturnitatis sed suspensae ac tardae potius certain interval, not of silence, but of sustained
cantilenae. and drawn out song.
His, ut Albinus autumat, additur tertia To these, as Albinus asserts, is added a third,
differentia, quae medias voces possit includere, different kind, which can incorporate
cum scilicet heroum poema legimus neque intermediate voices, such as when we recite
continuo cursu, ut prosam, neque suspenso heroic poems not in continuous flow as is prose
segniorique modo vocis, ut canticum. or in a sustained and slower moving manner as
in song.
Vitruvius Pollo, The Ten Books on Architecture, (ed. Morris Hicky Morgan) Book V.
Chapter IV: Harmonics.
[2] Vox enim mutationibus cum flectitur, alias [2] 2. The voice, in its changes of position when
fiat acuta, alias gravis; duobusque modis shifting pitch, becomes sometimes high,
movetur, e quibus unus effectus habet sometimes low, and its movements are of two
continuatos, alter distantis. kinds, in one of which its progress is
continuous, in the other by intervals.
88
Continuata vox neque in finitionibus consistit The continuous voice does not become
neque in loco ullo, effiicitque terminationes non stationary at the “boundaries” or at any definite
apparentes, place, and so the extremities of its progress are
not apparent,
intervalla autem media parentia, uti sermone but the fact that there are differences of pitch is
cum dicamus: sol lux flos vox. apparent, as in our ordinary speech in sol, lux,
flos, vox;
Nunc enim nec unde incipit nec ubi desinit, for in these cases we cannot tell at what pitch
intellegitur; the voice begins, nor at what pitch it leaves off,
sed quod ex acuta facta est gravis et ex gravi but the fact that it becomes low from high and
acuta, apparet auribus. high from low is apparent to the ear.
Per distantiam autem e contrario. In its progress by intervals the opposite is the
case.
Namque cum flectitur inmutatione vox statuit se For here, when the pitch shifts, the voice, by
in alicuius sonitus finitionem, deinde in alterius, change of position, stations itself on one pitch,
et id ultro citro crebre faciendo constans apparet then on another, and, as it frequently repeats this
sensibus, uti in cantionibus cum flectentes alternating process, it appears to the senses to
vocem varietatem facimus. become stationary, as happens in singing when
we produce a variation of the mode by changing
the pitch of the voice.
Modulationis itaque intervallis ea cum versatur, And so, since it moves by intervals, the points at
et unde initium fecit et ubi desiit, apparet in which it begins and where it leaves off are
sonorum patentibus finitionibus, mediana autem obviously apparent in the boundaries of the
patentia intervallis obscurantur. notes, but the intermediate points escape notice
and are obscure, owing to the intervals.
2. The motion of the voice in relation to pitch and the overtone series.
Dr. Charles W. L. Johnson, “The Motion of the Voice, h( th=j fwnh=j ki/nesij, in the
Theory of Ancient Music” (TAPhA 30, 1899, 42-55), pp. 42-43.
Many of the Greek treatises on music begin the development of the subject proper
by describing and analyzing the changes in pitch which take place in the course of human
utterance. The term applied to these changes was h( th=j fwnh=j ki/nesij. I propose in this
paper to consider the nature of this ‘motion,’ the merits and defects of the ancient analysis,
and the object of introducing the subject in treatises on musical theory, and then to show
what light is thereby thrown for us upon the nature of ancient Greek music.
In almost every sound there is present to a sensible degree the property or quality of
musical pitch. Pitch, regarded as a physical phenomenon, may be defined as regularity or
periodicity in the vibrations of some suitable medium, such as air or water. Every set of
regular or periodic vibrations constitutes what is technically called a simple sound, and the
degree of pitch of this sound depends upon the rapidity of the vibrations. A simple sound
of this nature will seldom, if ever, occur in the ordinary course of events. Those sounds
which appear to our senses the purest and simplest are in reality compound sounds in
almost every instance.
89
The material objects which generate the vibrations in the air are usually of such a nature
that not one set of vibrations only, but a number of sets at various rates is produced at one
and the same time. Now the effect upon the ear of such a compound sound depends upon
the interrelationship of the constituent pitches. If these pitches are not related to one
another on certain numerical principles, the sound is a noise. If, on the other hand, a certain
relationship exists between them, the sound is a musical sound. For a musical sound is a
complex, formed by a series of simple sounds. Of these the lowest in pitch is generally the
loudest. Superimposed upon this lowest pitch there will be found a group of fainter pitches,
standing at certain definite distances from one another. These are the so-called overtones,
and it is their presence which determines the ‘quality’ of the sound as a whole. Simple
though the sound may seem to the ear, it is, in reality, as it were, a chord, in which all but
one of the notes are faint. It is easy to see what a large number of combinations can be
formed by varying the intensity of the several overtones, by omitting some and
strengthening others. In this way physicists account for the great variety of quality
observable in the tones of instruments and voices.
In a musical sound, then, of the constituent related pitches one is predominant.1

This gives the note its name and position. But in a noise, instead of order among the
pitches we have confusion, instead of one predominant pitch, many pitches of considerable
intensity.
W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy. I. The Earlier Presocratics and the
Pythagoreans. Ch. IV: Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, p. 228.
Additional Note: ‘Speed’ and pitch
The passage from Archytas himself suggests that he was also not very clear in his own
mind about any distinction between ‘speed’ and ‘violence’ of movement. Adrastus (second
century A.D. quoted by Theon, p. 50 H.), in a very lucid account of the Pythagorean
theory, clears up this latter obscurity, which may have been only due to carelessness of
expression:
‘The Pythagoreans give the following account. Every melody and every note are sounds,
and a sound is a blow inflicted on air which is prevented from dispersing. Therefore there
can be no sound, and hence no note, where the air is undisturbed. But when a blow and a
movement occur in the air, then if it is swift the note produced is high, if slow it is low; if
violent the noise is loud, if gentle, soft. The speed and violence of the motions may or may
not stand in a relationship of rational proportion to one another. If they do not, the sounds
are disproportionate and discordant, not to be called notes but mere noises, whereas
motions that stand in a simple numerical relationship, or such that one is a multiple of the
other or superparticular to it [i.e. containing the whole plus a fraction with 1 for its
numerator], produce genuine and mutually compatible notes. Some deserve to be called
only this, but those constructed according to the primary, commonly recognized and most
fundamental ratios are actually called concordant.’
1
I.e. the “root” or fundament of an overtone series. See further below.
90
3. Sound and pitch according to modern experimental science.
Frank Lamonica. Lesson Supplement: The Acoustics of Music. The Basics: Sound,
Vibration, Frequency, Pitch, and Amplitude.1
Sound is created by the vibration of some physical object. That object may be a
solid, liquid, or even a gas. All physical objects have a property called elasticity that comes
into play to create vibrations. Elasticity determines how an object that is deformed by some
force will tend to restore itself to its original position. A diving board is a good example of
an object that is deformed by the diver and which restores itself to its original form after
the diver leaves the board. The movement of the board from its rest position to the
maximum deformation and then back to the rest position is called a half cycle. The
elasticity of the object again comes into play as the inertia of the moving object actually
causes it to move past its rest position and to deform itself again in the opposite direction
of the initial force. The motion from the original position to the maximum deformation in
the opposite direction and then back to the original position is another half cycle. This back
and forth vibration occurs at a rate that depends on the physical makeup of the object being
vibrated. A complete vibration occurs when an object completes two half cycles.
The rate of motion of the object is measured in cycles per second, which is the
definition of frequency—the number of cycles per second at which an object is vibrating.
The pitch of a sound is determined solely by the frequency at which the object is vibrating.
This is a very important point—the pitch does NOT depend on the force used to set the
object into motion. The amount of force used controls the amplitude, or loudness, of the
sound, not the pitch. The pitches we use in our musical culture have evolved from years of
experimentation and argument. It was not until a conference was held in London in 1939
with the blessing of the International Standards Association that the pitch of the note “A”
which is used today was fixed at 440 cycles per second. This replaced the prior
internationally agreed upon “A” of 435 cycles per second which had been in place since
1859. The methods of computing the pitches in our 12 tone musical scale have a complex
but interesting history which I’ll explain after we talk about harmonics, overtones, and
intervals. [end excerpt]
3. On pitch, tone, timbre, and related matters.
PITCH. In music, the position of a tone in the musical scale, today designated by a letter
name and determined by the frequency of vibration of the source of the tone. An
international conference held in 1939 set a standard for A above middle C of 440 cycles
per second. (Encyclopedia.com, sv. “Pitch”)
TONE. In music, a tone is distinguished from noise by its definite PITCH, caused by the
regularity of the vibrations that produce it. Any tone possesses the attributes of pitch,
intensity, and quality. Pitch is determined by the frequency of the vibration, measured by
cycles per second. Intensity, or loudness, is determined by the amplitude, measured in
decibels.
1
(www.classic-guitar.com/less5sup.html [1/15/05])
91
Quality is determined by the overtones (subsidiary tones), the distinctive timbre of any
instrument being the result of the number and relative prominence of the over tones it
produces. (Encyclopedia.com, s.v. “Tone”)
That quality of a musical sound which depends upon the comparative rapidity of the
vibrations producing it; degree of acuteness or graveness of tone (sometimes also in
reference to the tone of voice in speaking). Also a particular standard of pitch for voices
and instruments, a concert pitch, etc. (Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Pitch”)
Pitch is something we subjectively perceive and it is directly related to the relative spacing
of the harmonics in a sound. (Stephen M. Sprenger, Re: Time domain pitch shifting)
In music, (the) position of a single sound in the complete range of sound. Sounds are
higher or lower in pitch according to the frequency of vibration of the sound waves
producing them. A high frequency (e.g., 880 hertz [cycles per second]) is perceived as a
high pitch; a low frequency (e.g., 55 Hz) as a low pitch. In Western music, standard pitches
have long been used to facilitate tuning. Usually a above middle C (c) is taken as a
referent pitch. The current standard pitch of a = 440 Hz was adopted in 1939. For some
eighty years previous, a had been set at 435 Hz. A confusing variety of pitches prevailed
until the 19th century, when the continual rise in pitch made some international agreement
a matter of practical necessity. (Encyclopedia Britannica. s.v. “Pitch”)
Alistair Disley, Human Perception of Sound. Assignment 2: Human Pitch Perception.

Pitch.
To consider human pitch perception, we need a definition of pitch. The American

National Standards Institute (1960) defines pitch as “that attribute of auditory sensation in
terms of which sounds may be ordered on a scale extending from low to high”. Another
simpler definition is “our perception of the frequency of sound”. Pitch is, therefore, one of
the essential percepts of sound. A more complex definition of pitch [is the following:]
Pitch (psychoacoustics/music) The subjective impression of frequency, in the same sense
that loudness is the subjective sense of the intensity or amplitude of a sound. As such, pitch
is a psychoacoustic variable, and the degree of sensitivity shown to it varies widely with
people. Some individuals have a sense of remembered pitch; that is, a pitch once heard can
be remembered and compared to others for some length of time; others have a sense of
absolute pitch called perfect pitch. The pitch of a tone or note allows it to be placed in a
musical scale; thus notes of a scale are often called pitches, and given names (A, B, C, C#,
do, re, mi, etc.).
Dr. Charles W. L. Johnson, “The Motion of the Voice, h( th=j fwnh=j ki/nesij, in the
Theory of Ancient Music” (TAPhA 30, 1899, 42-55), p. 43.
Pitch, regarded as a physical phenomenon, may be defined as regularity or

periodicity in the vibrations of some suitable medium, such as air or water.
Every set of regular or periodic vibrations constitutes what is technically called a

simple sound, and the degree of pitch of this sound depends upon the rapidity of the
vibrations.
92
4. On frequency.
Sound is composed of three basic elements: frequency, amplitude, and timbre. These are
all different characteristics of the sound wave itself, which is essentially a vibration in the
air that eventually reaches our ears. Frequency is the number of cycles per second (cps or
Hertz, Hz). In music, we call this pitch. This is the relative highness or lowness that we
hear in a sound. The highest pitch produced by a piano has a frequency of 4,186 Hz, the
lowest 27 Hz. The range of human hearing varies from individual to individual, but
normally falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Here are a few examples of pitches at
different frequencies: Amplitude is a measure of how big/strong a wave is, and therefore
how loud a sound is perceived to be. In music, we refer to different levels of loudness as
dynamics. (http://www.nightcourses.com/articles/melodymaker.html [2/4/01])
Frequency refers to the number of vibrations per second made by the sonorous body; it
also indicates the number of oscillations per second occurring in the transmitting medium.
(Charles A. Culver, Musical Acoustics. Chapter 7: Pitch, p. 83)
That quality of a musical sound determined by the number of vibrations per second made
by a sounding body; that is to say, that attribute of a tone produced by the frequency of the
sounding body’s vibration, measured in cycles per second. (B.A.M.)
5. On the ‘high’ or acute and the ‘low’ or grave.
The ‘high’ or acute is that which is naturally apt to move the sense in a short time. (adapted
from St. Thomas Aquinas, In II Post. An., lect. 1, n. 9)
The ‘low’ or grave is that which is naturally apt to move the sense in a long time. (adapted
from St. Thomas Aquinas, In II Post. An., lect. 1, n. 9)
The ‘high’ or acute is that which is naturally apt to impact the sense more frequently (that
is, to strike it a greater number of times in a given period). (B.A.M.)
The ‘low’ or grave is that which is naturally apt to impact the sense less frequently (that is,
to strike it a lesser number of times in a given period). (B.A.M.)
93
IX. ON THE STRINGS OF A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT.
1. That in the strings of a musical instrument one is called ‘prior’ to another insofar
as there is one determinate string (namely, the mese) relative to which the others are
placed at intervals according to a determinate rationale (such a ‘priority’ comprising
an order according to discrete quantity).
Aristotle, Metaph. V. 11 (1018b 25-29).
(tr. W. D. Ross) (tr. H. G. Apostle)
Others are prior in arrangement; With respect to order,
these are the things that are placed at intervals in when there is some definite thing relative to
reference to some one definite thing according which other things are arranged at intervals
to some rule, according to some formula, that which is nearer
to that thing is called “prior”.
e.g. in the chorus the second man is prior to the For example, in the chorus the second man is
third, prior to the third,
and in the lyre the second lowest string is prior and the next to the lowest string is prior to the
to the lowest; lowest;
for in the one case the leader and in the other the in the first case, the principle is the leader, in the
middle string is the beginning. second, it is the middle string.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In V Meta., lect. 13, n. 9 (tr. B.A.M.).
LB5LC13N.-9
deinde cum dicit alia secundum ordinem ponit Then when he says Others according to an
modum secundum ordinem in rebus discretis; order he gives the mode according to an order
in discrete things,
dicens, quod alia dicuntur priora secundum saying that other things are called ‘prior’
ordinem, qui invenitur in aliquibus rebus according to an order, which is found in some
tantummodo quodam ordine associatis sibi, non things in no other way than by some order of the
per continuitatem, ut in praecedentibus things associated with one another, not by
accidebat. continuity, as happened in the preceding case.
huiusmodi autem sunt, quae distant ab aliquo Now there are things of this sort which stand at
uno determinato secundum aliquam rationem intervals from some one determinate thing
determinatam, ut parastata, tritostata. according to a determinate rationale, as the
parastat, the tristostat.
[Meaning ‘the one who stands second’ and ‘the

