Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137

Crop rotation, tillage and crop residue management

for wheat and maize in the sub-humid
tropical highlands
II. Maize and system performance
R.A. Fischera,b,*, F. Santiveria,c, I.R. Vidala,d
a
CIMMYT, Lisboa 27, Apdo Postal 6-641, 06600 Mexico, D.F., Mexico
b
ACIAR, G.P.O. Box 1571, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
c
Area de Cultius Extensius, Centre UdL-IRTA, Rovira Roure 177, 25198 Lleida, Spain
d
Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad de Concepcion, Casilla 537, Chillan, Chile
Received 6 February 2002; received in revised form 6 June 2002; accepted 12 June 2002

Abstract

Cropping systems in the sub-humid tropical highlands are characterised by continuous cultivated cereal monoculture,
leading to serious erosion and fertility decline. There is a lack of information on improved agronomy, in particular crop
rotation, the use of legumes, reduced tillage and crop residue retention, designed to counter these problems. Over the period
1991±1995 an experiment was carried out in the central highlands of Mexico, at El Batan (latitude 198310 N, longitude
988500 W, altitude 2250 m) to test the effect of improved agronomy. Under rainfed conditions (mean annual rainfall 603 mm,
one crop per year), binary rotations of maize±wheat, maize±vetch, wheat±vetch and wheat±medic pasture were compared
with continuous wheat and maize. Most rotations were tested under the four combinations of tillage (zero versus cultivated)
and crop residue (retained versus harvested). All plots were split for nitrogen fertilizer, and appropriate herbicides were used
for weed control.
Maize after wheat outyielded continuous maize under all conditions of tillage, residue and nitrogen fertilization. Within the
maize±wheat rotation, zero tillage with residue retention was clearly superior (average yield across N levels of 5025 kg/ha at
10% moisture) to the other tillage-residue combinations (average 4249 kg/ha), and during dry periods, showed less wilting. With
continuous maize, yield was especially poor with zero tillage regardless of residue (average 3113 kg/ha), and this was associated
with poor early growth and variable stunting even under wet conditions and for which there is no clear explanation. Maize after
vetch yielded well with zero tillage (4372 kg/ha), but poorly with cultivation (3128 kg/ha), possibly due to less soil water at
sowing in the latter. The main treatment yield variation was associated with either wilting score or radiation interception or both,
all measured before tasseling. Observations of ponding and runoff during rain events indicated that runoff was negligible where
crop residue was retained on the surface with zero tillage, but signi®cant in all the other tillage-residue combinations. Without
nitrogen, maize after vetch outyielded the other rotations, but these latter yielded more with N, having a much greater response to
fertilizer nitrogen (18.4 kg/kg versus 4.5 kg/kg).

*
Corresponding author. Present address: ACIAR, G.P.O. Box 1571, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. Tel.: ‡61-2-6217-0500;
fax: ‡61-2-6217-0501.
E-mail address: fischer@aciar.gov.au (R.A. Fischer).

0378-4290/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 4 2 9 0 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 5 8 - 2
124 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137

The average net economic bene®t, calculated for each cropping system by partial budgeting, was best for farmer practice with
fertilizer, although vetch±maize with zero tillage and residue removal, and wheat±maize with cultivation and residue removal,
both with nitrogen fertilizer, were close behind this treatment. Residue retention was disadvantaged by the high value of residues
as fodder, and wheat rotations by the lower yield relative to maize, for no grain price advantage in the Mexican market.
# 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Zea mays; Triticum aestivum; Vicia sativa; Crop rotation; Zero tillage; Residue management; Net economic bene®t

