Plate heat exchangers Plate heat exchangers are more utilised in cold storage plants on shore, for example

in the fish industry and the meat industry. Plate heat exchangers are built with thin plates with double liquid channels. The plates are installed with the flat side toward each other. The cooling medium and product are pumped each way in the channels to achieve the best possible cooling or heating. Water or oil is used as the cooling medium and is dependent upon the temperature of the product that is to be cooled or heated. Plate heat exchangers are also used as condensers on newer cargo cooling plants aboard gas tankers.

Plate heat exchangers must be cleaned at regular intervals to prevent the channels from clogging with salt deposits or particles from the medium or the product. One must ensure, after cleaning, that the gaskets are properly placed, and that one uses gaskets that tolerate the medium and temperatures one operates within the heat exchanger Different heat exchangers utilised onboard gas carriers for cargo handling Cargo heater: A cargo heater is used to heat the cargo when discharging to an ambient shore tank. A cargo heater is also used when loading a fully pressurised gas carrier with cargo with temperature less than 10oC. Seawater or oil is used to heat the cargo in the cargo heater. It is of importance to remember that the cargo heater is full of water and have good flow out with water before letting cold cargo into the heater. Fully pressurised gas carriers are carriers that are designed to transport condensed gases at ambient temperature, and they normally dont have cargo cooling plant.

CARGO CONDENSER: Cargo condensers in a direct cargo cooling plant condensate the vapour against sea water, Freon or other medium as propylene after it is compressed in the cargo compressor. Cargo condensers in a direct cargo cooling plant can on some gas carriers also be used as cargo heaters and are designed in low temperature steel that tolerates a minimum of 50oC. Intermediate cooler An intermediate cooler is used in a 2-stage direct cargo cooling plant and cascade cooling plant. Vapour from the first stage on the cargo compressor is pressed down on the bottom of the intermediate cooler and is condensed against the cargo liquid in the bottom. The cargo compressors 2nd stage sucks simultaneously from the top of the intermediate cooler to keep the pressure down. Floaters or D/P-cells regulate the liquid level in the intermediate cooler. The condensate inside the coil came from the cargo condenser and is under cooled by the liquid in the intermediate cooler before it is pressured further back to the cargo tank. Sketch of intermediate cooler

Freon condenser: Water is used to condense Freon in the Freon condenser in a cascade cooling plant. The liquefied Freon is used to condensate the cargo in the cascade cooling plants cargo condenser. Liquefied Freon is also used in indirect cargo cooling plants. The condensate is then pumped in pipe coils, and cools either directly on the tank steel or as a cooling medium for ethanol or other mediums. Vapour riser: A vapour riser is used to produce vapour from the cargo liquid. Steam or heated oil is used to heat up and vapour rise the liquid. The liquid is pumped from one of the cargo tank, deck storage vessel or from a shore tank and into the vapour riser. The vapour is used to gas up or maintains the pressure in one or several cargo tanks. Oil coolers: The cargo cooling plants oil coolers use water as a cooling media. The oil coolers must hold the oil temperature on the different compressors within the specifications determined by the manufacturer of the cargo cooling plant.

CARGO COOLING PLANT 6.4.1 Compressors Compressors are used as vapour pumps in all modern cargo cooling plants, either to compress or pump cargo vapour. Compressors are also used to compress or pump cooling medium as Freon vapour on indirect cargo cooling plant and cascade plant. The compressors in the cargo cooling plants are produced either as piston, screw or centrifugal type. We will now look at the different types of compressors and starting with piston compressors. 6.4.2 Piston compressor Piston compressors used directly against cargo are of oil free type. Oil free compressors are used to prevent pollution of oil into the cargo, and thereby contamination of the cargo. All cargoes we are cooling demand a high rate of purity. Consequently, it cannot be mixed with oil or be polluted by other products. With an oil free piston compressor, we mean that the cylinder liners are not lubricated or cooled with oil. Piston compressors that are used against Freon normally have oil lubrication of cylinder liners. Piston compressors are either built with cylinders in line, v-form or wform. Compressors with cylinders in line are built with two or three cylinders either single-acting or double-acting. V-form compressors are built with two, four, six, eight or twelve cylinders and are single acting. 6.4.3 Double-acting compressors Double-acting compressors are normally oil free and compress the vapour above and under the piston. The vapour is compressed on top of the piston when the piston goes up and vapour is sucked into the cylinder below the piston. The vapour is compressed below the piston when the piston goes down and is sucked into the cylinder above the piston. This indicates that each cylinder has two suction valves and two pressure valves. The pistons are equipped with compression grooves and are not equipped with piston rings. There is no oil lubrication of the piston itself, but there is oil in the crankcase on the compressor. It is of importance that the sealing device between the cylinder liner and crankcase is intact. In the first stage, the oil pressure in the crank is checked and compared to the suction pressure and the cargo tank pressure. Check the user manual for the cargo compressors and the marginal values for the pressure difference with oil and suction. This type of compressor is used as cargo compressor onboard gas carriers. It is important to change the oil in the crank when changing cargo. This to prevent pollution to the next cargo from the previous cargo. Small amounts of leakage between the cylinder and crank will at all times occur, so the oil in the crank contains some of the product that is cooled.

6.4.4 Single-acting compressors Single-acting compressors compress and suck the gas on one side of the piston and then normally above the piston. A suction valve and pressure valve is then installed in the top of the cylinder. The cylinder top is spring-loaded as a safety precaution against liquid knock. The compressors are built with the cylinders in pairs: two, four, six, eight and twelve, then often as v-form or w-form. Single-acting compressors are used both as Freon and cargo compressors on gas tankers. Piston compressors are operated by electric motor with direct transmission or strap transmission with a constant number of revolutions. The number of revolutions is between 750 to 1750 rpm. Unloading of the compressor occurs by hydraulic lifting of the suction valves. The drawback of piston compressors is that they are vulnerable when the cylinder liner is filled with liquid and they also have relatively low capacity for cooling. Onboard many gas tankers, there is a liquid receiver on the vapour line between the cargo tank and the cargo compressor, which prevents the liquid from being carried with into the compressor. The liquid receiver is equipped with a level alarm to control the liquid level.

6.4.5 Screw compressor Screw compressors are either oil free or oil lubricated. The type used on the cargo side must be of oil free type for the same reason as the piston compressors. The principle for screw compressors are two rotating screws, the screw that operates has convex threads and the operated screw has concave threads which rotates them in different directions. Vapour is screwed through the threads and with rotation on the screws, the confined gas volume decreases successively resulting in compression. Please also refer to cargo cooling process for more information.

The advantage with screw compressors is that they wear few parts and have low weight in proportion to cooling capacity. Oil free screw compressors are operated by electric motors with a constant number of revolutions and have a gear transmission for the compressor, which has approx. 12000 rpm. The high speed prevents leakage between the pressure and suction side. Screw compressors with oil injection in the rotor house have a lower number of revolutions, about 3500 rpm. One can also use electric motors with direct shaft transmission.

Oil free screw compressors are used on the cargo side. On the Freon side, compressors with oil injection are used. The oil causes a film on the outside of the rotors that prevents leakage between the pressure and suction side. This compensates for the temperature difference inside the compressor. The capacity of screw compressors is adjusted by a slide, which is inside the compressor. However, when we reduce the capacity the excess gas flows back to the suction side. Screw compressors are not destroyed if they suck liquid, as we find with piston compressors.