one who stands third’, namely, from the chorus-
leader.]
parastata est prius tritostata. The parastat is prior to the tritostat.
94
parastata dicitur ille, qui stat iuxta aliquem, puta For he is called the parastat which stands next
regem. to someone, for instance, a king.
tritostata autem ille, qui stat tertius ab eo. But tritotstat one who stands third from him.
unde alia litera habet, praestans, tertio stante And so another text has the preeminent person
prius est. is prior to the one standing third.
patet autem, quod alia ratio distantiae est distare But it is clear that to stand second or third
ut secundum, vel tertium. involves another rationale of distance.
et similiter paranitae sunt priores nitis. And likewise the paranete are prior to the nete.
in chordis enim hypatae dicuntur quae sunt For in strings those are called hypate which are
graves, nitae vero acutae dicuntur, mediocres low, but those are called nete which are high,
autem vocantur mesae. but the ones in between are called mese.
paranitae autem dicuntur quae sunt iuxta nitas But those are called paranete which are next to
mesis propinquiores. the nete (and so) nearer to the mese.
LB5LC13N.10
patet etiam, quod hic dicitur etiam esse aliquid It is also clear that in the present case something
prius per propinquitatem ad aliquod principium. is also said to be ‘prior’ by a nearness to some
principle (or ‘beginning’).
sed differenter in utroque praedictorum But differently in both of the examples

exemplorum: mentioned:
quia in illis, scilicet parastata et tritostata, the reason being that in the former case, namely,
accipitur principium id quod est verum initium the parastat and the tritostat, that which is a
et extremum, true beginning and extreme is taken as the
principle (or ‘beginning’),
scilicet ille, qui est summus inter alios vel the one, namely, who is highest among them, or
vertex aliorum, ut rex vel aliquis alius talis. uppermost among the others, as a king or some
other such person.
sed in chordis accipitur ut principium, medium, But in strings is taken as the principle (or
‘beginning’) the middle one—
et media chorda quae dicitur mesa, that is the middle string called mese—
cui propinquiores dicuntur paranitae, et per hoc the nearer to which are called paranete, and by
priores dicuntur nitis. this are called ‘prior’ to nete.
ista ergo dicuntur priora per hunc modum, These, then, are called ‘prior’ in this way,
scilicet per ordinem quantitatis vel continuae vel namely, by an order of quantity, whether
discretae. continuous or discrete.
95
2. That the strings of a musical instrument are distinguished according to the high,
low, and middle found in ‘sounds’ understood as ‘notes’.
Aristotle, Metaph. X. 7 (1057a 18-29)
Since contraries admit of an intermediate and in Since there may be an intermediate between
some cases have it, intermediates must be com- contraries, and in some cases there is, inter-
posed of the contraries. mediates must consist of contraries.
For (1) all (1057a 20) intermediates are in the Now all intermediates are in the same genus as
same genus as the things between which they the contraries between which they are.
stand.
For we call those things intermediates, into For we call “intermediates” those into which
which that which changes must change first; that which changes into something must change
before.
e.g. if we were to pass from the highest string to For example, if one were to pass from the
the lowest by the smallest intervals, we should highest string to the lowest by the smallest inter-
come sooner to the intermediate notes, and in vals, he would come to the intermediate tones
colours if we were to pass from white (1057a before; and if in colors he were to pass from
25) to black, we should come sooner to crimson white to black, he would come to crimson and
and grey than to black; and similarly in all other grey before coming to black; and similarly with
cases. the others.
But to change from one genus to another genus But it is not possible to change from one genus
is not possible except in an incidental way, as to another except accidentally, as from color to
from colour to figure. shape, for example.
Intermediates, then, must be in the same genus All intermediates, then, as well as the things
both as one another and as the things they stand between which they are, must be in the same
between. genus.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In V Meta. lect. 9, n. 1 (tr. B.A.M.).
LB10LC-9N.-1
postquam philosophus determinavit de con- After the Philosopher determined about con-
trariis, hic determinat de mediis contrariorum; et traries, here he determines about the inter-
circa hoc duo facit. mediates between contraries. And with respect
to this he does two things.
primo proponit de quo est intentio; dicens: quia First, he lays down a proposition about what his
contrariorum contingit aliquid esse medium, ut intention is, saying that because there can be an
supra dictum est, et quaedam contrariorum intermediate between contraries, as has been
medium habent, ostendendum est quod necesse said above, and certain contraries have an inter-
est media esse ex contrariis. mediate, it must be shown that inter-mediates
must be (composed) of contraries.
96
non autem hoc solum ostendit, sed etiam Not only does he show this, but also certain
quaedam alia quae ad huius probationem sunt other things which are necessary for proving
necessaria. this point.
LB10LC-9N.-2
deinde cum dicit omnia namque prosequitur Then when he says For all these, he carries out
suam intentionem; his intention.
et circa hoc tria facit. And with respect to this he does two things.
primo ostendit, quod media sunt in eodem First, he shows that intermediates are in the
genere cum contrariis. same genus with the contraries.
secundo ostendit, quod media sunt inter con- Second, he shows that intermediates are only
traria tantum, ibi, at vero media etc.. between contraries, at But all intermediates etc.
tertio vero ostendit, quod media componuntur Third, he shows that intermediates are com-
ex contrariis, quod est principaliter intentum, posed of contraries, which is his principal inten-
ibi, si vero sunt in eodem genere. tion, at Now if intermediates are in the same
genus.
dicit ergo primo, quod omnia media sunt in He says, therefore, first, that all intermediates
eodem genere cum his quorum sunt media. are in the same genus with those things of which
they are the intermediates,
quod sic probat. which he proves as follows,
quia haec est diffinitio mediorum, quod media (saying) that this is the definition of inter-
sunt inter quae prius venit illud quod mutatur de mediates, that intermediates are those things
uno extremorum, quam in alterum extremum. among which that which changes from one ex-
treme to another extreme first comes.1
LB10LC-9N.-3
et hoc manifestat per duo exempla. And he makes this clear by two examples.
primo quidem in sonis. The first in sounds [= ‘notes’].
sunt enim quidam soni graves, et quidam acuti, For some sounds [or ‘notes’] are low, some are
et quidam medii. high, and some intermediate [in the middle].
et secundum hanc distinctionem sonorum, dis- And in accordance with this distinction of
tinguuntur chordae in musicis instrumentis. sounds [or ‘notes’] the strings of a musical in-
strument are distinguished.
illae enim chordae, quae reddunt graves sonos, For the strings which give back low sounds [or
dicuntur hypatae, quia principales. ‘notes’] are called hypate because they are the
principal ones.
1
That is, if there is a change from one extreme to another, the first things ‘among which’—that is, ‘into
which’—the one extreme must ‘come’ (or ‘change’, according to the Greek implied by the translations cited),
are called ‘intermediates’.
97
illae veroquae reddunt acutos sonos, dicuntur But the ones which give back high sounds [or
netae. ‘notes’] are called nete.
si igitur musicus paulatim a gravibus ad acutos If, then, a musician wishes to descend by small
descendere velit, quod est transire per mediam steps [= ‘gradually’ or ‘without leaps’] from the
rationem, necesse est quod prius veniat ad sonos highs to the lows, which is to pass through an
medios. intermediate range, he must first come to inter-
mediate sounds [or ‘notes’].
LB10LC-9N.-4
sic igitur patet quod de mediis fit transmutatio In this way, then, it is clear that a change is
ad extrema, et e converso. made from intermediates to extremes, and
conversely.
sed in his quae sunt in diversis generibus, non But in those things which are in different genera
fit transmutatio in invicem nisi per accidens, a change between them is not possible except
sicut patet in colore et figura. accidentally, as is clear in color and shape.
non enim mutatur aliquid de colore in figuram For something does not change from a color to a
aut e converso; sed de colore in colorem, et de shape or conversely; but from a color to a color,
figura in figuram. and from a shape to a shape.
unde necesse est quod media et extrema sint in And so it is necessary that the intermediates and
eodem genere. the extremes be in the same genus.
3. That in the strings of a musical instrument one is called ‘successive’ to another (as
the paramese with respect to the mese) when it comes after a beginning in position
according to a determinate rationale, and when it has nothing of the same genus
between it and that to which it is in succession.
Aristotle, Phys. V. 3 (226b34-227a 7).
(tr. Thomas Heath; rev. B.A.M.) (tr. R. Glen Coughlin)
I call “successive” that which, coming after the “In succession” is that which, being after the
beginning, and having been marked off either in beginning either by position or in species or in
position or in form or in some other respect, has something else thus determined, has nothing
nothing of the same [genus] between it and that among things in the same genus between itself
to which it is successive. and that to which it is in succession.
Examples are a line or lines in succession to a I mean , e.g., a line [is in succession] to a line or
line, a unit or units to a unit, or a house to a lines, or a unit to units, or a house to a house.
house.
There is nothing to prevent something of a But nothing prevents something from being
different kind coming between. between.
What is successive is successive to something For what is “in succession” is in succession to a

and is something posterior to it; certain thing and is after a certain thing.
98
thus one is not successive to two, nor the first For one is not in succession to two, nor the first
day of the month to the second day, but the day of the month to the second, but the latter to
other way about. the former.
Aristotle, Phys. V. 3 (226b34-227a 7).
(tr. Hardie & Gaye) (example furnished by B.A.M.)
A thing is ‘in succession’ when it is after the E.g. a string of a musical instrument, such as the
beginning in position or in form or in some paramese, is ‘in succession’ to another when it
other respect in which it is definitely so comes ‘after the beginning’, which is the mese,
regarded, and when further there is nothing of ‘in position’, doing so according to a deter-
the same kind as itself between it and that to minate rationale, and when it has nothing of the
which it is in succession, e.g. a line or lines if it same genus between it and that to which it is in
is a line, a unit or units if it is a unit, a house if it succession.
is a house
(there is nothing to prevent something of a

different kind being between).
For that which is in succession is in succession

to a particular thing, and is something posterior:
for one is not ‘in succession’ to two, nor is the

first day of the month to be second: in each case
the latter is ‘in succession’ to the former.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In V Physic. lect. 5, n. 6 (tr. B.A.M.).
LB5 LC-5N.-6
deinde cum dicit: consequenter autem est etc.,

definit hoc quod est consequenter, et quandam
speciem eius, scilicet habitum.
et dicit quod ad hoc quod aliquid dicatur esse

consequenter ad alterum, duo requiruntur.
quorum unum est, quod sit post aliquod

principium quodam ordine;
vel secundum positionem, sicut in iis quae

habent ordinem in loco;
vel secundum speciem, sicut dualitas est post

unitatem;
vel quocumque alio modo aliqua determinate

ordinentur, sicut secundum virtutem, secundum
dignitatem, secundum cognitionem, et
huiusmodi.
99
aliud quod requiritur est, quod inter id quod est
consequenter, et id cui est consequenter, non sit
aliquod medium de numero eorum quae sunt in
eodem genere:
sicut linea consequenter se habet ad lineam, si

nulla linea sit in medio;
et similiter est de unitate ad unitatem, et de

domo ad domum.
sed nihil prohibet, ad hoc quod aliquid sit alteri

consequenter, quin aliquid sit medium inter ea
alterius generis; sicut si aliquod animal sit
medium inter duas domus.
quare autem dixerit et cuius est consequenter, et

quod est post principium, manifestat subdens,
quod omne quod dicitur consequenter, est
consequenter respectu alicuius, et non tanquam
prius, sed tanquam posterius.
non enim dicitur quod unum sit consequenter

duobus, neque nova luna secundae, sed e
converso.
deinde definit quandam speciem eius quod est

consequenter, quae dicitur habitum.
et dicit quod non omne quod est consequenter,

est habitum;
sed quando sic est consequenter, quod tangit; ita

quod nihil sit medium, non solum eiusdem
generis, sed nec alterius.
4. An example showing that the strings of a musical instrument are successive.
To see that the strings of a musical instrument are successive, consider the
following example.
The Diatonic genus is illustrated by this tetrachord:
A mese
/ > tone = ‘major 2nd’
/ G lichanos
3:4 > tone = ‘major 2nd’
\ F parhypate
\ > semitone = ‘minor 2nd’
\E hypate
100
The lichanos is ‘successive’ in comparison to the mese because nothing of the same
genus comes between them; likewise the parhypate in comparison to the lichanos, and the
hypate in comparison to the parhypate. Hence, the strings of a lyre (or the notes they
produce) are ‘successive’ insofar as they can admit nothing the same in genus between
them.
5. That in a musical harmony the parts composing it are dissimilar, have a

