A special lecture on

Special Relativity
Wednesday April 18th, 2007
Reference: Concepts of modern physics, A. Beiser (6th edition)

Special Relativity
In 1905 the 26 year old Albert Einstein described in his theory of Special Relativity how measurements of time and space are affected by the motion between the observer and what is being observed.

The theory of special relativity revolutionized the world of physics by connecting space and time, matter and energy, electricity and magnetism

Before special relativity

Motion is always measured relative to a frame of reference i.e. there is no absolute motion Inertial frame of reference is a frame in which Newtons first law holds frame S v0 relative to frame S frame S

v = v - v0 Speed measured in frame S Speed measured in frame S

Michelson-Morley Experiment (1887)

Theory of luminiferous ether assumed that light requires a medium, ether, to travel. Q: What is the speed at which the Earth moves through ether?
Mirror A Glass plate

No ether drift was detected The Michelson-Morley experiment showed that: Ether does not exist; there is no such thing as absolute motion The speed of light is the same for all observers

Parallel light from single source

Path A

Mirror B

Path B Half-silvered mirror Hypotherical ether current Viewing Screen

Principles of Special Relativity

1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference, i.e. there is no universal frame of reference 2. The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference: 2.998 108 m/s frame S v0 relative to frame S frame S v = v = c v = v - v0 Measurements of time and space are relative and depend on the motion between the observer and what is being observed.

Time Dilation
A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest
t/2 t t/2 t 0 0

ct/2 L0 L0

vt/2

2 L0 t0 = c
proper time

vt ct 2 = L0 + 2 2
t= 2 L0 / c 1 v 2 / c2 =

t0 1 v 2 / c2

Doppler Effect
Q: How does the observed frequency of a light source change if the observer is in motion relative to the light source? frequency f0 v observer proper time: t 0 =

1 f0

1) Transverse Doppler effect: observer moving perpendicular to a line between her and the light source

t=

t0 1 v 2 / c2

f = f 0 1 v 2 / c2

2) Longitudinal Doppler effect: observer moving away from the light source

vt 1+ v / c 1+ v / c 1 v / c T = t + = t0 = t0 f = f0 2 2 c 1 v / c 1+ v / c 1 v / c

Length Contraction
Imagine a particle moving at a speed v close to the speed of light towards the Earth. Two detectors A and B are placed at different heights in the particles path. In the particles frame of reference p is the time between click A and B hp is the distance between the two detectors h detector B

v detector A

h p = v p
An observer on Earth will observe e is the time between click A and B he is the distance between the two detectors

he = v e =

v p 1 v / c
2 2

hp 1 v 2 / c2

* length contraction only occurs in the direction of motion

h = h0 1 v 2 / c 2

Twin Paradox
The twins Dick and Jane are 20 years old when Dick takes off on a space voyage to a nearby star at a speed of 0.8c To Jane the pace of Dicks life is slower than hers by a factor of: Jane
2100

Dick
2100

1 v 2 / c 2 = 1 0.8 2 = 0.60 = 60%

When Dick returns only 50 years have gone by according to Janes calendar but to Dick only 30 years have gone by. PARADOX: If we consider the situation from Dicks point of view shouldnt the ages be reversed? Dick
2130

Jane
2150

Twin Paradox
In Dicks frame of reference the distance he has traveled is less than what Jane measures: Jane

Dick
2100

L = L0 1 v 2 / c 2 = 0.6 L0
Therefore the time it takes Dick to travel this distance is shorter than what Jane measures. So despite Janes 50 year wait Dick only spends 30 years traveling and when he returns he is 20 years younger than Jane!

2100

Dick
2130

* A clock that leaves an inertial system and returns to it after moving relative to that system, will always find itself slow compared to the clocks that stayed in the system.

Jane
2150

Electricity and Magnetism

Two conducting wires with positive and negative charges the wires are electrically neutral

Same two wires carrying a current the wires remain electrically neutral Since the charges are moving their spacing is smaller then before by a factor:

1 v 2 / c2

Q: do these wires attract or repel each other?