Cargo compressors with motors that are installed inside a deckhouse have two parts, one room for the compressors and one room for the motors. The room where the motors are installed is gas safe with a constant excess pressure of air preventing flammable gas from flowing in. If the excess pressure is too low, the power to the electric motor room will be shut off and the cargo cooling plant stops. The shaft from the electric motor room to the compressor room is rendered gas-tight. A mechanical seal device with automatic oil lubrication is normally used. To prevent bearing breakdown, it is important that electric motors and compressors are aligned according to specifications from the manufacturer of the compressor and motor. 6.4.6 Centrifugal compressors On gas tankers, centrifugal compressors are used to deliver vapour to shore or to supply the cargo compressors with vapour from the cargo tanks. Centrifugal compressors are operated by electric motor, hydraulic motor or with steam, and have a gear transmission. The compressor has a number of revolutions from about 20000 rpm to over 35000 rpm. This high number of revolutions sets large demands on accuracy and tolerances at aligning motor and compressor. The centrifugal compressor is built on the same principle as a centrifugal pump. When a centrifugal compressor is used to feed the cargo compressor, it creates a higher suction pressure on the cargo compressor, and thereby gives better cooling capacity. Another area of operation for centrifugal compressors is pumping vapour back to shore tank while loading. The centrifugal compressor can also be used when changing cargo. Either to blows hot vapour or to be used as ventilation fan. The use of centrifugal compressors depends on how flexible the piping system to the compressor is. On gas tankers, the centrifugal compressor is mounted on deck close

to the cargo manifold. The capacity of the centrifugal compressor is from approximate 2000 m3 and upwards.

6.4.7 Indirect cargo cooling plant Indirect cargo cooling plants are used on cargoes that not can be compressed or exposed to high temperatures, as they either polymerise or start chemical reactions. Typical cargo that uses indirect cooling is propylene oxide, ethylene oxide, mixed propylene oxide and ethylene oxide and chlorine. There are some different methods for indirect cargo cooling. One type of indirect cargo cooling plant use the discharge pumps and pumps the cargo liquid through a Freon heat exchanger and back to the cargo tank. This method is energy demanding as we have to use discharging pump, Freon cooling plant and seawater pump to control the cargo temperature. On this type of cooling plant the discharge pump should be of submerged type, deepwell pumps can also be used but we must try to avoid running those while at sea. Deepwell pumps with revolution regulation can be used if the ship is not rolling or pitching to mush. 6.4.8 Indirect cargo cooling plant with utilisation of discharge pump Another indirect cargo cooling plant resembles the first a lot, but the discharge pumps are not used. Instead the cargo vapour is condensed in a Freon heat exchanger and the condensate is pumped back to the cargo tank with a small pump. This indirect cooling requires less energy than if one also uses discharge pumps. A third indirect cargo cooling plant also uses a Freon cooling plant where cold Freon liquid is pumped to a coil installed inside the top of the cargo tank or is welded around the outside of the cargo tank. The Freon compressor sucks Freon vapour from the Freon liquid collector then presses the vapour to the condenser where it is condensed against seawater. One can also use ethanol in this cooling system; ethanol is then pumped round in the coils and Freon is used to cool down the ethanol.

6.4.9 Indirect cargo cooling plant with utilisation of Ethanol in coil round the cargo tank

6.4.9 Direct cargo-cooling plant A direct cooling plant is used to control temperature on cargoes as LPG, Isobutane, Ammonia and some chemical gases like VCM, Propylene and Butadiene. Common for all direct cargo cooling plants is that the cargo vapour is compressed directly in the compressor. It is the seawater temperature and the type of cargo that decides which condensation pressure is achieved provided that the cargo is pure. If one for example has loaded Propylene and the seawater temperature is 20oC, the condensation pressure will be approximate 9 bars. The pressure needed in proportion to the temperature is located in the density table for the actual cargo.

SKETCH OF TWO-STAGE DIRECT COOLING PLANT

Direct cargo cooling plants are operated as one or multistage, dependent upon the type of compressor, the cargo and the temperature on the seawater. Most gas carriers that are designed for LPG have direct cargo cooling plants that can be operated as a one-stage or multistage operation. With one-stage direct cooling, vapour is sucked by the cargo compressor from the cargo tanks. The vapour is then pressed to the condenser and assembles in the liquid collector. The liquid level in the collector is regulated either by two floaters or the differential pressure above the liquid level in the liquid collector. The condensate is pressured back to the cargo tank from the liquid collector via a regulation valve and in the condensate return line. To use one-stage cooling, the pressure difference between tank pressure and condensate pressure must be less than 6 bars. With 2nd stage direct cooling without an intermediate cooler the cargo compressor sucks from the cargo tank with the 1st stage cylinder. The vapour is thereby pressed to the compressors 2nd stage suction side and then to the cargo condenser where the vapour is condensed against seawater and collected in the liquid collector. The liquid is pressured back to the cargo tank via a regulation valve and the condensate return line from the liquid collector. The pressure in the liquid collector is equal to the pressure in the cargo condenser, and is at all times higher than the cargo tank pressure. 2nd stage direct cargo cooling plant is delivered with or without an intermediate cooler. Some direct cargo cooling plants are delivered with intermediate cooler (inter cooler), this achieves lower temperature and pressure on the 2nd stage suction side. These cargo cooling plants are used on semi-pressurised LPG carriers and atmospheric pressure LPG/ NH3 carriers.

6.4.11 Cascade cooling plant / direct cooling Cascade cooling plant is basically a direct cargo cooling plant where the cargo is condensed against Freon and Freon is condensed against water. Sketch of cascade plant

In a cascade cooling plant there is a Freon cooling plant in supplement to a direct cargo cooling plant. The Freon cooling plant contain of a compressor, Freon liquid collector, oil collector, Freon separator, regulation valve and pump. Freon are condensed against water, and the Freon condensate is pumped from the separator to the cargo condenser where the cargo is condensed. The Freon plant have to be started first, so the condensation and circulation of Freon in the cargo condenser is normal. There must be accuracy in the start-up to prevent oil from leaking with Freon and removing the condensation effect. When the Freon plant operates normally, one can start the cargo compressor. On the cargo side in a cascade cooling plant there is mostly 2nd stage direct cargo cooling plant equipped with compressor, intermediate cooler, cargo condenser, liquid collector and regulation valve. The vapour is sucked from the cargo tank and into the cargo compressors 1st stage. The vapour is then pressured to the intermediate cooler where it is condensed against the liquid in the bottom of the intermediate cooler. The cargo compressor sucks vapour with the 2nd stage from the top of the intermediate cooler and press the vapour to the cargo condenser where the gas is condensed against Freon. The condensate is then pressured against a coil in the intermediate cooler and further through a regulation valve to the condensate line, and back to the cargo tank. This type of cargo cooling plant is used on semi-pressurised LPG and LEG carriers, and on large atmospheric pressure LPG carriers. A cascade cooling plant must be used for condensation of Ethane and Ethylene, but can also be used for Propane, Ammonia and Propylene. Some cascade cooling plants are constructed for use as a

two or one-stage direct cargo cooling plant. Generally when cooling Butane, Butadiene or VCM one can also condensate Propane and Propylene directly if the seawater temperature is low enough. This type of cargo cooling plant has a lower dependency of the seawater temperature than a direct cooling plant. The larger volume of Freon, seawater temperature has less influence on the plant. It is difficult to cool regardless of the kind of cooling plants if the surrounding temperature e.g. seawater temperature is higher than 35oC. 6.5 INERT GAS PLANT On gas carriers inert gas is used for different purposes, some are requirements other is to maintain the ships hull and spaces:

Have neutral atmosphere in hold and inter barrier spaces Elimination of cargo vapour from the cargo tank when gas freeing Eliminating oxygen from the cargo tank before loading

Drying up hold spaces or inter barrier spaces to achieve a neutral atmosphere and to prevent corrosion in the spaces Placing a neutral vapour above the cargo if required

When carrying flammable cargo on fully refrigerated gas carriers there is a requirement to have a neutral atmosphere in the hold space or inter barrier space either with dry inert gas or nitrogen. If the gas carrier does not have an inert gas plant or nitrogen plant, it must have a storage vessel with inert gas or nitrogen with capacity of 30 days and nights consumption. The definition of consumption here is the leakage in the vents and manhole. If the cargo is not flammable we can have dry air, inert gas or nitrogen in the spaces.