determinate position, and are not continuous.
Aristotle, Metaph. V. 27 (1024a 11-28).
It is not any chance quantitative thing that can It is not any chance quantity that is called
be said to be ‘mutilated’; it must be a whole as “mutilated” but only the one which is divisible
well as divisible. into parts and is a whole.
For not only is two not ‘mutilated’ if one of the For two is not called “mutilated” when one of
two ones is taken away the units is taken away
(for the part removed by mutilation is never (for the part removed by mutilation is never
equal to the remainder), but in general no equal to what is left), and in general no number
number is thus mutilated; is called “mutilated”,
for it is also necessary that the essence remain; for the substance of the thing must remain after
mutilation.
if a cup is mutilated, it must still be a cup; but If a cup is mutilated, it must still be a cup; but
(1024a 15) the number is no longer the same. the number is no longer the same.
Further, even if things consist of unlike parts, Further, even if a thing consists of unlike parts,
not even these things can all be said to be it is not always that it is said to be mutilated;
mutilated,
for in a sense a number has unlike parts (e.g. for, in a sense, even a number has unlike parts,
two and three) as well as like; such as two and three.
but in general of the things to which their And in general, things in which position makes
position makes no difference, e.g. water or fire, no difference, such as water and fire, are not
none can be mutilated; said to be mutilated;
to be mutilated, things must be such as in virtue but in order to be mutilated, things must be such
of their essence have a certain position. that according to their substance position makes
a difference.
Again, they must be continuous; for a musical Besides, they must be continuous; for a
scale consists of unlike parts (1024a 20) and has harmony is composed of unlike parts which
position, but cannot become mutilated. have position, but it does not become mutilated.
Besides, not even the things that are wholes are Further, even if the things are wholes, they do
mutilated by the privation of any part. not become mutilated by the privation of any
part.
101
For the parts removed must be neither those For the parts removed must neither be the main
which determine the essence nor any chance parts of the substance nor be in any chance
parts, irrespective of their position; e.g. a cup is place; for example, if a whole is made in a cup,
not mutilated if it is bored through, but only if we do not have something mutilated, but we do
the handle or a projecting part is (1024a 25) have a mutilated cup if the handle or some
removed, projecting part is removed.
and a man is mutilated not if the flesh or the And a man is mutilated not if the flesh or the
spleen is removed, but if an extremity is, spleen is removed, but if an extremity is
removed,
and that not every extremity but one which not any extremity, but one which when
when completely removed cannot grow again. completely removed does not grow again.
Therefore baldness is not a mutilation. Because of this, people with shaven heads are
not said to be mutilated.
St. Thomas Aquinas, In V Meta. lect. 21, n. 32 (tr. B.A.M.).
LB5LC21N.32
septimum est quod oportet esse continua coloba. The seventh is that what is mutilated must be
continuous.
harmonia enim musicalis non potest dici coloba For a musical harmony cannot be called
voce vel chorda subtracta, licet sit dissimilium ‘mutilated’ when a ‘voice’ [that is—a ‘note’] or
partium: a string is taken away, even though it be of
dissimilar parts:
quia constituitur ex vocibus gravibus, et acutis; the reason being that it is constituted from low
et licet partes eius habeant determinatam and high notes; and even though its parts have a
positionem: determinate position:1
non enim qualitercumque voces graves et acutae for low and high notes ordered in any way
ordinatae, talem constituunt harmoniam. whatsoever do not constitute such a harmony.
6. The three attributes of a musical harmony.
According to the foregoing account, a musical harmony is
(1) made of dissimilar parts, such as the ‘high’ and ‘low’ in notes or strings,
(2) having a determinate position, as a ‘high’ note is ‘above’ a ‘low’ one, and as one string
is before another, but is
(3) not continuous, notes or strings being divided off from one another
7. Note.
1
I.e. they require a determinate order in their parts, just as does a house or a shoe. But should not the text
read: “must not only be continuous, but possessing a determinate order in its parts”?
102
The reason why a musical harmony cannot be (or be called) ‘mutilated’ or
‘truncated’ is that what is colobon must continue to exist when a part is taken away—that
is, it must retain its species, as a man is still a man when a hand or foot is taken away, but
not when he is decapitated.1 Now a musical harmony is constituted from high and low
notes. For the harmony to exist, then, these notes must be put together in a certain way. But
when a chord or note is taken away, it no longer exists, and so cannot be continuous.2
8. On the mese as tonic or key-note.
[Aristotle], Probl., XIX. 20 (643b 13-28) (tr. W. S. Hett; rev. B.A.M.).
Why is it that, if one shifts the mese after tuning the other strings, and then plays
the instrument, it is not only when the tune touches the sound of the mese that it is
unpleasant and seems out of tune, but also all the rest of the melody? If, on the other hand,
one shifts the lichanos or any other note, then the difference is only apparent when one
employs this particular note. This is only natural, for all the best tunes make frequent use
of the [20] mese, and all good musicians employ it frequently, and quickly revert to it, if
they leave it, but not to any other note to the same extent.
The same is true in speech; if certain connectives [sundesmoi] are omitted, such as
te and kai/ [oi(=on to\ te kai\ to\ kai/], the language ceases to be Greek; but the omission of
others gives no such offence, because there are some conjunctions which one [25] must use
often if there is to be sense, but with others it is not so. In the same way with sounds, the
mese is a kind of conjunction, especially in good music, because its note most often
underlies the tune.
[Aristotle], Probl., XIX.12 (tr. Andrew Barker).
Why does the lower of the notes always take the melody?3 For if one omits
paramese when one ought to have played it with mese, the melody is there none the less:
but if one omits mese when both should have been played, it is not.4 Is it because what is
low is large,5 and hence powerful? What is small is included in what is large: and in
division6 there are two netai in hypate.
1
What is ‘necessary’ being “[t]hat without which, as a condition, a thing cannot live” (Meta., V.5, 1015a 20)
(tr. W. D. Ross).
2
Note that a melos, something other than a harmony—can be continuous when there is frequent recourse to
the mese.
3
See also 186 Probs. XIX.49. In the expression krousis hypo ten ouden, ‘playing under the song’, used for
non-unison accompaniment at e.g. 183 Probs. XIX.39, 187 ps.-Plut. 1141 b, ‘under’ indicates subordination,
not lower pitch. (Barker’s note)
4
The text here is corrupt and obscure: I have translated the emended version of Monro. But because of the
textual confusion, no conclusions about the details of performing practice can reliably be based on this
sentence. Paramese is a tone above mese. (Barker’s note)
5
The Greek word for ‘low’, here as usually, is bary, lit. ‘heavy’. Passages (particularly from Probs.XI)
exploiting the theoretical consequences of this metaphor will be reviewed in Vol. 2. (Barker’s note)
6
That is, when intervals are constructed by proportional division of a single string. See particularly Sect.
Can. 19-20, and cf. 175 Probs. XIX.23. Nete is an octave above hypate: if a hypate string is divided by a
bridge at the half-way point, each half sounds nete. (Barker’s note)
103
9. On the prelude in aulos-playing and its relation to the key-note.
Aristotle, Rhet., III. 14 (1414b 19-20).
(tr. J. C. Jebb) (tr. W. Rhys Roberts)
The Proem is the beginning of the speech,— The Introduction is the beginning of a speech,
analogous to the Prologue in poetry and the corresponding to the prologue in poetry and the
Prelude in flute-playing. prelude in flute-music;
All these are beginnings, and pave the way, as it they are all beginnings, paving the way, as it
were, for what follows. were, for what is to follow.
The musical prelude is most like the Epideiktic The musical prelude resembles the introduction
proem. to speeches of display;
Flute-players begin by playing anything that as flute players play first some brilliant passage
they can execute brilliantly; and then knit this they know well and then fit it on to the opening
on the key-note of their theme.1 notes of the piece itself,
The same kind of composition suits epideiktic so in speeches of display the writer should
rhetoric. proceed in the same way;
The speaker should start by saying whatever his he should begin with what best takes his fancy,
fancy prompts—then strike his key-note, and and then strike up his theme and lead into it;
knit his proem to his theme: and this is just what which is indeed what is always done.
they all do.
Take, for instance, the proem to the Helen2 of (Take as an example the introduction to the
Isokrates;— Helen of Isocrates—
there is nothing common between the Eristics there is nothing in common between the
and Helen. ‘eristics’ and Helen.)
And here, even if the speaker passes into a And here, even if you travel far from your
foreign region, it is fitting, rather than that the subject, it is fitting, rather than that there should
speech should be monotonous. be sameness in the entire speech.
10. On endosimos.
R. C. Jebb’s note regarding to\ e)ndosi/moj. (On Aristotle’s Rhetoric).
Footnote 4, p. 180: t%= e)ndosi/m%, ‘the actual opening, preliminary note, of the subject,
which gives the tone to the rest’ (Cope). to\ e)ndosi/mon is defined by Heschyius as to\ pro\
th=j %)dh=j kiqa/risma.3
1
t%= e)ndosi/m%, ‘the actual opening, preliminary note, of the subject, which gives the tone to the rest’ (Cope).
to\ e)ndosi/mon is defined by Heschyius as to\ pro\ th=j %)dh=j kiqa/risma. (Jebb’s note)
2
§ 1-13. (Jebb’s note)
3
= “that which gives the key to the tune”; cf. LSJ, which I give next.
104
Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and
augmented throughout by. Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick
McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940.
e)ndo/simoj, on, serving as a prelude, a)=?sma Artem.2.66; yalmo\j e). th=? w)?dh=? , Suid.:
but usu. neut. e)ndo/simon, to/ (to\ pro\ th=j w)?dh=j kiqa/risma , Hsch.); that which gives
the key to the tune, in music, Aristot. Rh. 1414b24, ti=Arist. Mu.399a19, Hld.3.2,
Ael.NA11.1, Poll.1.210: metaph., key-note of a speech, Aristot. Rh. 1415a7, ti=Aristot. Pol.
1339a13, cf. Max.Tyr.7.7, Jul.Ep. 186: generally, signal for a race, Hld.4.3; [pro/bata ]
pro\j ta\ e). th=j su/riggoj poimaino/mena IDEM=Hld.5.14: metaph., to\ tou= kairou=
kai\ th=j w(/raj e). IDEM=Hld.4.16; tou= filosofei=n e). e)/dwkan Phld.Acad.Ind.p.5M.;
w(/sper e). e(/cei pro/j ti Plu.2.73b; tou= logismou= to\ e). paresxhko/toj Porph. Sent.
32, cf. Luc. Symp.30 (also e). parasxe/sqai Dam.Pr.415); labei=n Luc. Alex.19;
me/xrij a)\n to\ e). th=j dialu/sewj shmh/nh? M.Ant.11.20; e). toi=j stratiw/taij
e)/rgw? didou/j Hdn.3.6.10 (so prob. as Adj., [siti/a ] e). th=? pe/yei giving the signal for
digestion, Plu.2.131c).
The Suda Online.
Headword: Endosimon
Adler number: epsilon,1183
Translated headword: signal, prelude
Translation:
“The boatswains gave the signal to the oarsmen, but at the sign [the oarsmen] shouted all
together with their onslaught.”[1]
And in addition to this [the word] e)/ndosij [is used].[2]
[The word] e)ndo/simon [also means] a cause of motion and beginning.[3] The psalm [is]
such as to be a prelude for the song.[4]
Greek Original:
Endosimon: hoi de keleustai tois eretais to endosimon enedosan, hoi de epi têi endosei
athrooi tôi rhothiôi epêlalaxan. kai Endosis epi toutôi. Endosimon, kinêseôs kai archês
aition. ho de psalmos hoios endosimos einai têi ôidêi.
Notes:
[1] Arrian, Parthica fr.61; cf. kappa 1297 (1287 is a misprint in Adler’s apparatus).
[2] Translated ‘sign’ in the Arrian quotation (to which this comment perhaps refers).
[3] cf. Synesius, Epistle 4.162a.
[4] cf. mu 1303.
Translated by: Catharine Roth on 3 April 2007@01:39:30.

Vetted by: David Whitehead (tweaked tr; augmented notes and keywords) on 3 April
2007@03:09:57.
105
X. ON THE OVERTONE SERIES.
JT 2.2 - The Overtones Series.1
Many of the basic principles and harmonic developments of music originate from
the acoustic makeup of a single tone. When a length of string (or column of air) is made to
vibrate, it produces the basic pitch of the string, called the Fundamental. Let us look at a
low C string (on a piano for example.)
The full wavelength produces a low C = the Fundamental Nr.1 Simultaneously this
same string also vibrates at a wavelength half of the fundamental wavelength.
Half the wavelength produces a low C, 1 octave higher = Overtone Nr.2
The string also vibrates at a third of the fundamental wavelength.
One third of the wavelength produces a G, a 5th higher = Overtone Nr.3
The same string also vibrates simultaneously at a quarter of the fundamental

wavelength.
One quarter of the wavelength produces a c, a 4th higher = Overtone Nr.4

The same string also vibrates at wavelengths of :
a fifth of the Fundamental wavelength = Overtone Nr.5
a sixth of the Fundamental wavelength = Overtone Nr.6
a seventh of the Fundamental wavelength = Overtone Nr.7
an eighth of the Fundamental wavelength = Overtone Nr.8, and so on.
An infinite number of vibrations, dividing the fundamental string into an ever-

increasing number of equal wavelengths (are produced). Each of these vibrations produces
their own pitch. This composite of sounds accompanies the Fundamental tone and is called
the Overtone Series.
JT 2.3 - Some Characteristics
Here are some useful characteristics of the Overtone Series you should know:
The intervals between successive Overtones gradually become smaller.
Chord voicings that simulate the structure of the overtone series, with larger
intervals at the bottom and smaller intervals at the top, will have a clearer and more
resonant sound.
1
This excerpt comes from a Website, but unfortunately at the time I downloaded it I did not note its URL; it
having since disappeared from the Internet.
106
The Number of each Overtone expresses its wavelength as a fraction of the
fundamental wavelength:
Overtone Nr.3 = 1/3 of the Fundamental wavelength

Overtones are therefore also called partials.
The Fundamental tone is repeated each octave, and its Overtone Nr. increases each
time by a magnitude of 2.
For the overtones of C’ for example:
Nr. 1 = C’ (the Fundamental)