1. Introduction cropping. The full background to the experiment

The cropping problems of the sub-humid tropical
highlands of the world (central America, the Andean
zone, and eastern Africa) are well represented in the
highland valleys of central Mexico. The area has been
intensively cropped for many centuries and generally
suffers serious sustainability problems arising from
erosion and decline in the chemical and physical
fertility of the soil (Bravo Espinoza et al., 1993).
Average annual rainfall is from 400 to 800 mm, and
although concentrated in the summer months, is
exceeded by evaporation throughout. Rainfed maize
is the principal crop in this region, with wheat and
barley in the drier parts; continuous maize monocul-
ture is the norm with one crop grown each summer
wet season. Usually the land is prepared for seeding
by plowing and cultivation, following the removal or
grazing of the previous crop's residues. Evidence
largely from temperate areas suggests that breaking
maize monoculture can improve yields (Karlen et al.,
1994), while incorporating legumes can improve soil
nitrogen status (Chalk, 1998), and reduced tillage
with crop residue retention offers great potential to
increase water available to the crop and reduce ero-
sion (Lal, 1989; Blevins and Frye, 1993). Sometimes,
however, there can be negative effects arising from
reduced early plant vigour with zero tillage, or
increased disease or pest levels or lowered early
season temperature with surface-retained residue,
or reduced available soil nitrogen with incorporated
residue.
The experiment referred to here was conducted in
central Mexico to study, under reasonably controlled
conditions, possible improved crop rotations, such as
breaking the continuous maize with wheat or legumes,
and likely better tillage and residue manage-
ment options, in order to back-up on-farm research
in the surrounding region aimed at more sustainable
and its treatments has been explained in the preced-
ing paper (Fischer et al., 2002). This paper focuses
on the grain yield of maize crops in the ®rst two
complete rotation cycles (4 years, 1992±1995) of the
experiment in the light of the expected bene®ts and
risks of the improved agronomy, before looking at
performance in economic terms across all cropping
systems.
2. Materials and methods
The experimental site was at El Batan (latitude
198310 N, longitude 988500 W, altitude 2250 m, and
average annual rainfall 603 mm). Weather for the
reporting period, 1991±1995, has been fully described
in the previous paper. The soil, a moderately heavy
clay developed on colluvial sediments, is also
described earlier. The maize rotations tested (one crop
per year) were continuous maize (MM), wheat maize
(WM, MW) and vetch maize (VM, MV). There was
phased entry of the two binary rotations so that in each
year each phase of the rotation was present (WM
referring to the maize phase in a given year following
wheat in the previous year). All combinations of
rotation, tillage (cultivation (C) versus zero tillage
(Z)), and residue management (retained (R) versus
removed (H)) were tested, except, for lack of space,
retained residue (R) with the VM rotation. These
combinations formed 16 main treatments with maize,
of which 10 were planted to maize in any year
(Table 2); the whole experiment comprised 32 main
treatments laid out in two replicates as described
earlier (Fischer et al., 2002).
Management of the wheat and vetch phases is also
described in Fischer et al. (2002), where it is pointed
out that the vetch green manure was always preceded
in the same growing season by a short duration oat
 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
forage crop. Except in the ®rst year (1991), when
treatments were imposed on a barley stubble in early
May 1991, and in the second year when vetch crops
were not terminated until February 1992, residue
treatments and plowing were carried out in December
or early January soon after the maize harvest. With
residue removal (H), maize stover was cut close to the
ground, leaving <5% ground cover, whereas after
wheat straw removal there remained a ground cover
of around 50%. Where maize residue was retained (R),
the stover was chopped ®nely and spread evenly,
leaving a ground cover of >90%. Retained wheat
straw was unchopped and had an initial ground cover
of >95%. Plots of the C treatment were then imme-
diately plowed, burying most straw in the case of CR,
and subsequently cultivated as required for weed
control and seedbed preparation. It should be pointed
out in the VM treatment, that although the maize
stover was removed, the vetch was terminated by
close mowing and the biomass was either left on
the surface (VMZH) giving an initial ground cover
of about 50%, or plowed in VMCH at the same time
other plots were plowed.
Plots were 22 m  7:5 m wide, and maize was sown
at a 75 cm row spacing with a zero till drill having
double disc openers with attached press wheel; plots
were 10 rows wide. This drill had no dif®culty seeding
into the heavy amounts of maize and wheat straw in
residue-retained treatments. Because of the risk of
early frost (October), early sowing is critical for
maize, which was therefore sown at the ®rst oppor-
tunity when all maize plots were considered to have
suf®cient moisture for germination; this date ranged
from 25 May in 1991 to 16 June in 1995. The best
adapted early hybrid maize variety was sown each
year at 60,000±80,000 plants per hectare. In 1991 this
was B8995, in 1992 TL-92A, and in subsequent years
Blanca Precoz …CML246  CML242†. No fertilizer
was applied at seeding (the soil had a high level of
available P and K, Fischer et al., 2002). However plots
were split for supplemental nitrogen application
(broadcast as urea) at around 35 days after seeding.
The two levels of nitrogen (N1 ˆ no fertilizer;
N2 ˆ supplemental N) were initially allocated at ran-
dom to the plot halves, with the same randomisation
being used in subsequent years. The amount of N
applied each year varied from 50 to 100 kg/ha N
depending on seasonal prospects. In 1995, in order
125
to test effects of residual as well as current N, each N
sub-plot was split transversely into three sub-sub-plots
which were allocated at random to three levels (0, 60,
and 120 kg/ha, N1, N2, and N3, respectively) of
supplemental N.
The environment was quite weedy. Knockdown
herbicide (glyphosate) was applied ahead of seeding
to all Z plots, and pre-emergence triazine herbicide
applied to all maize plots. At about 6 weeks after
seeding there was interrow hand hoeing in the C plots
and directed application of herbicide (oxy¯uorfen) in
the Z ones. Each year maize plots received a granular
insecticide (carbofuran) in the whorl to control picudo
or lesser billbug (Nicentrites testaceipes), and in 1995,
seed in three outside rows was treated with systemic
insecticide (imidacloprid) in order to study the effect
of control of corn root worm (Diabrotica sps). Bio-
cides were applied at standard recommended rates.
A minimum set of measurements was made on all
plots, comprising plant counts, measures of early
vigour (plant height, and radiation interception), ¯ow-
ering date, grain yield and its principal components,
harvest index and kernel weight, from which biomass
and kernel number per m were calculated, respec-
tively. The inner six rows of the maize plots were
harvested by hand after a random sub-sample of entire
plants were removed for cob number and harvest index
determination. Grain and stover sub-samples were
dried to 70 8C and ground for total N analysis. N
uptake at maturity was measured in 1992, 1993, and
1995. Grain yield is expressed at 10% moisture.
Neutron moisture meter access tubes to 140 cm
depth were installed in the centre of each N2 sub-plot
but installation was not completed in VM treatments
until December 1993. Readings were taken every 2±6
weeks at depth intervals of 20 cm and a local calibra-
tion developed for soil water content. Total soil water
0±100 cm (SW, mm) is presented because changes
below 100 cm depth were substantial and probably
related to deep drainage. SW values were quite vari-
able, but the absence of an occasion when all pro®les
dried completely under a well grown maize crop
prevented the determination of the lower limit and
calculation of available soil water, a procedure to
reduce variability.
Other plant and soil measurements were made as
the need and opportunity arose. Thus to estimate
relative differences in soil in®ltration, during several
126 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137

heavy rain storms, plots were scored visually for the Table 1
percent of soil covered with free water (percent of Total soil water (0±100 cm, mm) in April±May just before sowing
of maize and at the driest point during each maize crop: mean
ponding). In late August 1995 when the soil was
across 4 years 1992±1995a
estimated to be at ®eld capacity, soil strength was
measured with a recording 12.5 mm cone-tipped Rotation Tillage Straw Pre-sowing Driest crop
penetrometer (three probings per plot). Leaf rolling MM Z R, H 281 277
is a sensitive indicator of wilting in maize. A 0±10 C R, H 260 256
wilting scale was devised where 10 would constitute Mean 270 267
leaf death from water stress, and ®ve tightly rolled WM Z R, H 299 270
leaves, and zero not even tip rolling. Corn root worm C R, H 261 240
damage was assessed in 1994 and 1995, following a Mean 280 255
standard guide (Welch, 1977) for incidence and degree MM, WM Z R 299 288
of damage on roots of several plants dug from each Z H 280 259
plot. Percent ground cover of dead residue or green Mean 285 273
crop and green weeds, was estimated visually from C R 255 245
time to time as described in Fischer et al. (2002), and C H 266 252
radiation interception determined on occasions, using Mean 261 248
measurements from a linear photosynthetically active S.E. …n ˆ 4† 19 12
radiation sensor held above and below the canopy.
Source of variation (statistical significance)
Maize plant stunting was estimated visually by com- Rotation (R) ns ns
paring the size of stunted plants relative to best grown Tillage (T) * *