If the cargo is Ammonia, one must not use inert gas that contains carbon dioxide, only dry air or nitrogen, because carbon dioxide reacts chemically with Ammonia. It is always beneficial to keep spaces around the cargo tanks dry.

The inert gas generator is built up with a combustion chamber, scrubber, O2 analyser, dryer and heater. The fuel oil is injected into the combustion chamber, mixed with air, combusts and flue gas or inert gas is formed. The inert gas is blown through the scrubber where carbon particles and sulphur is washed out with the water. The O2 analyser measures the O2 content against the stated limits before the inert gas is blown further into the dryer. There is two types of dryers for inert gas plants either Freon dryer or absorption dryer. The most common is the Freon dryer.

After the scrubber the inert gas is cooled in a dryer to reduce the dew point. With use of Freon dryer the dew point will be minimum 5oC. Water is condensed out while the dew point is reduced and we have to avoid temperature to sink below 0oC so we do not clog the inert channel with ice. In an absorption dryer the inert gas is compressed with a compressor and pumped through a material that absorbs water and the dew point sinks to minimum 80oC. Strict demands are made regarding inert gas plants on gas carriers. IMO makes demands for maximum content of 5% O2 by volume. Inert gas is produced on gas tankers by their own inert gas generator. Inert gas produces by consuming gas oil, diesel oil or light fuel oil. The O2 content in the inert gas adjusts by quantity of air added to the oil that is injected into the combustion chamber. To achieve as pure inert gas as possible, very good combustion is required. A rich oil/air mixture gives a lot of carbon, high content with Carbon monoxide and low O2 content. A lean mixture (more air) gives higher O2%, less carbon and less carbon monoxide. The air/oil mixture is produced manually or automatically on the control board. 6.5.1 Sketch of inert gas plant

6.5.2 O2 Control O2 analyser is connected to a two-way valve where the inert gas either can be sent to a ventilation mast or to a consumption unit (dryer, tanker). The limit value is set manually between 5% by volume O2 and the minimum value for the inert gas generator for example 0,3% by volume O2. The inert gas then automatically goes to the vent mast if the O2 content reaches more than 5% by volume or below 0,3% by volume. O2 content is set to the required O2 volume, for example 1% by volume. The inert will then go to the dryer and is consumed when the O2 content is between 1% and 0,3%.

6.5.3 Drying The inert gas is saturated with water when it comes out of the scrubber, that means 100% humidity. The temperature on the inert gas after the scrubber is about 5oC above the seawater temperature. The inert gas therefore must be dried before it is sent to the cargo tanks, hold space or inter barrier space to prevent condensing of water into the tanks or spaces. The inert gas temperature should be higher than the atmosphere that one will inert. Inert gas dryer is a Freon heat exchanger, absorption dryer or a combination of both. 6.5.4 Freon dryer Freon dryer are frequently used and require less space in proportion to an absorption dryer. The principle with the Freon dryer is that Freon flows through small pipes in the inert gas channel. The inert gas is cooled down and thereby condensate the water from the inert gas when it passes the Freon pipes. The Freon is condensed in its own cooling plant. The temperature of the inert gas after the Freon heat exchanger must not be less than 5oC. The inert gas that comes out of the Freon dryer has a dew point of about 5oC and a water content of 6,75 gram per m3 inert gas. 6.5.5 Absorption dryer With use of absorption drier the inert gas is then pressed through a medium that absorbs water, for example silica gel or Aluminium Oxide. The inert gas has a temperature a bit above seawater temperature when entering into the dryer blower. The temperature of the inert gas is higher when it emerges from the dryer, from 30oC to 60oC, depending on the required dew point. The result of temperature increase is that the compressor compresses the inert gas. One can have an inert gas dew point down to 80oC with an absorption dryer, but the inert gas volume that is delivered for consumption decreases. The inert gas contains 0,0013 gram water pr m3 at a dew point of 60oC. Inert gas with temperature of 40oC and dew point at 60oC has a relative humidity of 0,025%.

6.5.6 Inert gas heater An inert gas heater is a heat exchanger where steam or an electrical coil is used for heating the inert gas. The dried inert gas can absorb more humidity when it is heated. Heating reduces the relative humidity on the inert gas. The relative humidity is 28,72% at a temperature of 25oC with Freon dryer and an inert gas dew point of 5oC. If the inert gas is heated to 50oC, the relative humidity will sink down to 8,13%. It is of importance that one first removes humidity, and thereby heats the inert gas so it can absorb more humidity. The inert gas dryer and heater can also be used in connection with venting tanks and spaces with air. To maintain the function of the inert gas generator to specification, one must run it regularly, generally once a week and preferably several hours each time. This is a good opportunity to refill spaces and lines, which are not used.

6.5.7 Sketch of thermal drier

A B C D E F S

Drying tower Tower that is dried Heater Cooler Fan Water separator Solenoid valves

6.5.8 Sketch of pressure swing drier

6.5.9 Composition of inert gas and dew point

AFETY VALVES Gas carriers must have safety valves on all cargo tanks, spaces and cargo lines where cargo liquid residue may remain. Cargo tanks safety valves are either pilot (pressure loaded) or spring loaded valves. Spring-loaded valves are normally used on

fully pressurised tankers and semi pressurised tankers with a tank pressure above 0,7 bars and on cargo lines. The pressure loaded valves are normally used on atmospheric pressure tankers and semi pressurised tankers. There must be two safety valves on all kinds of pressure vessels on more than 20 m3. There are also demands that there is a safety valve on all kinds of pressure vessels below 20 m3. The maximum set pressure on a cargo tanks safety valves depends on the cargo tank MARVS. MARVS is maximum allowed safety valve set point. The pressure required by MARVS is located in the gas carriers IMO Certificate of Fitness. The cargo tank safety valve must be located on the tanks highest point above deck. Each safety valve must be connected to vent mast without impediment or valves. The vent masts outlet must be at least B/3 or 6 meter above weather deck or gangway, B is the ships breadth. The distance should at least B or 25 meters from the nearest air inlet or opening in the accommodation. This distance can be shortened for gas carriers of less than 90 meters in length, but the flag state authorities, for example Norwegian Maritime Directorate, must approve it. All safety valves on cargo tanks must be prototype tested and approved by IMO and the gas carriers class company. The cargo tanks safety valves must be tested within the IMO limits +-10% for 0 to 1,5 bars, +-6% for 1,5 to 3 bars and +-3% for 3 bars and higher pressure. The tankers class company has to seal the safety valves after authorised personnel have tested and calibrated the safety valves.