Nr. 2 = 2 x 1 = C
Nr. 4 = 2 x 2 = c
Nr. 8 = 2 x 4 = c’
Nr.16 = 2 x 8 = c”
Nr.32 = 2 x 16 = c”‘
Nr.64 = 2 x 32 = c”“ etc.
The number of Overtones doubles within each successive octave.
JT 2.4 - What the Ear perceives
The human ear (or rather the human brain) consciously perceives in most cases
only the fundamental pitch of the tone. This is partly because all overtones have a nodal
point (point of no vibration) at the nodal points of the fundamental and thus re-enforce the
fundamental tone. Another important reason why we only tend to distinguish the
fundamental tone is that three of the first four tones of the Overtone series represent the
same (fundamental) tone at successive octave levels.
The human brain recognises the composite of overtones as the characteristic sound
and timbre of an instrument, for the vibration intensity of individual overtones varies
considerably for each type of instrument. This is largely how we recognise the difference
in sound between a piano, a flute, a guitar, a saxophone, and so on.
Life is Music.1
According to the familiar structure of the harmonic overtone series, the periodic
vibration of a medium produces a fundamental tone which contains within it an infinite
series of overtones. In addition, each overtone can itself be considered a fundamental tone
with an infinite overtone series of its own. The picture is one of an infinite matrix of
harmonic vibration.
1
(www.stokstad.com/cyberspacecafe/lifeismusic2.html [2/3/01])
107
The relationships between the overtones in the series described above are not
chaotic but are organized in a beautiful sequence of whole number ratios: 1:2, 2:3, 3:4.
This is because the medium, for example, a piano string, is not only vibrating as a whole,
but is also vibrating as if divided into halves, thirds, fourths, etc., on to infinity. If the
frequency of the fundamental tone (called “1” in the series) is vibrating at 100 cycles per
second, then the frequency of the next overtone, “2”, would be 200cps, or twice that of the
fundamental; “3”= 300cps, “4”= 400cps, etc.
Frank Lamonica, Lesson Supplement: The Acoustics of Music.1
Harmonics and Overtones
When a string is set into motion, the frequency or “pitch” we usually hear is
referred to as the “fundamental” pitch. That pitch is also called the “first harmonic.” The
two points which attach the strings are the “nodes” of the fundamental vibration. What is
not obvious is that each string also vibrates simultaneously at many other frequencies, each
progressively higher in pitch and lower in amplitude (volume). When the fundamental
pitch is created by the vibration of a string of length x, additional frequencies, called
“overtones” or “higher harmonics”, begin vibrating with effective lengths of x/2, x/3, x/4,
x/5, etc. Each of these additional frequencies vibrate between additional imaginary nodes
that are located exactly at the points on the string which are integer divisibles of the string
length.
The basic physical law which governs vibrating objects states that the frequency of
a vibrating string is inversely proportional to the string length. What that means is if a
string of length x vibrates at frequency f, than that same string if cut to length x/2 will
vibrate at 2f. Since strings vibrate simultaneously at all integer subdivisions of the string
length (effectively creating shorter and shorter string lengths), the vibrating string will
produce additional pitches, called higher harmonics or overtones, at frequencies of 2f, 3f,
4f, 5f, and higher.
Pitch is paradoxical. Pitch is fundamental frequency.2
The pitch of a pure tone is simply its frequency. A harmonic tone consists of a sum
of pure tones (each one called a partial), whose frequencies are in integer ratios of 1, 2, 3,
.…, etc. Partials related in this way are called the harmonics of the tone. The frequency of
the first harmonic is the fundamental frequency.
1. Definition.
THE OVERTONE SERIES. The set of vibrations produced by a body resonating as

a whole, in halves, in thirds, and so on ad infinitum, such that its resultant pitches are
related to one another in the ratios of 2:1, of 3:2, of 4:3, etc., the frequency of the pitch
being inversely proportional to the length of the vibrating body (e.g. given a string length
of 1, f = ½), with the lowest pitch, or ‘fundamental’, and the other pitches, called ‘over-
tones’, ‘partials’, or ‘harmonics’, superimposed upon it giving the tone its timbre.
1
(www.classic-guitar.com/less5sup.html [2/3/01])
2
(www.ihear.com/Pitch/paradoxical.html [2/3/01])
108
2. On the overtone series.
As we have seen, the overtone series is the set of vibrations produced by a body
resonating as a whole, in halves, in thirds, and so on ad infinitum, such that its resultant
pitches (called ‘overtones’, or ‘partials’, or ‘harmonics’) are related to one another in the
ratios of 2:1, of 3:2, of 4:3, etc. (the frequency of the pitch being inversely proportional to
the length of the vibrating body: e.g. given a string length of 1, f = ½, etc.). “Of these,”
says Dr. Charles W. L. Johnson,
the lowest in pitch is generally the loudest. Superimposed upon this lowest pitch
there will be found a group of fainter pitches, standing at certain definite distances
from one another. These are the so-called overtones, and it is their presence which
determines the ‘quality’ of the sound as a whole…. In a musical sound, then, of the
constituent related pitches one is predominant. This gives the note its name and
position.1
This predominant pitch, called the ‘fundamental’, therefore ‘rules over’ the other
tones, the overtones or partials, since they arise from it and are subordinated to it.
With regard to this ordering, a more recent writer has noted that, “Although the
overtone series continues with complex vibration indefinitely, it is necessary to put an
upper limit on the series for practical purposes.”2 He goes on to say that the first sixteen
partials are the ones most commonly used in music, and orders them as follows:
Tonic Partials
The first, second, fourth, eighth, and sixteenth partials are the tonic degrees
in successive octaves. The tonic degrees are derived by doubling partial
numbers starting with the first partial.
Dominant Partials
The third, sixth, and twelfth partials are the dominant degrees found in the
second octave (3rd partial), third octave (6th partial), and fourth octave
(12th partial) of a given series. The dominant degrees are derived by
doubling the partial numbers starting with the third partial.
Mediant (Major) Partials
The fifth and tenth partials are the mediant (major) degrees found in the
third octave (5th partial) and fourth octave (10th partial) of a given series.
The upper partial is derived by doubling the lower partial.
Subtonic Partials
1
Charles W. L. Johnson, ‘The Motion of the Voice, h( th=j fwnh=j ki/nesij, in the Theory of Ancient Music’,
TAPhA 30, 1899, p. 42-3. I return to this subject below.
2
Cf. the passage cited above.
109
The seventh and fourteenth partials are the out-of-tune subtonic degrees
found in the third octave (7th partial) and fourth octave (14th partial) of a
given series. The upper partial is derived by doubling the lower. It may help
to think of the seventh partial as a simple interval to remember its scale
degree although it is actually a minor 21st from the fundamental.
The Fourth Octave Partials
If the ninth through fourteenth partials are thought of as intervals and then
reduced to simple intervals, the scale degree numbers are produced. That is,
the ninth partial (9 - 7 = 2) is the supersonic; the tenth partial (10 - 7 = 3) is
the mediant; the eleventh partial (11 - 7 = 4) is the out-of-tune raised sub-
dominant (the only time the subdominant occurs it is raised and out of
tune); the twelfth partial (12 - 7 = 5) is the dominant; the thirteenth partial
(13 - 7 = 6) is the submediant (major); and the fourteenth partial (14 - 7 = 7)
is the out-of-tune subtonic. The fifteenth partial is not carried through the
interval reduction process; it is considered the leading tone to the sixteenth
partial (tonic). [end excerpt]
The overtone series is therefore seen to consist in something principal and some-
thing subject to what is principal—the ruler or ruling principle being the fundamental, or
fundamental tone, and the subjects ruled by that principle the overtones or partials (or par-
tial tones). In sum, the overtone series is an instance of a kind of rule. On this matter, cf.
the following texts:
3. On what is principal and what is subject in a harmony of sounds: that in a

harmony of sounds, some one ‘voice’ (or ‘note’) predominates.
Aristotle, Pol., I. 5 (1254a 24-34) (ed. W. D. Ross; tr. B. Jowett).
kai\ ei)/dh polla\ kai\ a)rxo/ntwn And there are many kinds both of rulers and
subjects
kai\ [25] a)rxome/nwn e)/stin kai\ a)ei\ belti/wn (and that rule is the better which is exercised
h( a)rxh\ h( tw=n beltio/nwn a)rxome/nwn, oi(=on over better subjects—for example, to rule over
a)nqrw/pou h)\ qhri/ou: men is better than to rule over wild beasts;
to\ ga\r a)potelou/menon u(po\ tw=n beltio/nwn for the work is better which is executed by
be/ltion e)/rgon: o(/pou de\ to\ me\n a)/rxei to\ d’ better workmen, and where one man rules and
a)/rxetai, e)/sti ti tou/twn e)/rgon: another is ruled, they may be said to have a
work);
o(/sa ga\r e)k pleio/nwn sune/sthke kai\ for in all things which form a composite whole
gi/netai e(/n ti koino/n, ei)/te e)k sunexw=n ei)/te and which are made up of parts, whether
e)k [30] dih?rhme/nwn, e)n a(/pasin e)mfai/netai continuous or discrete, a distinction between the
to\ a)/rxon kai\ to\ a)rxo/menon, ruling and the subject element comes to light.
kai\ tou=to e)k th=j a(pa/shj fu/sewj Such a duality exists in living creatures, but not
e)nupa/rxei toi=j e)myu/xoij: in them only; it originates in the constitution of
the universe;
110
kai\ ga\r e)n toi=j mh\ mete/xousi zwh=j e)/sti tij even in things which have no life there is a
a)rxh/, oi(=on a(rmoni/aj. ruling principle, as in a musical mode.
a)lla\ tau=ta me\n i)/swj e)cwterikwte/raj e)sti\ But we are wandering from the subject.
ske/yewj:
St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Pol., lect. 3, nn. 5-8 (tr. B.A.M.).
LB1 LC-3N.-5
deinde cum dicit quaecumque enim ex pluribus Then when he says, Whatever things [are put
etc., ostendit propositum ex ratione. together] from many things, etc. he shows what
he has proposed by argument.
et ponit rationem ad ostendendum quod aliqui And he gives an argument for showing that
sunt naturaliter servi quibus expedit servire. some things are naturally servants for whom it
is expedient to serve.
secundo ostendit qui sint tales, ibi, quicumque Second, he shows who are such, at, Whoever
quidem igitur etc.. therefore, etc.
circa primum ponit talem rationem. With respect to the first, he gives the following
argument.
quaecumque sunt ex pluribus constituta, in his Whatever things are constituted from many
est aliquid principans et aliquid subiectum things, in these there is something ruling [or
naturaliter, et hoc expedit. principal] and something naturally subject, and
this is expedient.
sed hominum multitudo est ex pluribus But a multitude of men is constituted from
constituta: many things.
ergo naturale est et expediens quod unus It is therefore natural and expedient that one be
principetur et alius subiiciatur. made ruler, and the other made subject.
huius autem rationis minor manifesta est ex Now the minor of this argument is clear from
praemissis: in quibus ostensum est quod homo the things premised, in which it has been shown
est naturaliter animal politicum, et ita naturale that man is naturally a political animal, and so it
est quod ex multis hominibus constituatur una is natural that one multitude be constituted from
multitudo. many men.
LB1 LC-3N.-6
unde, ea praetermissa, probat maiorem: And so, having premised these things, he proves
the major,
et sic in hac ratione tria facit. and so in this argument he does three things.
primo ponit maiorem. First, he sets down the major.
secundo probat eam, ibi, et hoc ex omni natura Second, he proves it at And from this every
111
etc.. nature, etc.
tertio infert conclusionem, ibi, eodem autem Third, he draws the conclusion at But in the
modo etc.. same way, etc.
dicit ergo primo, quod quaecumque sunt He says, therefore, first that whatever things are
constituta ex pluribus ita quod ex eis fiat unum constituted from many things such that one
commune, common thing result from them—
sive illa plura sint coniuncta, sicut membra whether the many be conjoined, as the limbs of
corporis coniunguntur ad constitutionem totius, the body are conjoined for the constitution of
sive sint divisa sicut ex multis militibus the whole, or whether they be divided, as from
constituitur unus exercitus, many soldiers one army is constituted —
in omnibus his invenitur esse principans et in all these there is found a ruler (or ‘what is
subiectum: principal’) and a subject (or ‘what is subject’):
et hoc est naturale et expediens, ut per singula and this is natural and expedient, as will be clear
patebit exempla. by taking individual cases.
LB1 LC-3N.-7
dicit ergo primo, quod veritas praemissae He says, therefore, first, that the truth of the
propositionis invenitur in rebus animatis: things premised in the proposition is found in
animate things:
non quasi sit eis proprium, sed ex eo quod est not as if it were proper to them, but from the
commune toti naturae: fact that it is common to the whole of nature:
quia etiam in his quae non participant vita, est since even in what does not have a share in life
aliquis principatus, puta harmoniae. there is something made principal, as in the case
of harmony.
quod potest intelligi dupliciter. This can be understood in two ways.
uno modo de harmonia sonorum; quia semper in In one way, of a harmony of sounds; the reason
vocibus quae consonant aliqua vox being that in ‘voices’ [or ‘notes’] which sound
praedominatur, secundum quam tota harmonia concordantly, some one note predominates,
diiudicatur. according to which the whole harmony is
judged.
potest etiam intelligi de harmonia elementorum It can also be understood of the harmony of
in corpore mixto, in quo semper unum elements in a mixed body, in which one of the
elementorum est praedominans. elements is always predominant.
sed huiusmodi pertransit, quia sunt extrinseca ab But he passes over these sorts of things because
hac consideratione. they are extrinsic to this consideration.
LB1 LC-3N.-8
deinde cum dicit animal autem primum etc., Then when he says, But an animal, etc. he
ostendit propositum in partibus hominis, shows his intention in the parts of man,
112
et dicit quod prima compositio animalis est ex and he says that the first composition is of the
anima et corpore. soul and body,
quae quidem compositio dicitur prima, non which composition is called ‘first’ not
secundum ordinem generationis, sed secundum according to the order of generation, but
principalitatem, quia est ex partibus according to what is principal, because it
principalissimis: consists of the principal parts.
harum autem partium una est naturaliter Now of these parts one is naturally the ruling
principans, scilicet anima; alia vero subiecta, principle, as is the soul, but the others subject,
scilicet corpus. namely, the body.
posset autem aliquis dicere quod hoc non est Now someone might say that this is not natural
naturale, cum non inveniatur in omnibus; because it is not found in all things—
et ideo ad hoc excludendum subdit quod ad and so in order to exclude this he adds that in
iudicandum quid sit naturale, oportet order to judge what is natural, one must
considerare ea quae se habent secundum consider those things which have themselves
naturam, non autem ea quae sunt corrupta, quia according to nature, not those which are
huiusmodi deficiunt a natura. corrupted, since these fall short of nature.
et ideo ad iudicandum quae pars in homine And so in order to judge which part in man is
naturaliter principetur, oportet considerare naturally subject to what is principal, one must
aliquem hominem qui sit bene dispositus et consider some man who is well disposed, both
secundum animam et secundum corpus in quo with respect to the soul and with respect to the
est manifestum quod anima corpori dominatur. body, in which it is obvious that soul is
dominant with respect to the body.
4. In sum:
“[O]r in all things which form a composite whole and which are made up of parts,
whether continuous or discrete, a distinction between the ruling and the subject element
comes to light. Such a duality exists in living creatures, but not in them only; it originates
in the constitution of the universe; even in things which have no life there is a ruling
principle, as in a musical mode. But we are wandering from the subject.” (Aristotle Pol., I.
5, 1254a 29-34)
“He says, therefore, first, that the truth of the things premised in the proposition is
found in animate things: not as if it were proper to them, but from the fact that it is
common to the whole of nature: since even in what does not have a share in life there is
something made principal, as in the case of harmony. This can be understood in two ways.
In one way, of a harmony of sounds; the reason being that in ‘voices’ [or ‘notes’] which
sound concordantly, some one note predominates, according to which the whole harmony
is judged. It can also be understood of the harmony of elements in a mixed body, in which
one of the elements is always predominant. But he passes over these sorts of things
because they are extrinsic to this consideration.” (St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Pol., lect. 3, n.
7, tr. B.A.M.)
5. Principles.
113
• ruler and subject
• what is made principal, which predominates, or is predominant
• what is made subject
• in a harmony of sounds
• in a harmony of elements in a mixed body
In the former some one sound predominates according to which the whole harmony is
judged. It can also be understood of the harmony of elements in a mixed body, in which
one of the elements is always predominant. But, as the following texts show, such a
relationship constitutes a hierarchy:
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theol., Ia, q. 108, art. 1, c. (tr. B.A.M.).
I reply that it must be said that a hierarchy is a sacred principate, as has been said.
Now in the name ‘principate’ two things are understood, namely, the ‘prince’ itself, and
the multitude ordered under the prince.1
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theol., Ia, q. 108, art. 2, c. (tr. B.A.M.).
I reply that it must be said that, as has been said, one hierarchy is one principate,
that is, one multitude ordered in one way under the governance of a prince. But a multitude
would not be ordered, but rather confused, if there were not diverse orders in the multitude.
Therefore the very notion of hierarchy requires a diversity of orders.2
6. In sum.
According to St. Thomas, a hierarchia, properly speaking, is a sacred ‘principate’