plants. Straw (S) ns ns

The crop data were analysed separately each year,
using a statistical model which speci®ed as main
treatment effects the factorial combinations of rota-
tion, tillage and residue management, and as a sub-
treatment, nitrogen fertilization, as described in
Fischer et al. (2002). Correlation analysis was often
carried out based on main treatment mean yields in
order to examine associations of yield variation with
other variables: correlations signi®cant at P < 0:10,
<0.05, or <0.01, are designated ‡, * and **, respec-
tively (generally d:f: ˆ 8). Maize performance was
interpreted initially in the light of the already men-
tioned likely effects of the various treatments on
growth and water relations.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Soil moisture and evapotranspiration
Soils dried to around 40 cm depth during the long
dry fallow period leading up to the onset of rains in
May±June, followed by the sowing of maize as soon as
the topsoil was wet enough. Average total soil water,
0±100 cm (SW, mm) just prior to sowing (Table 1)
showed a signi®cant effect of tillage …Z > C†. Not
RT ns ns
RS ns ns
TS ns ns
a
MM: continuous maize; WM: maize after wheat; VM: maize
after vetch; Z: zero till; C: cultivated; R: crop straw or residue-
retained; H: crop straw or residue harvested.
shown, because it was only measured in 1994 and
1995, is treatment VM: it averaged 48 mm drier than
the mean of MM and WM in those years.
After sowing there were often rainless periods and
evapotranspiration was always high so that periods of
water stress commonly arose in mid season (e.g.
August). More substantial soil drying usually took
place as rains tapered off during grain ®lling (Octo-
ber±November), and providing early frost did not cut
green area and transpiration, as it did in 1995. The
second column in Table 1 shows the average SW at the
driest points under the crops, being September 1992,
November 1993 and 1994, and August 1995. Again
there was a signi®cant effect of tillage …Z > C† and a
strong tendency for ZR, with maximum surface resi-
due, to exceed ZH. In 1994 and 1995, VM was 30 mm
drier than MM and WM. In conclusion, SW was
mostly increased by Z, presumably because it avoided
 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
the drying effect of the plowing and cultivation, and
was reduced by a preceding year of vetch. Besides soil
water tended to be higher with full residue retention
under Z (treatment ZR), in accord with observations of
much reduced runoff (see later).
It is possible to estimate crop evapotranspiration
(ET) by adding rain (and the single 1995 irrigation) on
the crop to the SW decrease sowing to maturity,
assuming no runoff or deep drainage. The average
decrease was not great (only 41 mm), and variation in
ET values were dominated by in-crop rainfall (see
Fischer et al., 2002), being 644 mm (1992), 717 mm
(1993), 885 mm (1994) and 421 mm (1995). Years
1993 and 1994 had well above average in-crop rain-
fall. However, soil water change below 100 cm, indi-
cative of deep drainage, and observations of runoff in
some treatments, suggest that these values are likely to
be overestimations of true ET, and that treatment
effects cannot therefore be accurately calculated.
3.2. Maize crop performance
3.2.1. General
Stands of maize (60,000±80,000 plants/ha) were
always satisfactory. Billbug damage to foliage was
effectively controlled each year with insecticide.
Foliar diseases were negligible. There was effective
control of most weeds in all maize plots following pre-
emergent triazine herbicide each year. Tolerant weeds
such as Oxalis and Taraxacum which emerged later,
showed little effect of treatment, and were controlled
reasonably well by directed herbicide (Z) or hoeing
(C). Given the height and competitiveness of maize,
weeds were clearly even less of a factor in the maize
crops than they were in the case of wheat. Because of
the variation from year-to-year, maize grain yields
(Tables 2 and 3) are discussed separately for each year,
before overall mean yields are considered. Yield
components were measured as outlined, but only
relationships to yield are presented: harvest index
values are mentioned because of their relevance to
estimating the amount of crop residue. Some key traits
associated with yield each year are summarised in
Table 4.
3.2.2. 1991
Features of 1991 were the early sowing (21 May),
and the generally favourable moisture supply. Grain
127
yields were high (average 6570 kg/ha, Table 2); harvest
index averaged 38.5%, ranging from 36.0 to 39.9%
across main treatments. Being the ®rst year, there were
no rotations to test, but tillage and residue effects on
yield were valid. Only the former was signi®cant, Z
clearly outyielding C by 11%; kernel number was 9%
higher. The nitrogen by tillage interaction was weakly
signi®cant …P < 0:10†, with a positive response under
Z and none under C (Table 3). The superior perfor-
mance of Z maybe related to the 3 days earlier seedling
emergence and greater growth observed in Z plots
during the ®rst few weeks after seeding. For example
light interception was signi®cantly higher in Z (61%)
than in C (56%) on 12 July (50% anthesis 12 August).
Better seedbed moisture or soil seed contact during
the hot dry days immediately after the May seeding
could have helped zero till maize, although bulk soil
moisture, 0±20 cm, was similar for Z and C when
sampled on 10 June.
3.2.3. 1992
There was a period of moderate water stress from
mid June to early July, and again in early September
grain yields were moderately high, but ranged greatly,
from 2370 kg/ha in VMC to 6861 kg/ha in WMZ
(Table 2); harvest index also ranged widely, from
18.5 to 44.4% (average 36.8%). Grain yields were
dominated by the highly signi®cant rotation by tillage
interaction, in which yield responded positively to C in
MM, but negatively in WM, and especially in VM.
There was a large and highly signi®cant response to
nitrogen (50 kg N/ha), a response which again tended
to be greater with zero tillage, and less after vetch
(Table 3).
In 1991±1992 vetch was allowed to grow until late
February 1992 in order to bene®t from an unusual
January rain of 70 mm, after which residue and plow-
ing treatments were applied. Soil water was not
recorded in these plots in 1992, but they were managed
identically to the VW plots, which the previous paper
showed had less soil water at seeding than other wheat
rotations. This is therefore likely to have also been the
case with VM, and especially VMC, for which the
plowing in February 1992 gave a very cloddy surface
conducive to further soil drying. This is corroborated
by maize wilting scores on 10 July at the end of the
®rst dry spell (Table 4), and the signi®cant correlation
of grain yield with this score (r ˆ 0:81), and with
128 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137

Table 2
Effect of rotation, tillage and crop residue (straw) management, and on grain yield (kg/ha)a (10% moisture) of maize, 1991±1995b

Rotation Tillage Straw 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Meanc