6.6.1 6.6.1 Cargo tank safety valves function Safety valves used on cargo tanks have one or more pilots to hold the valve closed. The safety valve contains of an adjusting spring, three membranes, two valve seats, an exhaust pipe and an equalising pipe. The pilot is adjusted by a pilot spring in order to get the needed pressure, for example 0,5 bars. The pilot valves seat is attached to two membranes and the pilot spring. The pilot main valve seat is attached to the main valve membrane. The pilot valve is connected to a pipe on the highest point on the cargo tank. There is the same pressure below and above the main valve seat and on the below the boost membrane when the pilot valve is shut. When the pressure in the cargo tank is higher than the pilot valves setting, the boost membrane will lift, pull the pilot seat up and the pressure above the main valve membrane is ventilated to the atmosphere. The pressure will now be higher above the main valve seat than below and the valve is open and vapour is ventilated to the vent mast. When the cargo tank pressure sinks again, the boost membrane will sink and the pilot seat will go to the shut position. The pressure above the main valve membrane

increases to the same pressure as in the cargo tank. The main valve seat will then be closed and the valve shut. 6.6.2 6.6.2 Example of a tank safety valve There are extra setters that are installed on the pilot valve to achieve the right set point on fully pressurised tankers and semi-pressurised tankers. The setter consists of an adjusting spring with spring tension equal to the pressure, for example 2,3 bars. When the setter is screwed down on the pilot, the set point will be at 2,8 bars. The cargo tank safety valves on atmospheric pressure tankers are normally the membrane type. The principle is the same as with seat valves. When the valve is shut there is equal pressure under and over the main membrane and under the boost membrane. When the pressure is higher than the pilot setting, the boost membrane in the pilot will press the pilot seat up and the valve start to open. When the pressure sinks, the pilot seat is pressed back and shut. The valve opens when the tank pressure exceeds the spring tension. When the tank pressure sinks below the spring tension, the valve shuts again. An adjustment screw is attached on top of the valve that is used for calibrating the spring tension.

On fully refrigerated gas carriers there is often options to mount extra weights during loading or change of cargo. The extra weights are mounted on top of the pilot and increases the set point with approximates 100 to 150 grams.

THE EXTRA SETTER IS NOT ALLOWED TO HAVE ON THE PILOT WHILE THE VESSEL IS AT SEA. 6.6.3 6.6.3 Safety valves on cargo lines/ pipes Seat valves are mainly used as safety valves on lines. These safety valves are springloaded and must be according to the certified line pressure. The set point and the number of the different safety valves can be found in the gas carrier valve list. The safety valves must be overhauled, pressure tested and calibrated by authorised personnel. Then sealed and by the ships class company. Example on safety valves on cargo lines/pipes

07-

Monitoring and control

MONITORING AND CONTROL

All gas carriers must have a minimum instrumentation for control of cargo and cargo equipment. The instrumentation varies from local instruments to remote instruments. The cargo control room or instrument room is located in a gas safe area, normally in connection with the deckhouse. 7.1 LEVEL GAUGES A level gauge for cargo tanks is normally of float type or radar type. The float type can be controlled by a guide-wire or placed inside a perforated pipe. The floats movements are transferred to a counter through a steel band. The counter are normally local, but on new ships it is also remote reading. It is of importance to check that the counter is at the correct level. On the counter, there are marked values indicating the reading when the float is at the bottom and on the top. Control and necessary adjustments are made using these values. To avoid damage to the float and band, it is of importance that the float is hoisted and locked when the ship is sailing. Other types of floats are connected to an arm with a switch, which sets off or on an alarm circuit when the liquid reaches a given level. This type is used as level alarms in cargo tanks and in small tanks as liquid receivers. The liquid separator on the suction side of the compressor is an example of a tank equipped with this type of alarm. If liquid is carried away with the vapour to the compressor, the liquid will assemble in the liquid separator on the vapour line. The float in the liquid separator will at a stated level float up and actuate an alarm and then shutdown the compressor and liquid is prevented to came into the compressor.

7.1.1 High-level alarm To prevent over loading of cargo tanks high level alarms are required. There are two separate floats that give the alarms, one is high-level alarm the other is high-highlevel alarm. The high-level alarm is activated when the cargo tank is nearly full, normally at 95% filling. The high-high-level alarm is actuated at 98% or 99% filling. Valves on the actual tank are closed and discharge pumps are automatically stopped when liquid reaches the actual level. To open the valves and start the pump again the 98%/ 99% circuit has to be reset and switched off.

7.1.2 Emergency Shut-Down System (ESD) All gas carriers are equipped with an emergency shutdown system that is manually activated from at least two locations onboard. It closes the liquid valves in the cargo pipe-system. At least one of the locations must be located outside the cargo area or in a cargo control room. The system is normally a part of the cargo valves control system and both pneumatic and hydraulic system is used. The emergency shutdown system must be fail safe, that is by loss of pressure or voltage, the valves are shut. A spring or lack of pressure closes most of the actuators used in the ESD system. The liquid valves should fully close under all service conditions within 30 seconds. Thermal fuses (fusing plugs) that activate the emergency shutdown system are located on tank-domes and manifolds. On some gas carriers the fuses also activate the water spray system. If fire ignites or temperature rise of other reason, the fuses have to melt at temperature between 98oC and 104oC. When the emergency shutdown system is activated, the power circuit to the cargo plant is broken and compressors and discharge pumps will stop. Some terminals require that the ESD system onboard must be activated also from the jetty when handling cargo. Most gas carriers therefore have the possibility to place an extra ESD release button on jetty. For gas carriers with MARVS above 0,7 bars it is required that all pipes connected to the cargo tanks, with exception from pipes to the safety valves and instrument pipes, are equipped with remote-operated valves. Gas carriers with MARVS below 0,7 bars only require such valves on the manifold. A pneumatic or hydraulic actuator placed on the valve operates the valve in the pipe system and can also be remote controlled. The connected actuators for valves in the pipe-system have an adjustable closing time. Adjustable closing time is a requirement from IMO to avoid over loaded cargo tanks or pressure surge on the terminal pipes. The valves closing time can be regulated by adjustment of a needle valve on the actuator.

7.1.3 Pneumatic system In cargo control systems pneumatic is used to control cooling plants and valves. The emergency shutdown system can be complete or partly pneumatic. Pneumatics is also used to control the water spray-system and regulate the cargo cooling plant. For a satisfactory function of the control air systems it is of importance that the air is as dry as possible. Poor air-treatment and humidity is the major cause of interruption in such systems. Regular control and maintenance of the air dryer, normally by the heatless dryer type, is also of importance. 7.1.4 Example of pneumatic ESD system

7.1.5 Fixed gas detector system It is required that all gas carriers are equipped with a fixed gas detector that continuously measures the concentration of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, and activates an alarm if the concentration exceeds 30% LEL. The fixed gas detector is normally located on the bridge or in the cargo control room. The detector pump sucks the atmosphere from sample points to the sensor from selected areas around the vessel. The following areas are specified in the IMOs Gas code and must be monitored by this type of equipment: Compressor room Electric motor room Cargo control room unless designated as gas-safe Airlocks Hold spaces for all cargo tanks except for independent tanks type C Other areas in the cargo area where flammable mixtures may accumulate Sample points at ventilation inlets to the accommodation, in the engine room and in the forecastle.

It is required that the detector must measure all sample points consecutively and not exceeding 30 minutes intervals on the same sample point. Both audio and visual alarms should be activated. The next page illustrates a flow sheet for one type of gas detector. The pump sucks continuously from all points, but only one point is measured at a time. When a point is measured, a precise time purges the instrument before measuring the next point. If the concentration at a measure-point exceeds 30% LEL, the alarm is released. An indicator panel on the instrument indicates, at all times, what point is measured and from where the alarm is released. If restrictions or similar in the suction-line take place, a flow-failure is released. The gas detector has a fixed connection for sample gas for calibration. Calibrating and testing the equipment must be done regularly. This is normally a routine that is executed once a week. It is of importance that calibrating and testing is logged. The instrument should regularly be calibrated for the cargo carried onboard. This is used to adjust the difference between the span gas and the cargo onboard.