or ‘ruling body’; a principate being a multitude ordered in one way under one princeps;
that is, one multitude ordered in one way under the governance of one prince. But the name
is customarily used to name any ‘principate’, or what is analogous to such. Now as we
have seen, in every multitude there is something principal and something subject to what is
principal, as in a political community there is a ruler or ruling principle and the subjects
ruled by that principle. But one must also note that, as St. Thomas goes on to explain in ar-
ticle 2 of the same question of the Summa, every multitude includes a diversity of orders,
as in the state there is an order of magistracies, an order of soldiers, an order of farmers,
etc. But all such orders can be reduced to three, inasmuch as every perfect multitude has a
beginning, a middle, and an end.3
1
respondeo dicendum quod hierarchia est sacer principatus, ut dictum est. in nomine autem principatus duo
intelliguntur, scilicet ipse princeps, et multitudo ordinata sub principe.
2
respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, una hierarchia est unus principatus, idest una multitudo
ordinata uno modo sub principis gubernatione. non autem esset multitudo ordinata, sed confusa, si in
multitudine diversi ordines non essent. ipsa ergo ratio hierarchiae requirit ordinum diversitatem.
3
sed quamvis multi sint unius civitatis ordines, omnes tamen ad tres possunt reduci, secundum quod
quaelibet multitudo perfecta habet principium, medium et finem. “But although there are many orders
114
In this respect, consider St. Augustine’s definition of ordo: Order is the disposition
[or ‘arrangement’] of things equal and unequal in rank, assigning its proper place to each
one. (City of God, xix. 13.1) Hence the disparity, or difference in rank, found in the diverse
grades of such a multitude constitutes a hierarchy; such an ordination being one according
to dignity.
Hence, inasmuch as it is a multitude ordered in one way under the governance of

one ruling principle, the overtone series is a hierarchy and therefore a perfect multitude: As
such, it has a beginning, a middle, and an end: the beginning being the fundamental, which
is the ‘best’, and so holds the highest place; the middle being the lower partials, whose
relationship to the fundamental is perceptible, and so hold the middle place; and the end
being the higher partials which are so distant from the fundamental that their relation to it
is not perceptible, and so hold the lowest place. Again, as we have noted above, there is a
diversity of orders found in the overtone series: tonic partials, dominant partials, as well as
mediant (or major), subtonic, and fourth octave partials; such a diversity also being proper
to a hierarchy.
belonging to one state, nevertheless they all can be reduced to three according as in any perfect multitude
there is a beginning, a middle, and an end”.
115
XI. ON TONALITY.
1. Tonality as consisting in a hierarchy.
Solomon’s Music Gallery. “What is Tonality?” (The Tonal Center).1
Tonality describes the relationships between the elements of melody and

harmony—tones, intervals, chords, scales, and the chromatic gamut; but particularly those
types of relationship that are characterised as hierarchical, such that one of the elements
dominates or attracts another. These relationships occur both within and between every
type of element, making a complex weave between a tone and its melodic, harmonic, and
chromatic contexts. When this weave is coherent and stable we have a tonal system which
is coherent and stable.
The major and minor scale systems and the part that they play as members of the
chromatic gamut is one such system.
In its most conventional sense, tonality refers to just the major and minor scale
types—scales whose elements are capable of maintaining a consistent set of functional
relationships. The most important functional relationship is that of the tonic note and the
tonic chord with the rest of the scale. The tonic is the element which tends to assert its
dominance and attraction over all others, and it functions as the ultimate point of attraction,
rest and resolution for the scale.
Solomon’s Music Gallery. “What is Tonality?” (The Tonal Center). Music Glossary.
tonality. a hierarchy (ranking) of pitch-class. Tonal is the adjective. If only one pitch-class
is stressed more than others in a piece of music, the music is said to be tonal. If all pitch-
class are treated as equally important, the music is said to be atonal, or pantonal.
tone. 1. a pitch and all of its overtones. 2. a whole-step, or whole-tone.
tonic. the predominant pitch-class. Tonic is not necessarily the first pitch-class of a scale;
i.e., a C major scale does not have to start or end on a tonic in a musical context, yet it is a
C major scale. The convention in writing scales out of context, however, is to begin and
end on the tonic. A tonic is determined by its prominence in the music (by means of
repetition, accents, and other means of emphasis). Thus, a tonic can only be determined in
a musical context, which is why a key signature cannot tell us what the key is. Syn., tonal
center.
Encyclopedia.com
TONALITY. In music, a quality by which all tones of a composition are heard in

relation to a central tone called the keynote, or tonic. Some relationship to a tonic is
characteristic of all music except that in which it is deliberately avoided (see atonality and
twelve-tone music).
The term tonality is also used in contrast to modality (see mode).
1
(www.tonalcentre.org [2/3/01])
116
Sir James Jeans, Science and Music (Dover Books, 1968). From Chapter 5, p. 169.
A collection of notes played in succession does not of itself constitute a melody

which can awaken our musical imagination; to satisfy modern musical feeling, there must
be a further element, which we describe as tonality. Our musical thought does not wish to
wander indifferently all over the scale; it remains associated always with one particular
note, the tonic or key note, which we somehow think of as giving a fixed and central point.
Just as the traveller thinks of each point of his journey in terms of its distance from his
home, so we moderns think of each note of a melody in terms of its interval from the key
note.1 The skilful composer contrives to make us conscious of the key note from the very
beginning of his music, and keeps our minds conscious of its position through all the notes
that are played. In general, for instance, we expect the music—or at least the bass of it—to
end on the key note, just as the traveller expects his journey to end at his home; we refuse
to accept any other ending place as final. Even ancient Greek music had a sort of key
note—the tone of the middle string of the lyre; Aristotle tells us that “All good melodies
often employ the tone of the middle string, and good composers often come upon it, and if
they leave it, recur to it again; but this is not the case with any other tone.”
Ernst Terhardt, Basse Fondamentale (Root-Relationship).2
Since hundreds of years, composers and theorists of music have been aware that
each individual sound of music, especially chords, bears a close relationship to a
fundamental note that characterizes and determines its harmony. In the 16th Century,
Generalbass notation occurred, i.e., a reduced notation system that takes advantage of the
fact that the harmonic layout of a piece of tonal music can be prescribed by just denoting
the corresponding sequence of bass notes. Primarily, a bass note indicated a major triad of
which that note was the “root”. Variants thereof, i.e., minor chords, sixths, diminished
chords, etc., were indicated by numbers added to the bass notes. Until present days, this
kind of simplified notation is widely in use, essentially in improvised music such as in
Jazz.
While in the Generalbass technique the performer’s task was to find appropriate
chords to given bass notes, a crucial task of harmonic analysis of any given piece is to find
the fundamental notes of the prescribed sounds. Indeed, many relevant musical features of
a given chord can be characterized by a single note, i.e., the chord’s root. There is a mutual
relationship between chords and fundamental notes, i.e., roots.
In many types of music the fundamental notes are not necessarily played on any
instrument. Rather, they are implied in both the “horizontal” (melodic) and “vertical”
(harmonic) structure of the music. In this sense they are virtual. Countless sophisticated
examples of this phenomenon are included in J. S. Bach’s music.
1
One should compare here Aristotle’s observation on the ‘free-running’ style of composition: “This style is
unsatisfying just because it goes on indefinitely—one always likes to sight a stopping-place in front of one: it
is only at the goal that men in a race faint and collapse; while they see the end of the course before them, they
can keep on going” (Rhet., III. 9 (1409a 31-34) (tr. W. Rhys Roberts). Much preferable is the ‘compact’ style
arising from the use of the period, as he goes on to explain. Cf. the notion of periodicity, which may be
defined as the property of being repeated at regular intervals. And cf. also our ‘Aristotetlian’ observation on
metre above: “Now a given metre is a species of rhythm differing from it by the regularity of the recurrence
of its characteristic foot, creating in the listener an expectation of its immediate return”.
2
(www.mmk.ei.tum.de/persons/ter/top/basse.html [2/4/08])
117
Another, fairly simple example is the “Alberti” accompaniment of melodies that so
frequently was employed by W. A. Mozart, e.g., in his piano sonatas. Those “Alberti”
notes are not to be regarded as bass notes (comparable to those of the baroque Generalbass
music) but as arpeggized chords that in turn represent virtual bass notes.
So it is more or less evident that, from the beginning of polyphony, tonal music has
been based upon, and has taken advantage of, the mutual relationship that exists between
chords and fundamental notes—just as if that relationship were a basic auditory
phenomenon such as the affinity of tones, in particular, octave equivalence.
J.P. Rameau (1722, 1750) was the first who, in his Traite de l’Harmonie, explicitly
treated the fundamental notes as an auditory percept. He regarded the basse fondamentale
as an “implied” or “inferred” auditory feature of sound which nevertheless has
psychological reality and is of crucial significance in tonal music.
And this is exactly what the basse fondamentale actually is: An auditory percept,
though a virtual one. Any pitch corresponding to any fundamental note merely is a virtual
pitch [22] , [30] , [34] , [35] , [53] , [56] , [59] , [63] , [72] , [76] , [104] p. 398, 404. So,
the theory of virtual pitch can be employed as a universal tool to determine the roots of any
type of musical sound [53] (see topic harmony).
This implies that the root of musical chords is not merely a theoretical (though
quite useful and smart) concept, but that it is an attribute of auditory sensation, i.e., virtual
pitch. It may be true that in a typical musical context one is rarely, if ever, aware of
perceiving roots as definite pitches. This does not disprove, however, that those virtual
pitches are perceived unconsciously, and that they may become conscious when attention
is properly guided. Apparently, Rameau was the first who became aware of those
“unconscious” pitches, and made them apparent in his concept of harmony.
In fact, even for ordinary listeners those pitches can be lifted into conscious
perception. An efficient trick to accomplish this is designing a fairly rapid sequence of
chords in random inversions, the roots of which define a melody. Provided that the chords
are designed such that this melody is not discernible from the tones of the chords,
presentation of the sequence to listeners is a test of whether or not they can perceive the
virtual pitches of the roots. If they can recognize the melody “hidden” in the chord
sequence, one can conclude that they have perceived a corresponding sequence of virtual
pitches [35], [104] p. 28 (cf. the CD attached to [104]). Through many years I have
presented this demonstration to many audiences (The melody was the French tune “Sur le
pont d’Avignon”); throughout, 80-90% of the listeners recognized the melody.
In 1976/77 we have carried out a formal test of auditory root recognition. Students
of music (who already had taken some lessons on transcription of music) were asked to
transcribe the virtual pitches they heard in brief sequences of 5 sounds. These sounds were
either dyads or triads designed such that the pertinent root sequences were composed of the
tones C, D, E, F, G. Both the composition of the dyads and triads, respectively, and the
order of the five root notes were randomized. In this test, three out of nine subjects
achieved 70%-83% correct recognition of root sequences. Another four subjects scored
8%-20%, and two subjects scored just above the borderline of significance (Note that there
are 5! = 120 permutations of the above five root notes. So the chance for correct guessing
without recognizing anything was only 0.8 percent.) [34], [104] p. 400.
In summary, there can be hardly any doubt that Rameau’s basse fondamentale, i.e.,
the root of chords, has got its psychophysical explanation in the above findings.
Author: Ernst Terhardt terhardt@ei.tum.de Feb 28, 2000
118
2. Tonality according to Molly Gustin:
Molly Gustin, Tonality (New York: Philosophical Library, 1969). Chapter One: The
Perceived Sound, footnote, p. 10.
Whenever a musical tone is sounded, whether produced by a vibrating string or an

air column, what actually occurs is a whole set of vibrations which the ear synthesizes into
one sound. For the string vibrates simultaneously, or nearly, simultaneously, as a whole, in
halves, in thirds, etc. ad infinitum. Each of these vibrations produces a partial tone. If the
frequency produced by the string as a whole is 1, then the frequency produced by half the
string is 2, and by a third of the string is 3, and so on. This physical manifestation of the
natural numbers was discovered by the physicist Joseph Sauveur in the seventeenth
century.
“I was made to observe that especially at night one may hear from long strings not
only the principal sound but also other small sounds…such that the number of vibrations is
a multiple of the number for the fundamental sounds…. I concluded that the string in
addition to the undulations it makes in its entire length so as to form the fundamental
sound may divide itself in two, in three, in four, etc. undulations….”
Joseph Sauveur, “System general des intervalles des sons, & son application à tous
les instrumens de musique,” Mém. acad. sci. Paris 1701.
Molly Gustin, Tonality. Chapter One: The Perceived Sound, footnote, p. 11.
The overtone series is relevant to music because musical tones, including those of
the human voice, are produced by the impingement of a set of pulses in the air upon the
hearing organ of a person. A pulse is a periodic alternation between high and low air pres-
sure. The wave lengths of a set of pulses or partial tones which constitute a single musical
tone are related to each other as are the positive integers, 1, 2, 3, … etc. Each musical tone
consists of a theoretically infinite quantity of these wave trains. Of course the set of pulses
which our instruments measure is always a finite set. How many partials are perceived de-
pends upon the sensitivity of the instrument.
Molly Gustin, Tonality in sum:
Music is tonal if the majority of its adjacent tones, whether simultaneous or consec-
utive, form single-rooted sets. Tonal music thus possesses one or more perceptible com-
mon measures, or roots, among its tones. Some music is tonal and some music is not tonal.
Some music is more tonal than other music. (p. 78)
The measure of tonality is the following: The greater the quantity of simultaneous
common measures, or roots, to which the tones of a composition are related, the higher the
degree of tonality. (p. 78)
Music is tonal if, and only if, the majority of its adjacent tones, whether simul-
taneous or consecutive, form single-rooted sets. The greater the quantity of simultaneous
common measures to which the tones of a composition are related, the more tonal is the
composition. p. 81)
119
The root of a set of tones (or that tone which appears to be most important) is the
tone of the set which is represented by the lowest power of 2, and is, therefore, either the
fundamental of the set or an octave transposition of that fundamental. (p. 39)
By “set” I merely mean a group of tones whose frequencies are related to each
other as are the integers which represent them, quite apart from the temporal order of oc-
currence of the tones, whether simultaneous or successive. (p. 10)
The overtone series is relevant to music because musical tones, including those of
the human voice, are produced by the impingement of a set of pulses in the air upon the
hearing organ of a person. (p. 11)
3. A composite definition of tonality derived from the foregoing:
Tonality may be defined as that quality music has when the majority of its adjacent
tones, whether simultaneous or consecutive, form single-rooted sets—that is, when it pos-
sesses one or more perceptible common measures, or roots, among its tones (the root of a
set being that tone which is represented by the lowest power of 2, and is therefore either
the fundamental of the set or an octave transposition of that fundamental); but a set is a
group of tones whose frequencies are related to each other as are the integers which re-
present them, quite apart from the temporal order of occurrence of the tones, whether
simultaneous or successive.
4. Notes on tonality.
• a compound or complex sound