MM Z R ± 5092 2780 3361 1106 3085

H ± 5030 3382 3622 528 3141
Mean 5061 3081 3492 817 3113
C R ± 5538 3682 5282 1498 3999
H ± 5478 3715 4355 1379 3731
Mean 5508 3698 4808 1439 3863
Mean 5284 3390 4150 1128 3488
WM Z R ± 6957 5743 5763 1642 5026
H ± 6765 4164 5064 728 4180
Mean 6861 4953 5414 1185 4603
C R ± 5343 5357 4948 1682 4333
H ± 5739 4313 5340 1537 4232
Mean 5541 4835 5144 1609 4282
Mean ± 6201 4894 5279 1397 4443
VM Z H ± 4794 5582 5834 1277 4372
C H ± 2370 4564 4593 983 3128
Mean ± 3582 5073 5213 1130 3750
MM, WM Z R 6877 6025 4262 4562 1374 4056
Z H 6939 5897 3773 4343 628 3660
Mean 6908 5961 4017 4453 1001 3858
C R 6289 5440 4520 5115 1590 4166
C H 6173 5609 4014 4837 1458 3980
Mean 6232 5525 4267 4976 1524 4073
S.E. …n ˆ 2† 325 536 853 308 228 280
Overall mean yield 6570 5311 4328 4814 1236 3922
Nitrogen response 5.5 20.5 19.8 10.4 5.9d
(kg grain/kg N)
Source of variation (statistical significance)
** ** ** * *
Rotation (R) ±
** ** **
Tillage (T) ns ns ns
**
Straw (S) ns ns ns ns ns
** ** ** *
RT ± ns
‡
RS ± ns ns ns ns
**
TS ns ns ns ns ns
** *
RTS ns ns ns ns

Nature of the growing season

Moisture supply Wet Dry June Wet Very wet Very dry, frost
a
Mean of nitrogen levels.
b
Abbreviations as for Table 1.
c
Mean of 1992±1995.
d
Response to N2, 60 kg N/ha.

percent radiation interception on 19 August (0.73), kernel weight were small and not related to yield,
kernel number (0.98), biomass (r ˆ 0:76), and despite the early September dry spell when VMC
harvest index (0.91), but not kernel weight. Fifty again showed greatest wilting. It is concluded that
percent anthesis was on 26 August, and effects on the differential early water stress and its effects on
 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137 129

Table 3
Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on maize yield (10% moisture) in cereal (mean of MM and WM) and legume (VM) rotations, averaged across
tillage and residue treatments, and in the presence of zero tillage (Z) and of cultivation (C), averaged across all rotations and residue
treatmentsa

Rotation/tillage Nitrogen 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1992±1995

(75 kg N/ha) (50 kg N/ha) (100 kg N/ha) (100 kg N/ha) (120 kg N/hab) (92 kg N/ha)

MM, WM N1 5159 2934 4161 907 3290

N2 6325 5352 5274 1504 4614
Response (kg/kg) 33.3 24.2 11.1 5.0 18.4
VM N1 3359 4949 4839 1209 3589
N2 3803 5198 5588 1079 3917
Response (kg/kg) 8.9 2.5 7.5 1.1 4.5
S.E. of response (kg/kg) 5.1 2.4 2.4 0.9
Z N1 6512 5042 3082 3998 752 3219
N2 7304 6413 5578 5459 1270 4680
Response (kg/kg) 10.6 27.3 25.0 14.6 4.3 17.8
C N1 6215 4555 3590 4585 1182 3478
N2 6248 5404 5063 5214 1576 4312
Response (kg/kg) 0.4 17.0 14.7 6.3 3.2 10.3
S.E. of response (kg/kg) 2.5 3.4 1.6 1.6 0.6

Source of variation (statistical significance)

** ** ** **
Nitrogen ns
** *
Nitrogen  rotation ± ns ns
‡ ‡ ** *
Nitrogen  tillage ns
**
Nitrogen  straw ns ns ns ns
a
Abbreviations as for Table 1.
b
This is actually the N3 rate, since it gave highest yields in 1995.

growth explains the lower yields of VMZ, and espe-
cially VMC, but not the yield differences whereby
WMZ outyielded MMZ, which may re¯ect bene®cial
effects of breaking the continuous maize sequence.
3.2.4. 1993
The early growing season was very wet, especially
in July. Even so there was moderate wilting in August
at times in some treatments. Maize yields were only
moderate on average (Table 2), but they ranged
widely, from 1073 kg/ha (MMZR at N1) to
6680 kg/ha (WMZR at N2). Harvest index averaged
33.3% (range 25.0±40.5%). Despite a high main plot
error, grain yields showed a highly signi®cant effect of
rotation, with VM and WM exceeding MM. Retained
straw tended to depress yield with MM and increase it
with WM. There was a strong response to nitrogen
fertilizer (100 kg N/ha), which was much greater with
MM and WM than with VM, and was greater with zero
tillage (Table 3). Main treatment effects on yield were
closely related to kernel number (r ˆ 0:91), harvest
index (0.80) and biomass (0.87), but not to kernel
weight.
The rotation and nitrogen responses and their inter-
actions are in the direction expected if the vetch
legume was improving soil nitrogen status in a wet
season, but this does not explain the poor yield of MM,
especially MMZ. Wilting at times in August (50%
anthesis late August) was greatest in VMC (average
score 3.3, other treatments <2.0) and possibly con-
tributed to its lower yield, but not to the other yield
differences noted. More signi®cantly during July
when it was still wet, patchy reduced leaf appearance
and stunting of maize plants began to be observed: it
was clearly greatest with rotation MM, with Z tillage,
and with no nitrogen (N1), but it was still very evident
in MMZH at N2. In early August before any obvious
water stress, growth reduction relative to the best plots
130 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137

Table 4
Maize crop traits associated with grain yield variation in response to rotation, tillage and residue retention; years 1992±1995a

Rotation Tillage Residue 1992 1993 1994 1995

b c c
RIc (%)
Wilt score RI (%) Stunting (%) RI (%) (4 August) Wilt scoreb Soil strength
(10 July) (19 August) (12 August) (4 August) (July±August) (MPa)d

MM Z R 1.0 76 26 53 47 0.1 1.98

H 2.5 71 59 49 42 4.1 1.83
C R 1.0 81 17 67 68 1.8 0.95
H 1.0 71 8 61 68 2.5 1.07
WM Z R 1.0 80 6 74 63 0 1.62
H 1.5 84 9 68 57 3.4 1.81
C Z 1.5 74 3 61 71 1.2 1.03
H 1.0 77 2 64 70 1.4 1.06
VM Z H 4.5 78 5 75 61 2.8 2.06
C H 6.0 69 3 66 69 2.4 1.15
Correlation 0.82** 0.73* 0.61‡ 0.76* 0.63* 0.71* ns
with yield
a
Abbreviations as for Table 1.
b
0±10 scale.
c
RI: radiation interception.
d
Average of penetrometer readings between 4.5 and 18 cm.