7.1.6 Fixed gas detector

7.2 LNG CARRIERS AND VAPOR BOIL-OFF A re-condensation plant for LNG is both complicated and expensive. It is therefore more moderate to utilise the boil-off from the cargo as fuel. The amount of boil-off from a LNG ship lies at about 0,25% per day and night. For an 85 000 m3 tanker this covers about 60% of the fuel need. For a large LNG carrier the boil off covers a larger share of the fuel needed. The boil-off can be utilised as fuel in boilers, dual-fuel engines and gas turbines. Strict regulations are made for control and security when we use LNG as fuel, especially regarding ventilation. Emergency shutdown and double shut-off valves are essential on the vapour line. With a stop of the plant, the vapour line is flushed with nitrogen. Boilers and engines are both made for oil and gas. It is required that at all times we must use about 5% fuel oil on the pilot burner. This secures that all vapour in the pipe to the boiler is continuously set on fire. Example 1: A loaded LNG carrier of 87 000 m3 has a heat transfer to the cargo tanks of 700kW. The cargo temperature is -160 0C. How much vapour boils off per day at unaltered cargo temperature? The size of the heat transfer to the cargo tanks determines how much methane that is boiled off. We find specific heat of vaporisation for methane in the heat technical table to be 506,2 kJ/kg at -160 0C. This indicates that 506,2 kJ must be supplied to evaporate one kg methane. The total amount that evaporates at a heat transfer of 700 kW is then: (heat transfer x time ) / specific vaporisation 700 kW x (24 x 3600)s / 506,2 kJ/kg = 119.500 kg/day = 119,5 MT/day The ship can during the existing condition consume 119,5 MT per day and night for propulsion. This corresponds to 0,33% boil-off per day. The ballast journey to the next load port must be planned thoroughly when we use the boil-off as fuel on the boilers and machinery. The quantity needed of cargo for propulsion and cooling of cargo tanks must be calculated before commence discharging. The amount of boil-off from the cargo tanks is regulated with the spray pumps.

7.3 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN GAS HAZARDIOUS AREAS Electrical equipment should be of a type that eliminates the chance of fire or explosion when carrying flammable cargo. Precautions must be made to exclude spark sources from areas where flammable gases may appear. On shore one operates with different zones of explosive areas, as you found in the following table: 7.3.1 Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2 Explosive gases are present continuously or in long periods. Explosive gases are present in periods during normal operating conditions. Explosive gases are rarely present and occur only in short periods.

If applying these criteria to ships, zone 0 includes cargo tanks with cargo handling equipment, zone 1 includes the remaining part of a gas hazardous area and zone 2 includes the remaining part of the cargo area. Rooms containing cargo-handling equipment, for example, cargo compressor rooms must also be treated as zone 1.

7.3.2 Gas hazardous areas Gas hazardous areas are defined onboard as the areas in the cargo tank area that have no approved arrangement ensuring that the atmosphere has, at all times, no content of flammable mixtures. The areas are clearly specified in the regulations. Areas outside the specified gas hazardous areas are considered as gas safe. The electric motor room or the control room is an example of a gas safe area. These rooms are considered as safe in all circumstances provided that the ventilation system prevents flammable mixtures penetrating into the rooms. Normally this is arranged with the suction pipe for the ventilation to the rooms are located outside defined flammable areas and the room has always an overpressure. Access to the room is through a airlock, and the room is made dead in case of a failure in the ventilation system. GAS HAZARDOUS AREAS ARE SPECIFIED IN THE REGULATION ARE, AS FOLLOWS: All cargo tanks and rooms containing cargo tanks or pipes. Pump room, compressor room and other rooms where gas appears. A radius of 4,5 meters around ventilation outlet from the compressor room and pump room.

 A radius around the ventilation outlet from cargo tanks at 9 meters. A zone on open deck in the cargo tanks area up to 2,4 meters above deck and 3 meters ahead and aft of the cargo tank area. A radius of 3 meters around pipe lines for cargo. All vessels are issued with a drawing that indicates these areas. The drawing normally named, Hazardous Areas, is posted around the vessel for the crew to familiarise themselves with these hazardous areas.

The conditions onboard and around operation of gas carriers are special, and the rules are more restrictive than ashore. The equipment onboard is exposed to hard strains, the maintenance is often more complicated, and none the less, the consequences of fire or explosion are very seriously. Ashore there are individual national rules. For gas carriers and other ships the Flag State, Class Society and IMO rules apply. Terminals and charterer also have individual rules that have to be followed. Special rules exist for pump room, compressor room, pipe tunnels, control room in the cargo tank area, electric motor room and the area on the forecastle. Access to electric motor room and cargo control room occurs through an airlock. These rooms must have a mechanical positive pressure system. The doors must be equipped with alarms and if both doors are left open too long and the pressure drop, the rooms automatically render dead. This is normally arranged by a DP-cell (differential pressure cell) that measures the pressure difference inside the room and the surroundings. Compressor room, pipe tunnels and pump rooms must be equipped with explosionproof lights. Cargo control, monitoring and automation equipment must be independently secure in a flameproof enclosure. The light arrangement disperses over at least two switchers, and all switches and protection equipment must be placed in a gas-safe area. Electrical cables are not allowed to be open exposed throughout the room. Explosion-proof and independently secured equipment are approved to be used in gas hazardous areas on deck. Automation and communication equipment must on the other hand be of independently secure enclosure.

THE FOLLOWING LIST GIVES A SUMMARY OF APPROVED ENCLOSURES WITHIN THE SPECIFIED FLAMMABLE AREAS:

Area:

Approved enclosure:

Pump room and compressor Electric motor and lighting fixture must room be Ex d. Alarm , automations and communication equipment must be Ex ia Cargo tanks Open deck area General demand for Ex ia Ex d, Ex e, Ex ia and Ex ib are all approved.

The above-mentioned different types of electrical equipment characterise explosion proof equipment. This equipment is divided into three groups; each of them approved for its stated area. One must not fail to believe that if the equipment is explosion proof, it can be used in all flammable areas onboard. 7.3.3 Flameproof proof enclosure English: Flameproof enclosure American: Explosion proof German: Druckfeste kapslung CLC symbol: d Flameproof equipment does not secure against penetration of vapour. The enclosure must be mechanical and strong enough to resist the inner pressure that can arise because of an explosion. Eventual spurt of flame and warm gases will be sufficiently chilled to prevent ignition of the same gas mixture outside the equipment. Manufacturing longer openings with the help of threads and fissures constructively solves this. As we can see, the safety of this equipment depends upon whether the equipment can resist an interior explosion or not, and that warm gases and flashes maintain a long enough distance to be chilled. The weakness in this type of equipment is also here. The equipment with threads and fissures are especially exposed to corrosion and salt deposit. If the small passages are blocked or corroded, the safety is lost and the equipment can not be used. Equipment for high effect, like for example electric motors for pumps, has this design. Two different types of methods are used for cable inlet to explosion safe equipment direct or indirect inlet. The nipple that is used to direct the cable inlet for explosion proof motors consists of many parts that must be installed right to maintain safety.

This type of cable inlet is mainly used on English or American equipment. This type of equipment is delivered finished bored and threaded. There are big problems in locating the right compensation, if the nipple need to be changed, because the replacement must be the same type as the exchanged. It is not allowed to make adjustments for a new nipple, as such a modification may weaken the strength of the enclosure. Bulkhead pipes from a flammable to a gas proof area must be compressive. Special cable boxes filled with a special expanding type compound must be used for this purpose. At the indirect cable inlet to explosion proof equipment a connection box of an intrinsically safe design is used.