Electricity and Magnetism

In the reference frame of negative charges on conductor I: positive charges move faster in this frame and the distance between them contracts to a larger extent. In the reference frame of positive charges on conductor I: the wires are no longer electrically neutral and there is a net force on the charges in wire I towards wire II One can show using similar arguments that every set of charges in each wire is attracted towards the other wire, and therefore the two wires are attracted to each other. All magnetic phenomena can be interpreted on the basis of Coulombs law, charge invariance and special relativity.

Relativistic Momentum
Is p = mv a valid definition for momentum in inertial frames in relative motion? frame S frame S
y x x z z y

B v Y VA A VB

Particle A is at rest in frame S And B is at rest in frame S. At the same instant A and B are thrown in opposite directions in y with speeds VA and VB.

In their rest frames:

m A = mB VA = VB

And they each travel a distance Y/2 before they collide.

The round trip time in S and S is T0 = Y / VA = Y / VB

In S the speed of B is measured as

VB =

Y Y = 1 v 2 / c 2 = VA 1 v 2 / c 2 T T0

Relativistic momentum
Collision as seen from frame S B

VB = V A 1 v 2 / c 2
p A = m AVA

pB = mBVB = mB 1 v 2 / c 2 VA
Momentum is conserved only if

mB =

mA 1 v2 / c2

m We can define mass of a moving m (v ) = particle in terms of its rest mass as 1 v2 / c2

rest mass or proper mass

So the relativistic momentum is

p=

mv 1 v2 / c2

= mv

with

1 1 v2 / c2

Mass and Energy

E0 = mc 2
Lets calculate the work done on a relativistic particle:

W = Fds
0

dp d (mv ) = F= dt dt

d (mv) ds = vd (mv) = K = mc 2 mc 2 W = dt 0 0
s mv

If the particle started from rest the work goes into kinetic energy, so we have: KE = mc 2 mc 2 rest energy E0 total energy E

E = E0 + KE
The conservation of mass energy

E0 = mc 2

Energy and Momentum

How are relativistic energy and momentum related?

m 2v 2c 2 p = mv p c = 1 v2 / c2
2 2

m 2c 4 E = mc E = 1 v2 / c2
2 2

m 2 c 4 (1 v 2 / c 2 ) = mc 2 E p c = 2 2 1 v / c
2 2 2

So the relation between energy and momentum is: Note that

E 2 p 2 c 2 = E02

E 2 p 2c 2

is invariant; it is the same in all inertial frames.

Q: can a massless particle exist with energy and momentum?

Transformation between frames

frame S
y

v relative to frame S
x

frame S
y z x z

Galilean transformations

x = x vt y = y z = z

v x = vx v vy = v y v z = vz

Does not agree with the postulates of special relativity, since it implies:

c = c v
Need new set of transformation rules!

Lorentz Transformation
frame S
y

v
x

Assume a form:

frame S
y z x z
2

x = k ( x vt ) (a) y = y z = z

We must also have: x = k ( x + vt ) (b)

1 k 2 From (a)&(b): x = k ( x vt ) + kvt or t = kt + kv x

Can evaluate k using 2nd postulate of Special Relativity: for a light beam we have x = ct and x = ct .

Using these relations we find:

k=

1 1 v2 / c2

Lorentz Transformation
x =
Lorentz transformation:

x vt 1 v / c
2 2

frame S
y

v
x

y = y z = z t = t vx / c
2

frame S
y z x z

1 v2 / c2 x + vt

x=
Inverse Lorentz transformation:

Velocity addition?

1 v2 / c2 y = y z = z t= t + vx / c 2 1 v2 / c2

1 v2 / c2 dx dx + vdt = Vx = 2 dt 1 v 2 / c 2 dt + vdx / c dx +v V+v d t = = x vV v dx 1+ 2 1 + 2x c dt c