due to the stunting averaged 43% for MMZ and 13%
for MMC (Table 4); for other main treatments it was
<10% and unlikely to have affected yield. Stunting
was also associated with a longer anthesis to silking
interval, and reduced radiation interception (Table 4).
The stunting symptoms resembled damage from corn
root worm (Diabrotica sps., J. Mihm, pers. commun.)
but were not investigated further in 1993. There
seemed little doubt that the stunting was the cause
of the poor yield of MM relative to other rotations.
3.2.5. 1994
Rains were again favourable in 1994, especially in
August, although dryness and soil hardness in some
zero till treatments without residue (e.g. MMZH, and
WMZH) delayed sowing until 8 June. Some wilting
was observed in MMZH in early August (score 3, all
other treatments 0), but after then, rains were regular
and substantial, and there was no further wilting.
Yields were moderately high (Table 2), but again
ranged widely from 2087 kg/ha (MMZR with N1)
to 6627 kg/ha (WMZR with N2). Harvest index varied
less, from 32.8 to 38.8% (average 36.4%). Amongst
main treatments, shown in Table 2 grain yields, is the
highly signi®cant three-way interaction which saw
residue retention in the MM rotation decrease yield
with Z by 262 kg/ha and increase it with C by 946 kg/
ha, while retention had the exact opposite effect in
WM (‡698 and 392 kg/ha, for Z and C, respec-
tively). Thus maize straw on the surface, as with zero
tillage, tended to hurt yields but wheat straw helped
them. Besides overall, zero tillage decreased yield in
MM and increased it in other rotations, and rotation
WM outyielded MM. The response to nitrogen
(100 kg N/ha) was highly signi®cant but less than in
1992 and 1993; as in 1993, it was greater under Z than
under C (Table 3).
Treatment MMZ, as in 1993, appeared to grow
poorly from as early as mid July. Its radiation inter-
ception in early August was signi®cantly lower than
all other treatment combinations, even though Z was
always somewhat lower than C in other rotations as
well, and this was correlated with yield (Table 4).
Three plants per plot were evaluated in August for
corn root worm damage. There were no signi®cant
differences and only slight levels of damage on up to
50% of the roots. Fifty percent anthesis was reached
on 1 September except for MMZ which was delayed
by 1 week. Effects of main treatment (and N) on yield
were closely related to variation in kernel number
 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
(r ˆ 0:87), kernel weight (r ˆ 0:68), and biomass
(r ˆ 0:94), but not the small differences in harvest
index. Results suggest that some major but unknown
factor associated with continuous maize operated in
1994, as in 1993, to depress MMZ (both MMZR and
MMZH) growth, radiation interception and yield.
3.2.6. 1995
In 1995, because of a delay in the rains, maize
planting was late (16 June). Post-sowing was also dry
with moderate to severe moisture stress before a
salvage irrigation of 25 mm was applied on 12 August.
After then rainfall was just adequate, but on 10
October an early frost (0.9 8C in the screen) destroyed
all green leaf tissue, the maize being only 4 weeks
after the average date of 50% silking (11 September).
Thus grain yields were the lowest recorded in the 5
year period (Table 2). They also ranged greatly, from
only 405 kg/ha (MMZ with N1) to 1841 kg/ha (WMC
with N3). Harvest index averaged 37.4% (range 29.1±
44.2%). The strong rotation by tillage interaction
arose because Z depressed grain yield in MM and
WM but increased it in VM. There was also a strong
tillage by residue interaction in MM and WM: Z
depressed yield much more in the absence of straw
than in its presence. Despite the water stress, there was a
small response to nitrogen in cereal rotations but not
after vetch (Table 3), and not shown, a greater response
with straw retention than without (‡870 kg/ha versus
‡324 kg/ha). The N response was unaffected by N
fertilization in earlier years.
Growth differences became evident as early as the
stage of the fourth fully expanded leaf, with ZH falling
behind, and ZR becoming taller, relative to cultivated
treatments CR and CH. The poor growth of ZH per-
sisted throughout, especially in MM and WM rotations.
Wilting appeared by 22 July in all ZH plots and the
average of six scores between then and 10 August
(Table 4) showed a close inverse relationship to plant
height measured in the same period (r ˆ 0:83).
Wilt score also correlated negatively with SW at the
time (r ˆ 0:81) and there is little doubt that the
height differences seen in 1995 re¯ected differential
soil water stress, although there was still some of the
within plot stunting variability seen in 1993 and 1994.
Zero till treatments with substantial retained straw
(MMZR, and WMZR) were remarkable for having
no wilting throughout, while zero till without straw
131
(ZH) had the highest average wilting score (Table 4).
Yield differences were correlated with those in wilting
score (r ˆ 0:71), in kernel number(r ˆ 0:97) and
in biomass (r ˆ 0:94), and not with the smaller
differences in kernel weight and harvest index. It is
suggested that under the relatively dry post-sowing
conditions, zero tillage in the absence of retained residue
(ZH) reduced growth both directly due to high soil
strength (see later) and indirectly by increased plant
water stress. Crops never recovered from this early set
back, but the promise of the better grown treatments was
not fully realized because of the early frost (e.g. MMZR
and WMZR had the highest ®nal biomass (4500 kg/ha)
but the lowest harvest indices (<30%)). It is not clear
why the VMC crop performed poorly, but it has always
had the lowest soil water, if not the highest wilting score.
There was no response to the seed treatment with
imidacloprid insecticide in terms of plant growth.
Corn root worm damage, scored in August, was slight
to moderate, apparently independent of growth reduc-
tions, and not markedly affected by tillage, residue,
rotation, or insecticide.
3.3. Mean grain yield 1992±1995
Analysis of variance for mean grain yield across the
4 years showed a signi®cant three-way interaction
between rotation, tillage and straw management
(Table 2). The cause is to be found in comparing
the two cereal rotations (Fig. 1). WM was generally
better than MM, but this was especially so in the case
of WMZR which averaged 5026 kg/ha. MMZ had the
lowest yield (3113 kg/ha), regardless of straw man-
agement, and straw management made little differ-
ence in either rotation if the seedbed was cultivated
(C). There was a bene®t in terms of reduced water
stress of surface-retained straw in both WMZ (wheat
straw largely present giving 65% cover after sowing)
and MMZ (maize straw with a cover of 50%) for on