• the interrelationship of pitches
• having a root
When the pitches are related to one another on certain numerical principles—that
is, when they embody, or at the least, approximate, the lower partials of the overtone
series, there is tonality. Again, there is tonality when the predominant pitch determines the
fundamental of an overtone series. Its genus is quality, coming under its first species,
habitus. Quality answers the question, of what sort is it? But in saying that a piece of music
is ‘tonal’ or ‘has tonality’, one is saying what sort it is. For this reason it is a disposition: in
a thing having parts, it is an order of parts according to form or species. It admits a vari-
ation of degree. Tonality is that quality which music has when the majority of its adjacent
tones, whether simultaneous or consecutive, form single-rooted sets; that is, when it pos-
sesses one or more perceptible common measures, or roots, among its tones. The root of a
set of tones being that tone which is represented by the lowest power of 2, and is, there-
fore, either the fundamental of the set or an octave transposition of that fundamental.
120
XII. DEFINITIONS OF HARMONY.
§1. ACCORDING TO PHILOLAUS THE PYTHAGOREAN.
Philolaus, DK fr. 10 (tr. Andrew Barker).
Harmonia comes to be in all respects out of opposites: for Harmonia is a

unification of things mutually mixed, and an agreement of things that disagree.
Philolaus, DK fr. 6 (tr. Andrew Barker).
This is how it is with Nature and Harmony: the Being of things is eternal, and
Nature itself requires divine and not human intelligence; moreover, it would be impossible
for any existing thing to be even recognised by us if there did not exist the basic Being of
things from which the universe was composed, (namely) both the Limiting and the Non-
Limited. But since these Elements exist as unlike and unrelated, it would clearly be
impossible for a universe to be created with them unless a harmony was added, in which
way this (harmony) did come into being.
Now the things which were like and related needed no harmony; but the things which
were unlike and unrelated and unequally arranged are necessarily fastened together by
such a harmony, through which they are destined to endure in the universe. (Philolaus,
DK fr. 6; tr. Kathleen A. Freeman)
The magnitude of harmonia is syllaba and di’oxeian.1 The di’oxeain is greater than
the syllaba in epogdoic ratio.2 From hypate to mese is a syllaba, from mese to neate is a
di’oxeian, from neate to trite is a syllaba, and from trite to hypate is a di’oxeian.3
The interval between trite and mese is epogdoic, the syllaba is epitiritic, the
di’oxeian hemiolic, and the dia pason is duple.4
Thus harmonia consists of five epigdoics and two dieses; di’oxeian is three
epogdoics and a diesis; and syllaba is two epogdoics and a diesis.5
1
Here harmonia acquires the sense ‘(attunement of) the octave’. Syllaba is the fourth and di’oxeian
the fifth. The terminology is explained in 10 Nicomachus Ench. ch. 9, where this paragraph is
quoted. A somewhat different account is given by Aelianus ap. Porph. Comm. 96.21-3, 96.29-97.8;
cf. also 12 Arist. Quint. De Mus. 15.8-10. The use of harmonia to mean ‘octave’ is related to its
sense ‘system of attunement’ through the treatment of such systems as exemplifying species of the
octave: see, for example, 7 Aristox. El. Harm. 46.30-2, 12 Arist. Quint. De Mus. 15.9-20.
It seems unlikely that Philolaus wrote this paragraph as the immediate successor of the one
printed before it, though that is how Stobaeus quotes them. But their uses of the notion of harmonia
must be related. In the musical case, notes and intervals are coordinated by taking their place
within the embracing framework of the octave, becoming articulations of its parts. Something
similar holds for the components of the universe and its all-inclusive harmonia. Then concordant
and melodic musical relations are not so in their own right, but only as entering into the octave
structure. Contrast the standpoint of the Pythagoreans discussed in 1.8 Porph. Comm. 107.15ff.
121
2
That is, the ratio 9:8, that of the tone. (The tone, whether conceived as a ratio or as an intervallic
distance, is standardly defined by Greek writers as the difference between the fourth and the fifth,
e.g., 7 Aristox. El. Harm. 21.22-3, 45.34-46.1; 8 Eucl. Sect. Can. proposition 13.)
3
Here hypate is hypate meson, neate (a variant form of nete) is nete diezeugmenon. What Philolaus
calls trite corresponds to the position of the note which most writers call paramese, trite
diezeugmenon being the name normally given to the note a semitone or leimma above it (in the
diatonic genus).
Standard Terminology Philolaus
Nete (diezeugmenon) Neate

Paranete (diezeugmenon)
Trite (diezeugmenon)
Paramese Trite
Mese Mese
Lichanos (meson)
Parhypate (meson)
Hypate (meson) Hypate
The oddity of Philolaus’ terminology is important because trite means ‘third (note)’, and its use
here implies that only one note lay between it and neate. Then Philolaus’ octave system contained
at most seven notes. A persistent tradition held that early scale systems, whether they covered an
octave or not, had only seven notes (the lyra often had only seven strings, even in the fifth
century); an eighth was added later. See especially 4.27 ps.-Ar. Probs. XIX.47, cf. 7 and 32 (and
GMW vol. 1, p. 198, n. 62), 10 Nicomachus Ench. chs. 5 and 9, ps.-Plut. De Mus. 1140f (and
GMW vol. 1, p. 233, n. 177), cf. 1137b-c. These sources do not tell a single, consistent story. Their
confusions may be due in part to the existence of two different seven-note systems, one formed by
a conjunction of two tetrachords, spanning a seventh, the other a ‘gapped’ system, spanning an
octave, formed by two fourths disjoined by a tone, but lacking a note in the upper tetrachord. See
notes to the passages mentioned, and cf. Levin (1975), pp. 75-84, Burkert (1972), pp. 391-4, with
the additional references given there.
4
These are the ratios standardly given for the tone and the concords, respectively 9:8, 4:3, 3:2, 2:1.
On the names of the ratios see 8 Eucl. Sec. Can. 149.14-24. Dia pason, literally, ‘through all (the
strings or notes)’, is the usual term for ‘octave’.
5
[Barker’s note omitted]
§2. ACCORDING TO PLATO.
Plato, Phaedo, 86b-c (adapted by B.A.M.).
(Understood of the soul) A mixture and a harmony of the hot and the cold, the wet
and the dry, and the like, when they are well and proportionately mixed. (In other words,
the soul understood as a harmony is a proportionate mixture of the hot and the cold, the
wet and the dry, and the like.)
Plato, Laws, 665a (adapted by B.A.M.).
The name for order in the voice (the simultaneous mixture of the high with the low)
is harmony.
122
Plat, Rep., III, 671b (adapted by B.A.M.).
That which is formed from all eight strings (sc. of the lyre).
Plato, Philebus, 17d (adapted by B.A.M.).
The systems which result from intervals of high and low ‘voices’ (= ‘notes’).
[Cf. also additional texts from Timaeus, Symposium, Laws, etc.]
§3. ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
Aristotle, De Anima, I. 4 (407b 30-2).
For men say the soul is a certain harmony; for they say a harmony is a tempering
and composition of contraries, and the body is composed from contraries. For a harmony is
either a certain ratio of things which are mixed, or even a composition.
Adapted from Aristotle, Rhet., III. 1 (1403b 30).
Harmony pertains to the high, the low, and the intermediate in the use of the voice.
(syn. melos)
Aristotle, Pol., III. 3 (1276b 6-10).
And similarly, every other community and composition (we say is) different if the
species of its composition is different, just as we will call a harmonia consisting of the
same notes different if at one time it is in the Dorian mode and at another in the Phrygian.
Aristotle, Pol., IV. 3 (1290a 14-29).
But (the forms of government) appear to be chiefly two, in the way in which it is
said of winds, some are ‘north’, some ‘south’, but the remaining ones of these are
deviations, in this way there are two governments, democracy and oligarchy. For they hold
aristocracy to be a form of oligarchy, as being a sort of oligarchy, and the one they call
‘government’, democracy, just as in winds (they hold) the west (to be a form of) the north,
and the east (a form of) the south.
Likewise in the case of the harmoniai, as some men say, for here, too, some hold
that there are two forms, the Dorian and the Phrygian; but with respect to the other
arrangements they call the ones ‘Dorian’, but the others ‘Phrygian’. In this way, then, men
are chiefly accustomed to think about governments.
But the way in which we divide them is truer and better, one or two being well
founded (i.e. aristocracy and ‘polity’), but the others deviations, the former, of well-
tempered harmoniai, the latter, of the best governments; oligarchies being those which are
harsher and more despotic, but the democratic ones relaxed and moderate.
123
Aristotle, Pol., VIII, 7, 1342 b? (tr. B. Jowett).
All men agree that the Dorian music is the gravest and manliest. And whereas we
say that the extremes should be avoided and the mean followed, and whereas the Dorian is
a mean between the other modes, it is evident that our youth should be taught the Dorian
music.
Aristotle, Pol., VIII, 7, 1342 a?-b? (tr. B. Jowett).
But since the spectators are of two kinds—the one free and educated, and the other
a vulgar crowd composed of mechanics, laborers, and the like—there ought to be contests
and exhibitions instituted for the relaxation of the second class also. And the music will
correspond to their minds; for as their minds are perverted from the natural state, so there
are perverted modes and highly strung and unnaturally colored melodies. A man receives
pleasure from what is natural to him, and therefore professional musicians may be allowed
to practice this lower sort of music before an audience of a lower type.
But, for the purposes of education, as I have already said, those modes and
melodies should be employed which are ethical, such as the Dorian, as we said before;
though we may include any others which are approved by philosophers who have had a
musical education. The Socrates of the Republic is wrong in retaining only the Phrygian
mode along with the Dorian, and the more so because he rejects the flute; for the Phrygian
is to the modes what the flute is to musical instruments—both of them are exciting and
emotional.
Poetry proves this, for Bacchic frenzy and all similar emotions are most suitably
expressed by the flute, and are better set to the Phrygian than to any other mode. The
dithyramb, for example, is acknowledged to be Phrygian, a fact of which the connoisseurs
of music offer many proofs, saying, among other things, that Philoxenus, having attempted
to compose his Mysians as a dithyramb in the Dorian mode, found it impossible, and fell
back by the very nature of things into the more appropriate Phrygian.
Aristotle, Pol., VIII, 5 (1340a 39—1340b 19) (tr. B Jowett).
On the other hand, even in mere melodies there is an imitation of character, for the
musical modes differ essentially from one another, and those who hear them are differently
affected by each. Some of them make men sad and grave, like the so-called Mixolydian,
others enfeeble the mind, like the relaxed modes, another, again, produces a moderate and
settled temper, which appears to be the peculiar effect of the Dorian; the Phrygian inspires
enthusiasm. The whole subject has been well treated by philosophical writers on this
branch of education, and they confirm their arguments by facts.
The same principles apply to rhythms; some have a character of rest, others of
motion, and of these latter again, some have a more vulgar, others a nobler movement.
Enough has been said to show that music has a power of forming the character, and
should therefore be introduced into the education of the young. The study is suited to the
stage of youth, for young persons will not, if they can help, endure anything which is not
sweetened by pleasure, and music has a natural sweetness. There seems to be in us a sort of
affinity to musical modes and rhythms, which makes some philosophers say that the soul is
a tuning, others, that it possesses tuning.
124
Aristotle, Metaphysics, last chapter of last book.
There are seven vowels, the scale consists of seven strings, the Pleiades are seven,
at seven animals lose their teeth (at least some do, though some do not), and the champions
who fought against Thebes were seven.
Aristotle, On Philosophy Frag. 25, ed. Ross, Eudemus, Frag. 47, ed. Rose, apud Ps.-
Plutarch, De Musica, 1139b—1140b (tr. Andrew Barker; rev. B.A.M.).
Harmonia is celestial, having a nature godlike, noble, and inspired. Being by nature
fourfold in capacity, it has two means, arithmetic and harmonic, and its parts, magnitudes,
and excesses appear in accord with number and equal measure. For mele are rhythmized in
two tetrachords.1
‘He [Aristotle] said that its body is made up of dissimilar parts, which nevertheless
are in concord with one another, and also that its means are concordant in correspondence
with numerical ratio.
Thus the highest note is attuned to the lowest in duple ratio, and yields the concord
of an octave. It has, as we said earlier, a highest note of 12 units and a lowest of 6, and its
paramese, which forms a concord in hemiolic ratio with hypate, has 9 units: mese, we said,
contains 8 units.
And it turns out that the most fundamental intervals of music are constituted out of
these—the fourth, which corresponds to epitritic ratio, [d] the fifth, which corresponds to
hemiolic, and the octave, which corresponds to duple.
The occurrence of the ratio 9:8 is also justified, since it is the ratio of the tone.
Further, the amounts by which the parts of the harmonia exceed and are exceeded
by the means are the same, both arithmetically and in terms of geometrical operations, as
the amounts by which the means exceed and are exceeded by the parts.
Thus Aristotle ascribes the following properties to the means.
Nete exceeds mese by a third part of itself, [e] and hypate is exceeded by mese in
the same way: hence these excesses are relational, since the terms exceed and are exceeded
by the same parts.
(Thus the extremes exceed and are exceeded by mese and paramese in the same
ratios, the epitritic and the hemiolic.) That, then, constitutes an excess of the harmonic
kind.
By contrast the excesses belonging to nete and to the arithmetical mean exhibit
differences that are equal.
(The case of the excess of paramese over hypate is the same, [f] since paramese
exceeds mese in the ratio 9:8, and again nete is double hypate, paramese is in hemiolic
ratio with hypate, and mese is tuned in epitritic ratio with hypate.)
This, then, is the natural constitution of harmonia in respect of both parts and numbers,
according to Aristotle too.
1 That is, tunes are arranged according to number in two tetrachords.
125
John Philoponus, Commentarius in De Anima, 141.33-142.6, 144.21—145.7, F 45 R3
(tr. ed. J. Barnes, The Complete Works of Aristotle, vol. two, p. 2401).
Some…thought that the soul was an attunement of the body, and that the different
kinds of soul answered to the different attunements of the body. This opinion Aristotle
states and refutes. In the present work [i.e. the de Anima] he first merely records the
opinion itself, but a little later on he also sets out the arguments that led to it. He had
already opposed this opinion elsewhere—I mean, in the dialogue Eudemus—and before
him Plato in the Phaedo had used five arguments against the view….
These are Plato’s five arguments. Aristotle himself, as I have said, has used the
following two arguments in the dialogue Eudemus. One goes thus: ‘Attunement’, he says,
‘has a contrary, lack of attunement; but the soul has no contrary. Therefore the soul is not
an attunement’…. Secondly: ‘The contrary of the attunement of the body is the lack of the
attunement of the body; and the lack of attunement of the living body is disease, weakness,
and ugliness—of these, disease is lack of attunement of the elements, weakness lack of
attunement of the uniform parts, ugliness lack of attunement of the instrumental parts. Now
if lack of attunement is disease, weakness, and ugliness, then attunement is health, strength
and beauty; but the soul is none of these—I mean, neither health nor strength nor beauty;
Thersites, the ugliest of men, had a soul. Therefore the soul is not an attunement.’
(Cf. Theophrastus in Fortenbaugh’s collection)
§4. ACCORDING TO THE ARISTOTELIAN TREATISE DE MUNDO AD ALEX.
(De Mundo ad Alex. 5, 396b 15-17).
The art of music simultaneously mixes ‘voices’ (= ‘notes’) high and low, and long
and short, and perfects a single harmony in different sounds.
§5. ACCORDING TO ARISTOXENUS OF TARENTUM.
Aristoxenus, Elementa Harmonica, II (tr. H. S. Macran).
Of the melodic and the unmelodic our predecessors have given no account
whatever, while as to the distinctions between systemata, some people did not even attempt
to enumerate them, devoting their research only to the seven octachords which they called
harmoniai.
§6. ACCORDING TO NICOMACHUS OF GERASA.
Nicomachus of Gerasa, Enchiridion, ch. 9.
Even the most ancient writers show agreement with what we have explained. Their
name for the octave is ‘harmonia’….
126
§7. ACCORDING TO MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO.
Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusc. Disp., 1.18 (tr. B.A.M.).
But we can know a harmony from the intervals of the notes, the different
composition of which also produces many harmonies.
§8. ACCORDING TO ST. THOMAS AQUINAS.
The definition of consonance simpliciter.
Consonance is a ratio, that is, a proportion in numbers according to the high and
low. (In II Post. An., lect. 1, n. 8)
Consonance is a ratio in high and low numbers. (In II Post. An., lect. 1, n. 8)
Consonance is a numeral ratio of the high and low. (adapted from In II Post. An.,
lect. 1, n. 8)
The definition of harmony.
Harmony properly so called is a consonance in sounds. (In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 4)
Harmony is the consonance of sounds that results from strings (or flutes or the like)
when they are well ordered. (adapted from In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 7)
A harmony results from a proportion of contrary sounds, namely, of the low and
high. (adapted from In I Meta., lect. 7, n. 12)
A determinate proportion according to certain numbers of the high and low is the
cause of a harmony in sounds. (In II De Caelo, lect. 14, n. 3)
Musical harmony is constituted from low and high ‘voices’ (= ‘notes’). (In V Meta.,
lect. 2, n. 32)
For a harmony in sounds is caused by a due proportion of numbers. (In Dionysii De