7.3.4 Increased safety English: Increased safety German: Erhohte sicherheit CLC symbol: e This design secures against high temperatures and formation of flame/sparks in the equipment during normal operation. The design is mostly used on illumination and connection boxes and in combination with other types of enclosures. Explosion proof electrical motors of type d are normally equipped with an indirect cable inlet of increased safety type. Increased safety can be used in some flammable areas. This is approved for zone 1 ashore. The special conditions onboard limits the user areas some for this equipment. 7.3.5 Intrinsically safe English: Intrinsically safe German: Egensicher CLC symbol: i

During normal operation or by error, an intrinsically safe enclosure will not be able to produce spark or heat by such a character that ignition of a flammable gas mixture is operative. Current and voltage limits by transistor relays or zener batteries maintain the safety. Intrinsically safe equipment only uses voltage of 8-12 V and current of about 5 milliampere. Test equipment that produces high voltage can not be used on intrinsically safe areas. The circuits can be destroyed and at worst form sparks in the hazardous area. All intrinsically safe equipment must be delivered with certificate from an approved test institution. Installation of the equipment must be executed with care. To secure misconnection or interference of the equipment, the cables must lie in their own canals, their own terminal blocks and preferably of blue colour. The distance to other cables should be at least 50 mm to protect the intrinsically safe circuit. Intrinsically safe relays and barriers must be placed in a gas proof area. Intrinsically safe enclosure divides into two categories:

ia Equipment not capable of causing ignition of flammable mixture in any combination of two imaginable errors with the equipment. The whole circuit is approved. ib Equipment not capable of causing ignition of a flammable mixture regardless of what simple error arises. Only the barrier is approved.

7.3.6 Other designs On installations ashore other explosion proof designs are used. Equipment can be filled with oil or sand to prevent penetration of flammable gases. This type of equipment is marked Ex o for oil and Ex q for sand. Excess pressure design, Ex p, prevents penetration of the surrounding atmosphere with help of a protective gas with higher pressure than the environment. Such equipment requires surveillance of the pressure. If the pressure falls below a precise limit the equipment dies. A complete electrical plant with this design is not relevant. But the principle use, as for example, for an electric motor on a gas vessel. Special design, Ex s, appears in combination with another design. Ex s is not a pure intrinsically safe design. 7.3.7 Classification of Ex equipment IEC, International Electro technical Commission, is an assembly with the task to make standardised recommendations about electrical equipment. This recommendation is published as IEC Recommendations. CENELEC, The European Committee for Electro technical Standardisation, has the task from IEC to make a standard for electrical equipment in hazardous areas. Equipment classified and marked by this standard will be approved in all of EU. The standardisation of flameproof equipment will in time ease the work by choosing the

right equipment at installation and replacement, plus execute necessary control on installed equipment. The equipment in use today is marked by a number of different standards. We will concentrate on the three most relevant:

CLC VDE USA

that signifies the European standard that signifies the former West-German standard that signifies the USAs standard

Flameproof equipment is tested and classified considering the different gases. The gas ignition energy, spontaneous ignition temperature and explosion progress are the primary factors. THE DIFFERENT GAS QUALITIES ARE DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING EXPLOSION GROUPS:

CLC VDE USA Example of gas: I 1 Gr. D Methane (pit gas) II A 1 Gr. D Methane (industrial) II A 1 Gr. D n-Pentane II A 1 Gr. D Petroleum gases II B 2 Gr. C Ethylene II C 3b Gr. B Carbon disulphide II C 3n Gr. A All gases Equipment marked explosion group I is used in mines. The other equipment is for use in the industry. The different flammable gas mixtures have different spontaneous ignition temperatures. To secure electrical equipment, which comes in contact with the relevant gas mixtures and has a surface temperature lower than the gas mixture spontaneous ignition temperature; the equipment is marked with a temperature class.

Spontaneous ignition Temp: >450 oC >300 oC >200 oC >135 oC >100 oC >85 oC

CLC T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

VDE G1 G2 G3 G4 G5

USA T1 T2 T2 D T3 T4 A T5

Example of gas: Acrynolitrile (481 oC) n-Pentane (309 oC) Acrolein (278 oC) Acetaldehyde Carbon disulphide

For CLC-classes, the maximum surface temperature follows the spontaneous ignition temperature of individual gas. The former West-German VDE-classes operate with both a spontaneous ignition temperature and a maximum surface temperature of the equipment. The surface temperature is stated a bit below the spontaneous ignition temperature. As an example, a gas that falls under the temperature class G1 is allowed a maximum surface temperature of 360oC. From the European Standard, all electrical equipment in hazardous areas must be marked, for example Eex d IIB T3 where:

EEx d IIB T3

The equipment is tested and classified according to the European Standard for utilisation in hazardous areas. The enclosure is flameproof. The equipment falls under explosion group IIB The equipment is tested and will at maximum have a surface temperature of 200 oC.

7.3.8 Protection of electrical equipment Installation of electrical equipment must be of a precise strength and resistant to the environment it is exposed to. Demands are made on the equipment from classification companies. A normal demand is that the equipment must bear the effect of 1 kg that falls down on the equipment from a height of 0,7 meters. Tests are also executed regarding chemicals. If the equipment is on open deck and lacks resistance to sun and rain, a cover must be installed above. Normally electrical equipment is constructed to bear a surrounding temperature of between 40oC and 25oC. A table indicating what the different protection extents imply:

Grad: Physical contact: Protection against dust and foreign objects: IP 00 No protection No protection IP 20 Against contact Against constant with fingers. particles larger than 12 mm in diameter. IP 41 Against contact Against constant with tools particles larger than 1 mm in diameter IP 43 Against contact Against constant with tools particles larger than 1 mm in diameter. IP 54 Against contact Against damaging with tools dust. IP 55 Against contact Against damaging with tools. dust IP 56 Against contact Complete with tools. protection.

Protection against water penetration: No protection No protection.

Runny water.

Water spray.

Water jet. Water jet. Water jet.

Most classification companies require that equipment on open deck must have a protection that corresponds to IP 56. As it may be difficult to obtain all electrical equipment with this protection, exception for equipment used ashore is made. A minimum protection of IP 44 is required. This equipment must be covered with, for example, a tarpaulin when the vessel is sailing. 7.3.9 Portable electrical equipment Demands on portable electrical equipment for use in hazardous areas are the same as for fixed installations. 7.3.10 Maintenance and installation Ex-material must not, as a rule, be repaired onboard. A flameproof enclosure with damaged wards must be scrapped. One must not be tempted to make new and larger wards. There is no control of the mechanical strength of the enclosure after such a repair. Repair of flame splits must not be executed. The best way to look after, and thereby to extend the length of life for this expensive equipment, is regular inspection. External protection against corrosion is of importance. Flameproof electric motors where end covers or bolts are wrecked by rust, are not safe and will entail duty of replacement at inspection. The flame splits are opened for cleaning and application of special grease that protects the surface against corrosion. Rejection of large electric motors often occur in connection with the ordered 5-year control where the flame splits are so corroded that it is no longer proper to repair these.

A flameproof enclosure does not prevent gas, and thereby water, from penetrating into the equipment. Pay special attention to the accumulation of water in such equipment in regions with large temperature variations. Choose Ex e in cable insertion to Ex d equipment if possible. A normal PG nipple is then sufficient and installation/control/maintenance is much easier. Deck light in hazardous areas is flameproof, which increases safety. This equipment is cheaper, easier to maintain, and easier to control than a flameproof lighting fixture. All electrical equipment must be grounded. Indirect cable insertion forms no problems, since all earth connection takes place inside the connection box. When dismantling equipment, the cables must be disconnected at the feed line ends connection box or the exposed ends should be terminated temporarily at the connection box of the same design as the dismantled equipment. New installation or changes of electrical equipment demands approval from classification companies. If the equipment is removed from its area, the same rule is regarded. Electrical motors that are coiled normally must have new certification. 7.4 SEAWATER SYSTEM Seawater is utilised for the following purposes in the cargo tank area: Cooling and condensing of cargo in heat exchangers and condensers for cooling plant. Heating of cargo in a heat exchanger during discharging/ loading. Condensing of Freon in Freon condensers. Cooling/ heating of glycol in a heat exchanger. Fire fighting in a deluge system.