several occasions wilting scores for both were low
relative to other treatments and did not differ (Table 4).
However there was only a yield bene®t in WMZ,
suggesting that when there was no wheat break crop,
some strong negative effect of pests or diseases coun-
teracted any bene®cial effect of water stress reduction.
A negative effect due to early season soil cooling as
found at higher latitudes (Lal, 1989) is very unlikely
given the high temperatures in June when the maize
132 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
Fig. 1. Maize grain yield (10% moisture, kg/ha) as affected by
rotation (MM, WM, VM), tillage (Z, C) and residue management
(R, H); mean of 1992±1995 and N levels (see text for explanation
of symbols).
was sown and the excellent performance of maize in
wheat straw. But the break crop effect seems real
under zero tillage, since MMZH without retained
residue yielded as poorly as MMZR (and well below
WMZH). This depressing effect of continuous maize
(without tillage) was associated with the stunting
phenomenon seen in 1993 and 1994. Observations,
including exhaustive root ones in 1994 and 1995,
failed to identify any treatment effects on pest or
disease incidence in maize or associated with the
stunting. Reductions in yield with continuous zero till
maize (compared to maize after soybean) have simi-
larly been attributed in eastern USA to unknown
underground effects (e.g. Wolfe and Eckert, 1999).
More detailed studies are needed to resolve this issue.
Finally it is notable that studies in northwest Mexico
with a WM rotation under irrigation and running for 8
years (Limon-Ortega et al., 2000), also revealed the
clear yield advantages of WMZR over WMZH and
WMCR treatments that were seen here.
In the VM there was a large overall advantage of Z
over C (Fig. 1, note tested only with maize residue
removal), something also seen each year (Table 2).
Wilting score in 1992 was higher in VMC than in
VMZ (Table 4), but the reason for this is unclear. Even
though vetch residue remained on the soil surface in
VMZ, it decomposed rapidly and immediately after
sowing the residue ground cover averaged only 13%
and was unlikely to be enough to have in¯uenced
water relations. Perhaps the often very cloddy soil
surface common after plowing in VMC encouraged
greater soil water evaporation during the long dry
period leading up to sowing, at which time VMC
averaged about 25 mm drier than VMZ in 1994 and
1995. In the VW rotation, VWC also showed consis-
tently lower soil water than VWZ (Fischer et al.,
2002).
Maize yield was consistently more responsive to N
fertilizer than wheat, and this response tended to
interact more with main treatments. Thus there was
often a greater response after cereal (Table 3), sug-
gesting VM has a nitrogen supply advantage. Exclud-
ing the MM rotation, where other problems seemed to
be affecting yield (see above discussion), and exclud-
ing 1992 when soil moisture for VM rotations was
likely much lower, without N fertilizer (N1), VMZH
actually outyielded WMZR by 439 kg/ha. However at
N2 VMZH underyielded the top performing WMZR
by 636 kg/ha. Another way of looking at this: without
nitrogen there was an advantage for maize after vetch,
but when N fertilizer is supplied, wheat is a better
precursor crop, especially if there is zero tillage and
straw retention. This is likely due to more residual
moisture from the previous year with WM compared
to VM, reinforced when rains began again by more
moisture because of the greater degree of ground cover
from wheat straw and its greater persistence compared
to vetch residue. Under the CH regime, across 1993,
1994 and 1995, VMCH yielded somewhat less than
WMCH ( 349 kg/ha). Again this effect interacted
with nitrogen level such that at N1 VMCH was equal
to WMCH, while at N2 it was clearly inferior
( 696 kg/ha). Eliminating the nitrogen advantage in
this case also seemed to leave VMCH at a disadvan-
tage, possibly again because of less residual moisture
with VM, and moisture losses with cultivation after V.
The greater apparent soil N supply after V that is
suggested by lower reponses to N agrees with Vidal
Parra (1994) who showed greater soil N mineralisation
after V in 1993. It also agrees with total N uptake by
maize measured in 1992, 1993 and 1995: at N1, uptake
after vetch averaged 115 kg/ha, 19 kg/ha greater than
after wheat.
In all years except 1995, there was a tillage by
nitrogen interaction, such that the N response was
greater with Z (Table 3). Zero tillage is likely to have
reduced mineralization before and after sowing relative
 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
to cultivation, as is commonly observed. Indeed N
uptake by maize under N1 in 1992, 1993, and 1995
averaged 102 kg/ha for C and only 89 kg/ha for Z.
Lower N supply, and less plant water stress, would
both tend to increase the response to N with zero
tillage.
Because of the various interactions described
above, the best 4-year mean yield was obtained with
WMZR at N2 (5945 kg/ha), which was also the high-
est yielding crop in each year. The poorest yield was
from MMZR at N1 (1936 kg/ha), being especially
poor relative to other treatments in wet years. From
the above discussion it seems these differences can be
ascribed to nitrogen fertilizer (N2 versus N1), to
greater soil moisture at sowing in WM, and to negative
effects of the MM rotation in the absence of cultiva-
tion. That zero till maize performed best when incor-
porated in a WM rotation with residue retention and
with N fertilizer complicates its promotion amongst
farmers currently practising continuous cultivated
maize with residue removal, a treatment (MMCH)
which averaged 3093 kg/ha for N1, and 4320 kg/ha
for N2.
3.4. Penetrometer results in 1995
Penetrometer readings were made on all maize plots
on the 15±18 August 1995, when irrigation the week
before and subsequent rains meant all plots were near
®eld capacity. Comparing areas of zero tilled plots
with and without stunted maize plants showed no
associated difference in soil strength to 18 cm soil
depth, thus differences in soil strength seem unlikely
to be involved in the stunting problem. There was
however a highly signi®cant increase in resistance in
Z compared to C plots, regardless of rotation or
residue management (Table 4); this is commonly
noted (Lal, 1989). Between 4.5 and 18 cm depth, soil
strength averaged 1.81 MPa for Z compared to
1.03 MPa for C. The values for Z are only moderate
for soil strength at ®eld capacity: some studies suggest
that maize root growth could be affected by such
differences (e.g. Veen and Boone, 1990). Nevertheless
the superior performance of the WMZR treatment,
and the reasonable performance of WMZH and