Div. Nom., c. 4, lect. 5)
Harmony is a complexion and proportion and temperament in composed and mixed

things (= harmony commonly speaking). (In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 3)
The proportion that exists between the contraries in composed and mixed things is
called a harmony and the form of the composite. (In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 3)
Every due proportion in things composed of different parts, as well as in things

mixed from contraries (is given the name ‘harmony’). (In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 4)
127
In bodies mixed from contraries, the ratio of these, i.e. the proportion, is called a
harmony. (In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 7)
For harmony is nothing other than the consonance which consists in being of one
mind (= an analogous use of harmony). (In Dionysii De Div. Nom., c. 11, lect. 2)
The two ways in which ‘harmony’ is said (or the two things which one can call
‘harmony’).
‘Harmony’ is said in two ways: in one way, of a composition itself; in another way,
of the ratio of the composition. (Summa Contra Gentes II, c. 64, n. 4)
One can call two things ‘harmony’: either the composition or mixture itself, or the
proportion of that composition or mixture. (In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 4)
XIII. ON THE PRINCIPAL MEANINGS OF HARMONIA.
1. According to its first imposition.
Means of joining, fastening; joint; in Anatomy, suture, union of two bones by mere
apposition, pl. adjustments; framework, esp. of the human frame. (Liddell Scott Jones,
Greek-English Lexicon)
L. harmonia, a. Gr. a(rmoni/a joining, joint, agreement, concord of sounds, music, f. stem
a(rmo- of a(rmo/j joint, a(rmo/zein to fit together, arrange. (Oxford English Dictionary)
Outside musical contexts, (harmonia) means ‘fitting together’, ‘adapting’ or ‘adjusting’

one thing to another. (Andrew Barker, Greek Musical Writings v. I, Chapter 10, Appendix
A: the harmoniai)
harmonia (a(rmoni/a; m. pr. armonía; from the verb a(rmo/zein or a(rmo/ttein, harmozein
or harmottein = to fit or bind or fasten together, to join, to adapt); joining or fitting
together, adjustment; also joint and means of joining (LSJ). (Solon Michaelides, The Music
of Ancient Greece: An Encyclopaedia, s.v. harmonia)
The word harmonia meant primarily the joining or fitting of things together, even the
material peg with which they were joined (Homer, Od. V, 248). (W. K. C. Guthrie, A
History of Greek Philosophy, I. The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, Ch. IV:
Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans)
a(rmoni/a properly signifies an adjustment or fitting together of parts. (H. S. Macran, The
Harmonics of Aristoxenus, Notes)
Harmonia is a blending either of opposites or of parts, in such a fashion that they fit well
with each other. (Barnes, 488-495)
128
Harmonia comes to be in all respects out of opposites: for Harmonia is a unification of
things mutually mixed, and an agreement of things that disagree. (Philolaus, DK fr. 10; tr.
Andrew Barker, Greek Musical Writings v. I)
Now the things which were like and related needed no harmony; but the things which were
unlike and unrelated and unequally arranged are necessarily fastened together by such a
harmony, through which they are destined to endure in the universe. (Philolaus, DK fr. 6;
tr. Kathleen A. Freeman)
The word “harmonia” derives from the Greek a(rmo/zw, which means to fit or bind
together, and harmonia comes to indicate the state of unlike things brought together into an
orderly arrangement. (Denise Davidson Greaves, Sextus Empiricus, Against the Musicians,
from footnote 33)
‘Harmony’ is an adjustment or ‘fitting together’ of dissimilar things, as of different parts in

a composition (like the flesh and bones of the body) or of contraries in a mixture (like the
hot and the cold of health). (B.A.M.)
2. By further impositions.
The word harmonia then meant especially the stringing of an instrument with strings of
different tautness (perhaps thought of as a method of joining the arms of the lyre, see Kirk,
HCF, 208), and so a musical scale. (W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, I.
The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, Ch. IV: Pythagoras and the Pythagor-
eans)
In Music, stringing, method of stringing. (Liddell Scott Jones, Greek-English Lexicon)
That which is formed from all eight strings (sc. of the lyre). (adapted from Plato, Republic,
III, 671b)
The word harmonia has many uses, but here its primary significance is ‘attunement’,
specifically ‘pattern of attunement over the span of an octave’. Its principal application is
to the organisation of intervals between notes sounded by the strings of a lyra or a kithara.
(Andrew Barker, Greek Musical Writings v. II, Introduction: The harmoniai)
The primary use of harmonia is probably the adjustment or tuning of the notes of an
instrument. What is created by tuning is a ‘fitting together’ of notes, a structure of relations
that can be used to form the basis of melodies. (Andrew Barker, Greek Musical Writings v.
I, Chapter 10 Appendix A: the harmoniai)
In Plato, harmonia conceived generally is the melodic counterpart to rhythm: it is the

scheme of order that distinguishes the notes used in a piece of music from a mere
collection of pitches. (Andrew Barker, Greek Musical Writings v. I, Chapter 10 Appendix
A: the harmoniai)
129
XIV. ON COMPOSITION (THE GENUS OF HARMONY).
Now among those things from which a thing is made into a whole, [I] something
has itself in the manner of a subject, just as parts, and the other things mentioned before;
but [II] other things have themselves as the ‘what it was to be’, namely, a ‘whole’, a
‘composition’, and a ‘species’, which pertain to the notion of form, according to which the
whatness of a thing is completed.
1. For it must be understood that sometimes one thing is of one matter simply, like
the silver of a drinking vessel; and then the form corresponding to such a matter can be
called a ‘species’. 2. But sometimes many things put together with each other are the
matter of some thing, which happens in three ways.
(a) For sometimes they are put together according to an order alone, like men in an
army, or households in a city; and thus to the form corresponds a ‘whole’, by which name
an army or a city is designated.
(b) But sometimes they are put together not only by order, but by contact and by
binding together, as appears in the parts of a house; and then to the form there corresponds
a ‘composition’.
(c) But sometimes over and above this the alteration of components is added, which
happens in a mixture; and then the form is the mixture itself, which is still a certain species
of composition.
Now the quid est of a thing is taken from any of these three, namely, from
composition, and species, and whole, as is clear if one were to define an army, a house, and
a drinking vessel. Thus, then, we have two modes of cause.1
St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Polit., lect. 3, n. 6 (tr. B.A.M.).
Therefore, he says first that whatever things are constituted from many things such
that one common thing result from them—whether the many be conjoined, as the limbs of
the body are conjoined for the constitution of the whole, or whether they be divided, as
from many soldiers one army is constituted—in all these there is found a ruler [or ‘what is
principal’] and a subject [or ‘what is subject’]: and this is natural and advantageous, as will
be clear by taking individual cases.2
1
inter ea autem ex quibus res integratur, aliquid se habet per modum subiecti, sicut partes et alia quae
praedicta sunt; alia vero se habent ut quod quid erat esse, scilicet totum, et compositio, et species, quae
pertinent ad rationem formae, secundum quam quidditas rei completur. sciendum est enim, quod quandoque
una res simpliciter est alicuius materia, sicut argentum phialae; et tunc forma correspondens tali materiae
potest dici species. quandoque autem plures adinvicem adunatae sunt materia alicuius rei. quod quidem
contingit tripliciter. quandoque enim adunantur secundum ordinem tantum, sicut homines in exercitu, vel
domus in civitate; et sic pro forma respondet totum, quod designatur nomine exercitus vel civitatis.
quandoque autem non solum adunantur ordine, sed contactu et colligatione, sicut apparet in partibus domus;
et tunc respondet pro forma compositio. quandoque autem super hoc additur alteratio componentium, quod
contingit in mixtione; et tunc forma est ipsa mixtio, quae tamen est quaedam compositionis species. ex
quolibet autem trium horum sumitur quod quid est rei, scilicet ex compositione et specie et toto: sicut patet si
definiretur exercitus, domus et phiala. sic ergo habemus duos modos causae.
2
dicit ergo primo, quod quaecumque sunt constituta ex pluribus ita quod ex eis fiat unum commune, sive illa
plura sint coniuncta, sicut membra corporis coniunguntur ad constitutionem totius, sive sint divisa sicut ex
130
Then when he says, But further, he adds another mode to the ones mentioned,
which is not taken by reason of indivision, as in the case mentioned, but rather by reason of
division.
And he says that sometimes some things are called ‘one’ solely by reason of con-
tinuity, but sometimes not, except something be a whole and perfect; which, in fact, hap-
pens when it has some one species, not indeed as a homogeneous subject is called ‘one
species’, which pertains to the second mode set forth earlier, but according as the species
consists in a certain totality requiring a determinate order of parts; just as it is clear that we
do call something ‘one’, like a work produced by art, when we observe the parts of a shoe
composed in any way whatsoever, except perhaps according as ‘one’ is taken for the con-
tinuous; but we do say all the parts of a shoe are one when they are so composed that there
is a shoe and it have some one species, namely, of a shoe.1
St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Ethic., lect. 1, n. 5 (tr. B.A.M.).
But it should be understood that this whole which is the civil multitude or the
domestic family, has only a unity of order, according to which it is not something one sim-
ply. And so a part of this whole may have an activity which is not the activity of the whole,
as a soldier in an army has an activity which is not that of the whole army. Nevertheless,
the whole itself has a certain activity which is not proper to any of its parts, but to the
whole, e.g. a battle of the whole army. And the pulling of a ship is the activity of the whole
multitude pulling the ship.
There is also a whole which has a unity, not only by order, but by composition, or
connection, or even by continuity, according to which unity something is one simply; and
therefore, in this case, there is no activity of the part which is not that of the whole. For in
continuous things the motion of the whole and of the part is the same, and likewise in com-
posed or connected things, the activity of the part is principally that of the whole.
And so it is necessary that, in such a case, the consideration, both as to the whole
and to its parts, pertain to the same science. But it does not pertain to the same science to
consider the whole which has only a unity of order, and its parts as well.2
multis militibus constituitur unus exercitus, in omnibus his invenitur esse principans et subiectum: et hoc est
naturale et expediens, ut per singula patebit exempla.
1
deinde cum dicit amplius autem addit alium modum a supradictis, qui non sumitur ex ratione indivisionis
sicut praedicti, sed magis ex ratione divisionis; et dicit, quod quandoque aliqua dicuntur unum propter solam
continuitatem, quandoque vero non, nisi sit aliquod totum et perfectum; quod quidem contingit quando habet
aliquam unam speciem, non quidem sicut subiectum homogeneum dicitur unum specie quod pertinet ad
secundum modum positum prius, sed secundum quod species in quadam totalitate consistit requirens
determinatum ordinem partium; sicut patet quod non dicimus unum aliquid, ut artificiatum, quando videmus
partes calceamenti qualitercumque compositas, nisi forte secundum quod accipitur unum pro continuo; sed
tunc dicimus esse unum omnes partes calceamenti, quando sic sunt compositae, quod sit calceamentum et
habeat aliquam unam speciem, scilicet calceamenti.
2
sciendum est autem, quod hoc totum, quod est civilis multitudo, vel domestica familia habet solam ordinis
unitatem, secundum quam non est aliquid simpliciter unum; et ideo pars huius totius potest habere
operationem, quae non est operatio totius, sicut miles in exercitu habet operationem quae non est totius
exercitus. habet nihilominus et ipsum totum aliquam operationem, quae non est propria alicuius partium, sed
totius, puta conflictus totius exercitus. et tractus navis est operatio multitudinis trahentium navem. est autem
aliud totum quod habet unitatem non solum ordine, sed compositione, aut colligatione, vel etiam
131
1. Definitions.
COMPOSITION (SUNTHESIS, COMPOSITIO). (1) A species of whole the parts

or matter of which is put together from many things by order, by contact, and by binding
together or connection1 (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, In V Meta., lect. 3, n. 3, but worded by
B.A.M.); or otherwise, (2) that which is constituted from many things such that one com-
mon thing results from them, where the many are conjoined, as are the limbs of the body,
for the constitution of the whole2 (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, In I Politic., lect. 3, n. 6, tr.
B.A.M.).
2. The first text in sum:
I. the subject, as parts