Seawater for the above-mentioned purpose is delivered from pumps in the machine room. Dedicated pumps are normally used for the individual groups of utilisation areas. LPG-pumps deliver water to heat exchangers in the cooling plant and cargo equipment. All vessels have dedicated pumps for fire fighting. The seawater wires to the users should be on deck. If these are placed in hold space, the consequences of leakage may be expensive. Water from the cooling plant is normally put out through hold space amid ship on both sides. The valve is operable from deck over board. 7.4.1 Glycol system Enclosed is an example of a glycol system onboard a gas vessel. Glycol is utilised in systems where the danger of seawater freezing is large. By mixing 60% glycol in water, the freezing point is let down to about 55oC. Another good glycol quality is that its not as corrosive as water. A cargo-cooling compressor has both cold and warm areas. Parts of the suction side can get down to 60oC while the warm outlet side can be more than 100oC. A cooling system for such a compressor has the duty to both warm the cold areas and to cool the warm areas of the compressor.

7.4.2 Example of a glycol system

7.4.3 Example of Water spray

08-

Safety and environment

8 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

8.1 FIRE FIGHTING IN GENERAL

There are two conventions in particular that deals with safety at sea. One is the International Convention on Load Line, 1996, that was adopted at an IMO conference in 1996. The other is the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea as Amended/SOLAS 1974. This international convention was signed in London on the 1.st November 1974. It was 68 different nation at this conference, where the purpose was to come to a decision, as quickly as possible. Both conventions are valid in Norway and are included in the required inspection of ships. The Safety convention and all rules are in the SOLAS 1974 with supplement 1 and 2 were translated to Norwegian. It is this convention that establishes firefighting arrangements etc., with which we have to comply. The Safety convention is a comprehensive convention that intervenes in many areas regarding safety of human life at sea. It starts with the construction of the ship to maintain a as high level of safety as possible due to divisions, stability of the machinery and electrical installations. There are detailed rules for fire, protection, fire discovery and fire extinguishing and of life saving equipment. In addition to SOLAS 1974, national authority and classification companies will include further requirements of equipment and arrangements. There are regulations to consider, international as well as national. We will, in particular, study what involves oil tanker and gas tankers in this part of the compendium.

8.2 8.2.1

MANAGEMENT TASKS & TACTICS FIRE EMERGENCY PREPARDNESS Fire Emergency preparedness onboard is comprised of the following:

- Sufficient and adequate equipment. - Organisation and management. - Training and practice. Organization and management are essential factors, which deserves a great deal of attention. The leader of the fire fighting must, in any case, consider the situation and depending on a number of circumstances execute adequate initiatives. The leader of the fire fighting should be able to take care of his/her responsibilities in the best possible way. Essential to this, training and practice must be fulfilled. 8.2.2 Fire onboard - Managements duty: A fire burst onboard represents a threatening and critical situation. To prevent disaster, a quick and determined effort from the whole crew on board is needed. For most of the people, fire is an unfamiliar event and it is therefore natural that such a threatening occurrence can lead to unpremeditated actions and panicky contributions to the situation.

When this happens, it is the managements first duty to, as soon as possible, activate the different teams in accordance with the fire instruction plan. Fire resistance arrangements onboard the specific vessel should be utilised to the fullest extent. If a fire should occur, the management will be confronted with a lot of problems that all seem to be equal in importance. It is important to prioritise when dispersing the tasks. This means that those tasks that seem to be most important must be delegated to the most competent unit or team in the emergency squad. The squad will have to do their best to solve the problems in a satisfactory way. In many cases, the first decisions must be made based on few and uncertain pieces of information about the situation. Any hesitation from the management about which approach to use, will promote the feeling of fear and insecurity among the crew. Since the crew has been trained in relevant practical skills, the management must also be prepared and trained for the problems they are expected to solve. The ships

fire instructions must be considered as a tool. The benefit and effect that this tool will give depends on how the management decides to utilise it. There is nothing that can really replace the valuable experiences you will get by managing extinguishing operations in real fire situations onboard. As this, of course, is practically impossible to accomplish as part of a training programme, other methods have to be tried out. Typically the standby crew (e.g. fire brigade, first aid teams, civil defence) will need to make quick decisions and judgements of the situation. This type of responsibility requires special training. Imagine a situation and try to picture the conditions and based on that try to find out how you can, as best as possible, use the resources you have available. This is one way to manage a situation. However, you have to be aware that in a real situation, the approach to the problem cannot be changed to fit your own perception. By using similar methods onboard, consider imagined fire situations and at leisure find out how to handle the situations, so that the management of the ship can prepare their fire fighting duties. Even though you have worked through a lot of imagined situations, and one day there is a fire, there will never be a situation similar in detail to one of the imagined situations. On the other hand there will most likely be a situation similar to something you had been through before. In any case you will be better prepared, at least mentally, to manage the situation.

8.2.3 Plans of Action The more people know the main guidelines for fire fighting situations onboard each particular ship, the better the chance for a successful response. Therefore it is of urgent importance that the management group (The Captain, The Chief Engineer and The Chief Officer) is fully aware of the existing plans. When considering these imagined situations where you find the best solutions, several point of views will improve the plans. The management group together should work out the plans for the actions for different kinds of fire situations. Therefore, the managers will be informed about the plans, which will make it easier for them to manage accordingly. In hectic situations, as a fire, it will be easier to change an existing plan rather than making a new plan from scratch. The plan will be easier to execute, if more people know about its contents. If training is arranged according to appointed plans, the crew will get familiar with the plans in addition to variations in training. Realistic and well-planned training exercises are good practice, as well as, it is interesting and instructive. Successful fire fighting is a result of good planning, good leadership and a well-trained standby crew. 8.2.4 Tactics By tactics we really mean line of action. It is a calculated way to act out a plan of action where we want to use the crew available, in such a way that maximises the effect achieved. The intention with tactics is to reach the goal you have set. You have to be aware of what you want, what is the result you aim for. In a fire situation, it should be easy to conclude that you want to extinguish the fire, as soon as possible, with as little mess as possible, without any risks to the fire fighters.

8.2.5 Select an Action When planning a line of action, choose tactics, try to clarify the situation first (reconnoitre). The more details you know about the situation, the easier it is to evaluate the situation. In a critical situation, decisions have to be made quickly. The next step in the planning process will be the evaluation of the situation. Based on the information known, you have to try to determine how the fire will grow. Here it is important to prioritise, as there could be parts of the fire that has to be stopped no matter what. Meanwhile, other things have to be held off, as long as possible. There are may be some parts that can be temporarily disregarded. With the evaluation of the situation as a basis the disposals of resources are being made. The extents of the contribution depends on how important the effort is, how demanding the work to be done is, and how quickly it has to be effectuated. You should always be prepared to change tactics if unforeseen difficulties occur. Wellprepared tactics considers all known factors whether there are only a few, or many and detailed at any stage.