VMZH treatments, indicates that soil strenth could
not have been a very signi®cant limiting factor in our
environment.
133
3.5. Additional soil water issues with maize
In contrast to wheat (Fischer et al., 2002), soil water
seemed a more important determinant for maize yield.
Firstly this in¯uences the chance of sowing early
(before 1 June), which is critical to ensure silking
in August before the probability of rain falls much,
and for the avoidance of damage from early frost, such
as occurred in October 1995. In four of the ®ve seasons
studied, it was estimated from seedbed observations
that the ZR treatment in particular, with a residue
ground cover always >50%, appeared to reach a state
of moisture suf®ciency for sowing and germination
from 2 to 15 days before other treatments. C seedbeds
were usually the driest, presumably because of the
drying caused by plowing and then ®nal soil prepara-
tion during May. On one occasion (1995), however, it
was ZH after M, with a low ground cover from residue,
which was the least ready to sow, because of its
exposed hard dry surface.
The second aspect relating to soil water was the
observation on several occasions and contrary to
expectation, that after heavy rain events, there was
runoff from zero till maize plots. This was not mea-
sured, but ponding must precede runoff, and scoring
the percentage water ponding on the plots at the end of
a 22 mm fall over 30 min on 15 June 1995, just before
seeding, illustrates the point. Z plots had steadily
increasing ponding percentage as ground cover fell
below around 60% (Fig. 2). The barest Z plots were
following maize with stover removal (ZH); they
showed 20% cover (maize stumps, dead and green
weeds), 60% ponding and obvious runoff. ZH after
wheat had more cover (35%) and less ponding (30%).
There was no ponding on ZR plots which all had more
than 90% cover, and there was clearly no runoff. Nor
was there much ponding on C plots (<15%), presum-
ably because they were recently cultivated; neverthe-
less there was a clear advantage for CR plots compared
to CH ones (2% ponding versus 8%) even though there
was little surface residue on each (7% versus 2%).
Crop residue incorporation is well know to improve
soil structure and in®ltration (e.g. Whitbred et al.,
2000). After seeding, the maize and wheat grew
rapidly, providing crop cover, but the crop residue
was also decomposing rapidly, and particularly with
MZH, the smooth sloping interrow spaces remained
bare and exposed, and on occasions contributed to
134 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
Fig. 2. The relationship of percentage surface covered by ponding
during a rain storm on 15 June 1995 and percentage of ground
cover by crop residue for zero till (®lled triangle) and recently
cultivated (®lled square) treatments.
runoff. The higher plant density with wheat and the
narrower rows appeared to be more effective in runoff
control. With cultivated plots, as the season progressed
after sowing the rains caused slumping and surface
crusting so that they began to behave more like ZH
plots.
The third aspect of maize relating to soil moisture
is the longer duration of maize relative to wheat, for
maize did not lose its green area until 6 weeks after
wheat (except in 1995 when the October frost
reduced this difference to 1 week). Thus there is
likely to be a drier soil pro®le after maize than after
wheat: 36 mm less water was measured at wheat
sowing after maize than after wheat (Fischer et al.,
2002) and this tended to be the case at maize sowing
(10 mm less, Table 1). This could be an additional
reason why maize in the MM rotation performed less
well than maize in the WM one (and one possible
reason why wheat tended to do better in WW than in
MW, Fischer et al., 2002).
3.6. Comparative performance of cropping systems
One useful way to compare the performance of the
cropping systems over the 4 years of study is to
perform a partial budget analysis, even though the
results will depend very much on the prevailing prices
of inputs and outputs (1995 prices, when 6 new
Mexican pesos (N$) were approximately equal to
$US 1 were used). To do this some reasonable sim-
plifying assumptions are made. The price of wheat
grain is assumed to equal that of maize (N$ 0.75/kg),
even though the distorted Mexican market then valued
wheat somewhat less. Maize stover and wheat straw
are valued at 33% of the grain price and 90% (70% for
wheat) is assumed harvestable; total straw available
was calculated from grain yields and harvest indices.
Oat forage is valued at N$ 0.60/kg dry, and medic
pasturage at the same value. Cultivation costs asso-
ciated with treatment C (plowing, cultivation and
harrowing) amount to N$ 400/ha, while knock down
herbicide associated with treatment Z cost a relatively
high N$ 343/ha: thus C and Z differ little on this cost
basis. Seed and seeding costs, and harvesting costs, are
assumed to be the same in each cropping system. Urea
fertilizer cost N$ 1.28/kg, amounting to N$ 256/ha for
maize (average of 92 kg N/ha) and N$ 192/ha for
wheat (69 kg N/ha). Post-seeding herbicides and
insecticide cost N$ 565/ha across all maize crops
and N$ 760/ha for all wheat crops. No cost is allowed
for mowing of vetch, or livestock shepherding on the
medic, although the latter would be needed in the
absence of fences.
The results for the most common farmer cropping
systems and possible improvements on these are
shown in Table 5. The ®rst and second rows (MMCH
at N1 and N2, respectively) are the ones closest to
district practice, and in fact show the sixth highest
and highest gross margins, respectively. Stover har-
vesting contributes considerably to this, con®rming
the economic surveys in central Mexico of Erenstein
(1996). The yield decline with MMZH pulls its gross
margin down, while the lack of stover sales penalises
MMZR despite its better grain yields. The VMZH
rotation, both with and without N, is quite successful
because of the stover sales in 1 year and oat forage
ones the next. The WM rotations, with the good grain
yields, suffer from the problem of all rotations with
wheat, namely somewhat lower grain yields than
maize, other things equal, and higher post-emergence
weed control costs. Besides WMZR with N2, despite
having the best maize yields, is even lower because of
the lack of residue sales. However amongst rotations
containing wheat, WM is the best, only approached
by WWCH with N2 (a common farmer practice in
drier areas, although often the straw is burnt) and
WWZH with N2, which both have the bene®t of
annual straw sales. In contrast WWZR with N2, with
no straw sales, is not competitive. Finally the VWZ
and PWZ rotations were intermediate between the
 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137 135