II. the ‘what it was to be’, a whole, a composition, and a species
1. what has one matter simply, like the silver of a drinking vessel
2. many things put together with each other as the matter of one thing
(a) by order alone, like an army or a city
(b) by order, by contact, and by binding together
(c) in addition, by the alteration of its components, as in a mixture
Note that II.2(b) = ‘by continuity’.
3. The second text in sum:
I. something is called ‘one’ solely by reason of continuity

II. sometimes not, except something which is whole and perfect, which happens
when it has
1. some one species, according as the species consists in a certain totality requiring a
determinate order of parts, as opposed to what has
2. some one species as an homogeneous subject (= II.1 the first schema given above)
continuitate, secundum quam unitatem est aliquid unum simpliciter; et ideo nulla est operatio partis, quae
non sit totius. in continuis enim idem est motus totius et partis; et similiter in compositis, vel colligatis,
operatio partis principaliter est totius; et ideo oportet, quod ad eamdem scientiam pertineat consideratio
talis totius et partis eius. non autem ad eamdem scientiam pertinet considerare totum quod habet solam
ordinis unitatem, et partes ipsius..
1
quandoque autem non solum adunantur ordine, sed contactu et colligatione, sicut apparet in partibus
domus; et tunc respondet pro forma compositio. “But sometimes they are put together not only by order, but
by contact and by binding together, as appears in the parts of a house; and then to the form corresponds a
‘composition’.”
2
dicit ergo primo, quod quaecumque sunt constituta ex pluribus ita quod ex eis fiat unum commune, sive illa
plura sint coniuncta, sicut membra corporis coniunguntur ad constitutionem totius, sive sint divisa sicut ex
multis militibus constituitur unus exercitus, in omnibus his invenitur esse principans et subiectum: et hoc est
naturale et expediens, ut per singula patebit exempla. “Therefore, he says first that whatever things are
constituted from many things such that one common thing result from them—whether the many be
conjoined, as the limbs of the body are conjoined for the constitution of the whole, or whether they be
divided, as from many soldiers one army is constituted—in all these there is found a ruler (or ‘what is
principal’) and a subject (or ‘what is subject’): and this is natural and expedient, as will be clear by taking
individual cases.”
132
4. The ways in which a thing is ‘one’:
When a thing is one:
I. what has one matter simply, like the silver of a drinking vessel
II. many things put together with each other as the matter of one thing
(1) by order alone, like an army or a city
(2) by order, by contact, and by binding together
(3) in addition, by the alteration of its components, as in a mixture
(a) a thing the parts of which are divided: e.g. an army (a discrete quantity)
(b) a thing the parts of which are conjoined (both being a ‘composition’):
e.g. the body (a continuous quantity)
e.g. the lukewarm (a mixture of hot and cold)
A composition may require a determinate order of parts or not.
(a) a composition not requiring a determinate order of parts: a cup of silver (the conjoined)
(b) a composition requiring a determinate order of parts: a shoe (the divided)
A composition may have size or not.
(a) a composition having size: e.g. a house, the human body, a lyre
(b) a composition not having size: e.g. a universal whole, like a genus, which is composed
of its several species, as the genus ‘animal’ of ‘man’ and ‘ox’
A thing may have size or both size and motion.
(a) a thing having size: e.g. the body as put together from parts
(b) a thing having both size and motion: e.g. the strings of a lyre, or more than one aulos
The parts of a composition are put together by order, by contact, and by binding
together or connection.
5. Melos (melody or song): some definitions.
Melody is the order of high and low sounds in the movement of the voice.
(Aristotle, Problems XIX.27, 919b 33)
Melody is an intertwining of notes which are unlike in being high or low. (Aristides
Quintilianus, De Musica)
Melody produced with rhythm and words is called complete, or perfect, melos
(‘song’). (Aristides Quintilianus, De Musica)
Melos or song consists of three things: speech (logos), harmonies (harmoniai, =

tunings or attunements), and rhythm (ruthmos). (Plato, Rep. III, 398d)
133
6. Compositon in harmony and melos.
A harmony is not a form, but the disposition of the matter for a form. 1 But a
disposition is an order of parts in a thing having parts, which happens in three ways, the
third of which is kata eidos, according to form or species. A harmony is an order of parts
in this third way, the ‘form’ or ‘species’ being a composition.
In a melos, its parts are bound together by frequent recourse to the mese, which acts
like the sundesmoi or ‘connectives’ of speech, whose function is to make its many parts
one. (Cf. the overtone series in relation to a ‘root’.)
In lexis, a sundesmos or ‘connective’ is defined communiter as a non-significative

vocal sound which is naturally apt to produce one significative vocal sound out of more
than one such sound, such as ‘and’, and which is naturally apt to be placed at the extremes
as well as in the middle (of speech), unless it should not be placed at the beginning of
speech by itself, such as –te when it is to be followed by kai. (cf. Poet. 20, rev. B.A.M.; but
see my separate discussion for a more complete restoration of this definition)
In melos, a sundesmos may be defined as a note which is naturally apt to produce

one order of high and low sounds out of more than one order of high and low sounds, and
which is naturally apt to be placed at the extremes as well as in the middle, sc. of the
melos. As we have said, the note which performs this function is the mese, which is itself
‘principal’, and therefore ‘low’ and ‘predominant’.
7. Some further definitions.
Order is in the before and after of things.
Position as situs is an order of parts according to place.
Position as dispositio is an order of parts according to form or figure (or according to the
species and figure of the whole).
Composition is the placing of parts next to one another; or that which consists in the
putting together from many things of a certain matter by order, by contact, and by binding
together or connection; or otherwise, the constituting of one common thing from many
things, where the many are conjoined, as are the limbs of the body, for the constitution of
the whole.
8. Supplement: On the ways in which things come to be simply.
Aristotle, Phys., I. 7 (190b 4-9) (tr. R. Glen Coughlin).
1 Cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, In I De Anima, lect. 9, n. 13 (tr. B.A.M.): non tamen quod harmonia sit forma, sed
dispositio materiae ad formam. Of course, St. Thomas means to say that a harmony is not a substantial form;
that it is a forma accidentalis is evident from the fact that it is a dispositio, which comes under the first
species of quality, habitus, and hence is an accident.
134
73. Things which come to be simply, however, come to be either by change [5] of shape,
like statues, or by addition, like things which grow, or by subtraction, like the Hermes from
the stone, or by composition, like a house, or by alteration, as things which turn in regard
to their matter. But it is apparent that all things which to be thus come to be from some-
thing underlying.
• by change of shape (= with respect to quality)

• by addition (= with respect to quantity)
• by subtraction (= with respect to quantity)
• by composition (= with respect to place)
• by alteration (= with respect to substance)
St. Thomas Aquinas, In III Sent., dist. 13, q. 2, art. 2b, c. (tr. B.A.M.).
DS13 QU2 AR2B CO
ad secundam quaestionem dicendum, quod in To the second question it must be said that in a
corpore naturali invenitur quadruplex unio natural body a fourfold union of the members
membrorum ad invicem. with each other is found.
prima est secundum conformitatem naturae, The first is according to a conformity of nature,
quia omnia membra constant ex eisdem simili- since all the members consist of the same simi-
bus partibus, et sunt unius rationis, sicut manus lar parts, and are of one account, as the hand
et pes ex carne et osse; and foot from flesh and bone;
et sic dicuntur membra unum genere vel specie. and in this way the members are called one in
genus or species.
secunda est per colligationem eorum ad invicem The second is by their being bound to each other
per nervos et juncturas, et sic dicuntur unum by sinews and joints, and in this way they are
continuatione. called one by continuation.
tertia est, secundum quod diffunditur vitalis The third is according as the vital spirit and
spiritus et vires animae per totum corpus. powers of the soul are diffused throughout the
entire body.
quarta est, secundum quod omnia membra The fourth is according as all the members are
perficiuntur per animam, quae est una numero perfected by the soul, which is one in number in
in omnibus membris. all the members.
9. In sum:
• by conformity of nature
• by being bound to each other by sinews and joints
• by having the vital spirit and the powers of the soul poured out through the body
• by all the members being perfected by the soul, which is one in number in all the
members
135
Supplement
Cf. R. H. Robins, “Grammar, Meaning, and the Study of Language” (First Published in:
Canadian Journal of Linguistics 9 [1964] 98-114) (In: Diversions of Bloomsbury: Selected
Writings on Linguistics. Amsterdam, 1970, pp. 104-105):
Discourse consists of meaningful stretches of speech produced and understood in terms of

recurrent arrangements of recurrent elements. These [elements] are referred to as morphemes
(or other grammatical units) at the morphological level, and as phonemes (or other phono-
logical units) at the phonological level. Native speakers can produce and understand sen-
tences that are new to [104-105] them as easily as sentences that they have heard or uttered be-
fore (this is a central fact about language), because they know (performatively) how to use
the components of their language, and, again in Firth’s terms, the meaning of any language
element is how it is used.
The linguist tries to state just how language elements are used, and as far as he can he tries
to state a semantic function (“meaning” as ordinarily understood) for the recurrent bits and
pieces of sentences. As these meanings are particular, and as particular facts are treated in
the lexicon of a language, particular meanings are stated in the lexicon as far as is possible;
but this does not imply that lexical and semantic statement are the same thing. A specific
meaning can generally be assigned to most words because words are, by the most useful de-
finition, free forms, potential sentences in their own right, that is to say unitary seman-tically
functioning stretches of speech.
(c) 2013; 2024 Bart A. Mazzetti
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On Sound and Voice.

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On Sound and Voice.

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ON SOUND AND VOICE

II. According to Aristotle.

III. On phone (‘voice’) and psophos (‘sound’) in sum.

IV. On language as a systematic means of human communication.

VI. On speech as a species of discrete quantity.

VII. On elementary speech sounds.

VIII. On the motion of the voice.

IX. On the strings of a musical instrument.

X. On the overtone series.

XI. On tonality as consisting in hierarchy.

XII. Definitions of harmony.

XIII. On the principal meanings of harmonia.

Prôtarchos: ti mên; Yes, to be sure.

Prôtarchos: pôs d’ ou; How could it not be!

Prôtarchos: houtôs. Just as you said.

Prôtarchos: ou gar oun. Certainly.

Plato, Philebus 17c-d, e (tr. Peter Kalkavage; rev. B.A.M.).

1. Plato’s teaching on harmonics in sum.

Subject genus: phone, ‘voice’2

Division of the subject (its parts

Their corresponding effects (pathe) in

2. Note on Plato’s accounts of harmonia.

Plato, Rep. 601 A (tr. B.A.M.).

Melos is composed of three things: speech, as well as harmony and rhythm.1

Plato, Laws II (664 E—665 A) (ed. Perseus; tr. B.A.M.).

Plato, Laws II (672 E—673 A) (ed. Perseus; tr. R. B. Bury).

Plato, Laws II (655a-b) (ed. and tr. R. G. Bury).

Plato, Laws II (655a-b) (ed. Perseus; tr. Thomas Pangle).

3. A description of the Pythagorean conception of melody.

Iamblichus, Vita Pythagorica Liber.

(tr. Thomas Taylor) (tr. Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie)

Plato, Philebus (add) (tr. B. Jowett).

Plato, Cratylus 424 b – 425 b (tr. B. Jowett).

Her. That, Socrates, I can quite believe.

Plato, Theaetetus 202 e – 204 b (tr. B. Jowett).

Theaet. What was it?

Theaet. And was that wrong?

Theaet. What hostages?

Theaet. Yes; he did. [203]

Theaet. I think so. [b]

Theaet. I should reply S and O.

Soc. I wish that you would give me a similar definition of the S.

Theaet. Yes; I think that we have. [c]

Theaet. I think so.

Theaet. I should say that we mean all the letters.

Soc. He knows, that is, the S and O?

Theaet. Such a supposition, Socrates, is monstrous and unmeaning.

Theaet. Yes, with wonderful celerity. [e]

Theaet. No, indeed.

Theaet. Very good.

Soc. And it must have no parts.

Plato. Sophist (253 a) (tr. B. Jowett).

Theaetetus: Art is required.

Stranger: What art?

Theaetetus: The art of grammar.

5. The primary division of vocal sounds according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus:

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De Comp. verborum 14 [In: Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

flow of the breath.

Origin of the term

Consonants and vowels

Aristotle, De Anima ii. 8 (419b 4—421a 6) (tr. J. A. Smith).

[Aristotle], Probl., X. 38 (895a 4-6) (ed. Loeb, tr. W. S. Hett).

[Aristotle], Probl., X. 39 (895a 7-14) (ed. Loeb, tr. W. S. Hett).

Now the letters are certain affections of the