Table 5
Partial budget analysis of mean performance of some of the tested cropping systems averaged over the 1992±1995 perioda

Cropping systems Phase Income Expenses Net benefit

Grain Forage Tillage N fertilizer Herbicide

Maize
MMCH N1 2320 1323 400 0 565 2678
MMCH N2 3240 1456 400 256 565 3475
MMZH N2 2783 1174 0 256 908 2793
MMZR N2 3155 0 0 256 908 1991
VMZH N1 Maize 3406 1402 0 0 908 3113b
Vetch 0 2670 0 0 343
VMZH N2 Maize 3473 1745 0 256 908 3191b
Vetch 0 2670 0 0 343
Maize±wheat
WMCH N2 Maize 3345 1579 400 256 565 2920b
Wheat 2669 821 400 192 760
WMZR N2 Maize 4459 0 0 256 908 2499b
Wheat 2997 0 0 192 1103
Wheat
WWCH N1 2537 799 400 0 760 2176
WWCH N2 3002 916 400 192 760 2566
WWZH N2 2944 875 0 192 1103 2524
WWZR N2 3039 0 0 192 1103 1744
VWZR N1 Wheat 2975 0 0 0 1103 2100b
Vetch 0 2670 0 0 343
VWZR N2 Wheat 3059 0 0 192 1103 2045b
Vetch 0 2670 0 0 343
PWZR N1 Wheat 2974 0 0 0 1103 2136b
Pasture 0 2400 0 0 0
PWZR N2 Wheat 3256 0 0 192 1103 2181b
Pasture 0 2400 0 0 0
a
Binary rotations comprising maize (M), wheat (W), oats/vetch (V), and/or medic pasture (P), with cultivation (C) or zero tillage (Z), and
with residue retention (R) or harvest (H), without or with supplemental N fertilizer (N1, N2); 1995 values in new Mexican Pesos (N$) per
hectare per year.
b
Average of both phases.

two WW rotations shown, bene®ting from higher
wheat yields, and forage income in alternate years
almost as high as the wheat grain income. Nitrogen
fertilizer gave little or no advantage (<N$ 100/ha per
annum) in all legume±cereal rotations, whereas in
continuous cereal rotations the gain was very worth-
while (>N$ 400).
This simple analysis suggests that, in the short term
at least, the farmer practice of continuous cultivated
maize with stover removal (MMCH) and a little N
fertilizer is probably the best amongst all the alter-
natives tried. But there is one disadvantage of MC (and
MZH) treatments not shown in Table 5, which is the
lower chance of them being seeded at the optimum
seeding date compared to MZR for which ample
surface residue retains soil moisture from the early
summer rains.
Short term gross margins may not re¯ect well long
term effects. Cultivation with residue removal, espe-
cially if weeds are controlled by interrow cultivation
as is common, is likely to be the worst for soil
structure, runoff and hence soil erosion. MMZH with
bare soil after crop residue removal appeared to be
little better in this regard because of the relatively hard
setting nature of the soil, despite its vertic tendencies.
The zero till residue removal treatment with wheat
was not so bad, as some 30% of the wheat straw
always remained and gave reasonable soil protection.
136 R.A. Fischer et al. / Field Crops Research 79 (2002) 123±137
Cultivation with residue retention, even though the
residue is quickly buried and does not protect the soil
from rain drop action, can be expected to gradually
improve soil structure, and in®ltration other things
being equal. Zero tillage with residue retention how-
ever appeared to immediately eliminate the runoff/
erosion problem, presumably because the soil was
protected from rain drop action; as well long term
bene®ts for soil structure can be expected.
In the longer term nutrient balances are also impor-
tant, although we can only comment on nitrogen.
Residue retention keeps an extra 25 kg/ha per crop
(wheat), or 60 kg/ha per crop (maize), of nitrogen
(as well as other mineral elements) in the system.
The experiment was however too short to see any
bene®t for this positive effect of residue. The rotations
with vetch (and especially with medic in the case of
wheat) might be expected to have a better nitrogen
balance than continuous cereal (Fischer et al., 2002).
With the N fertilizer application and legumes, perhaps
the balance is even positive, especially for maize with
its lower grain N%; this would be of long term bene®t.
One clear drawback, however, with these legume±
cereal rotations was the greater weed pressure, espe-
cially with wheat under Z (Fischer et al., 2002). On
some occasions full post-seeding weed control (up to
three herbicides) was unnecessary in WW and MW,
but it was always needed with VWZ and especially
PWZ, and the weed population appeared to be increas-
ing over the 4 years of the experiment (Fischer et al.,
2002).
4. Conclusion
Experiments about cropping systems and soil man-
agement are always complex, and one with six rota-
tions, two tillage, two residue and two N levels, is
going to be especially complex. As an exploration of
possibilities and problems the present experiment,
however, was successful, although it is obvious that
4 years is too short to reveal longer term changes.
Wheat grain yield responses to treatment were never
large and could largely be explained on the basis of
water stress and likely soil N levels, with minor
treatment effects on diseases aggravated by residue
retention and continuous cereal. Zero tillage is possi-
ble with wheat on wheat, but not particularly attractive
economically if there is full residue retention. Legume
wheat rotations maybe satisfactory if weed control
costs can be contained. The maize crop was more
complex. Continuous maize without cultivation was
inferior in terms of grain yield due to the unexplained
stunting problem, which needs further investigation.
Other maize treatment effects seemed, as with wheat,
to be related to soil water and N fertility, maize being
more responsive to both of these than wheat, espe-
cially when the stress coincided with ¯owering. In this
regard zero tilled maize in full wheat residue was often
outstanding. But, as with wheat, the forage value of the
residue appears, in the short term at least, to outweigh
its value as a surface mulch, and contributor to soil
structure and nutrition, for subsequent crops. Time-
liness of sowing is critical for maize in this environ-
ment and treatment effects on this need to be studied
more closely (for example modelled), as zero till with
retained residue may have a signi®cant advantage in
this regard. Besides maize was observed to show
more runoff, with the interrow serving as a preferred
channel unless well covered with residue from the
previous crop. Future work needs to pay more atten-
tion to these runoff losses. Many of the treatments
described here have been continued in the same plots,
and Sayre et al. (in press) describe the results for
years 1996±2000.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the following persons
who contributed substantially to the experiment at
various times between 1991 and 1995: CIMMYT
staff, Vicente Calixto, Manuel Olivares, Miguel Mar-
tinez, Jaime Lopez-Cesati, Etienne Duveiller, John
Mimh, David Bergvinson and Ganesan Srinivasan,
and visiting scientists, Samuel Roman, Vicente Espi-
noza and Claire Fudge.
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