8.2.6 Conditions for actions One condition for actions is that you have resources available. The following estimate can be put up to show the connections in an action of extinguishing onboard: Personnel + Officers = Equipment + technical arrangements = Training + Practice = Reconnoitre + Evaluate situation + = disposal Instructions + communications = Crew. Material/Force Techn./resources Tactics/action Management/effect

A crew organised in fire protection and with sufficient and adequate equipment forms the force. To be able to perform their duties, the force has to master the necessary skills. Technique is to use the equipment in such a way that a maximum effect is achieved. Extinguishing technique covers the correct use and handling of the particular parts of the extinguisher equipment and the fire technical installations. This also includes practical skills, methods of practice and routines, knowledge of how the particular equipment works, effect, capacity and limitations.

8.2.7 Extinguishing Tactics Extinguishing tactics make use of resources available so that maximum effect in an action is achieved. It also makes a sufficient effort at the right place at the critical moment. Offensive tactics is a well-known expression, it means that you will use all resources in the fight to win back the terrain and to get the situation under control. Defence tactics are when you use the whole force to last as long as possible to prevent being forced to back out, avoid loss of terrain, try to hold the position, as long as possible, while waiting for backup. In the following, you will find some situations listed where you will have to consider the influence these situations have on the actions to be taken. 8.2.8 The site of the fire It might be difficult to get access to the site of the fire, as well as it might be unjustifiable to send people in there. Alternative extinguishing methods might cause large damage to the environment. The risk of loosing lives should be considered more important than avoiding a large loss of materials. 8.2.9 The extent of the fire The extent of the fire can be so large that the possibilities for extinguishing with available equipment are small. An extinguishing effort with the capacity available might reduce the opportunity to successful back out. 8.2.10 Force available A well-trained force, which is familiar with the use of the equipment and the facilities, will be an advantage in a difficult situation. 8.2.11 Mobility A well-trained force, which can quickly attack the fire, has a greater chance for success. 8.2.12 Communication It is very important to have a good communication because it will make it easier to manage the operation. The force can easily be re-directed and there is a quicker determination of how the situation is developing. 8.2.13 What is on fire? There may be combustibles in the fire zone that can produce poisonous gases when heated. Fire fighters must be well protected. We will further mention other situations, such as where and in which directions the fire can spread, changing the ships course to achieve the best possible conditions, the fire-technical arrangements intact, element of risk in the fire zone, e.g. oil tanks, transportable gas holders, chemicals etc.

8.3

FIRE PREPARDNESS

Fire preparedness is the capability the crew has to fight a fire with the help of the equipment available on board. To manage a fire situation, preparedness promotional efforts are done. Fire preparedness is the result of a number of arrangements and different efforts, for example fire protection organisation, strategic placing of equipment, instructions, maintenance of equipment, training, exercise. Remember the preparedness is not stronger than the weakest link. Practical (technical) exercises are meant as a test to see if the crew has the necessary skills. The exercises are also designed to train in the skill of being prepared. Tactical exercises will reveal the managements capability to evaluate situations and delegate the right effort at the right time. The practical and technical skills together will contribute to an effective force. It is therefore very important that realistic and varying exercises are exercised on board. The technical will cover the quality of the tool at disposal, while the tactical will cover what capability one has to utilise the strength at his disposal. 8.3.1 Alarm instructions Central part of fire preparedness on board is the safety plan part on the fire fighting organisation. The ships alarm instructions provide the emergency plan if there is a need for a united and systematic effort of the crew. Main features in the emergency plan should include special distribution of the crew, duties when fire fighting, plus another special distribution, if preparations for abandon the ship become a reality. All emergency plans organise the crew into practical teams or units, plus instruct of the duties that everyone has when the organisation is active. Emphasise the importance of knowing the alarm instructions well, on board your specific ship. There can also be other situations that can be covered by the preparedness organisation, for example man-over-board, tank accident, and personal injury and helicopter preparedness. 8.3.2 Layout of the instructions The layout of instructions for the individual team in the fire preparedness organisation offers the same challenge as splitting up the crew into teams. At the outburst of fire, there are a number of duties to execute regardless of the site and situation of the fires location. For example: starting of auxiliary engine, starting the pump, set pressure on the fire lines, stop the fans, close ventilation to the fire area, switch off the electrical plant in the fire area, prepare for manoeuvring, change course and speed, clarifying the extinguishing equipment etc. The purpose of the instruction is to allow the first efforts execution without waiting for special orders. In connection with the distribution and the instructions for the individual units in the fire protection organisation, there are a number of other instructions that needs attention: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Instructions Instructions Instructions Instructions Instructions for the navigator on duty. for the engineer on duty. for the extinguishing leader. in utilising the main extinguishing plant. for the officer on duty in port.

6. 6. 7. 7.

- Instructions for helicopter landing. - Instructions for the person who detects fire.

All instructions must overlap one another so that all conditions are covered. The purpose with the instructions is to eliminate doubts of who does what. At the same time secure that what is being done is rational and in right time. One can compare the fire protection organisation to machinery with many wheels that all must overlap one another in such a way that the machinery is functioning. The instructions are the force that will run the machinery. The symbol for teamwork characterises a well drilled fire crew.

The individual links in the fire protection organisation approach by the instructions on board. This is regarded to the captain, extinguishing leader, extinguishing team, technical team, engine room team, instruction for engineer on duty, bridge instruction, instruction for navigator on duty, radio station, security team, first aid team, life boat team, evacuation team, instruction for officer on duty in port. In addition to instructions for the individual fire protection organisation, there are also instructions for special situations. It is important for all those who will operate a CO2 plant that they follow the instructions clearly and categorically, because before triggering of the plant can take place, it must be ascertained that no one is in the area that the plant covers. Get to know the fire alarm on board and follow your instructions when this sounds, and get to know the CO2 alarm and follow the instructions. If the CO2 alarm sounds, one should act as though the fire alarm has sounded, even before the fire alarm. We will pay particular attention to the advice upon fire discovery, which gives all of the crew practical advice and directions of how to react if you are the person discovering the fire. The principal points, in such an instruction, are: Immediately shout of alarm in order to call on more people. First try to extinguish the fire, provided this is possible and without risk.

 Close doors and try to prevent, as much as possible, an influx of air to the area. Try to inspect rooms nearby the fire area where personnel might be, that could be overwhelmed by smoke, or in bed. Realise the element of risk, such as toxic gas, explosions etc., and where escape equipment is possibly placed. Upon alarm the significance of all to show up at their post, as quickly as possible, to state if someone is missing. This will avoid time loss resulting from unnecessary searches. Be very strict in having all present at their post. Those who dont show up are basically missing. If fire bursts out in port, immediately try to call the local fire department. Organise in the normal procedure to put fight the fire when there is fire in port.

Alarm instruction layout, crew distribution, layout and content of the special instructions will vary by the type and size of the ship, the number of crew members, extent of equipment, plus other relevant conditions. Common for all alarm instructions is the desire to, as much as possible, have a flexible preparedness plan that gives the possibility for all to contribute his best in the management of a number of different situations. 8.3.3 Some important guidelines: The entire force on board is available and able to be on the spot rapidly. Because of continuous duty, fire is detected at an early stage. Equipment and facilities are nearby. The area is restricted. Alter the course in favour of the fire fighting. The amount of equipment is limited. Mobilise maximum force immediately. The crew/force is naturally experienced with the surroundings. Simple checks if someone goes missing. The most flammable areas are covered by fixed fire fighting equipment. The retreat possibilities are very restricted. When onboard during fire, it is similar to being on the roof of the burning building. The escape routes are limited and few. Because of the extraordinary conditions on board, limited retreat possibilities and the great chance of blocking off the rescue units in a fire situation, it is natural that retreat route security and clarification of these routes has high priority. As the conditions on board are extremely special compared to ashore, the manager must treat the retreat as a very important point in his procedural duty. Further the fire control officer must observe the four following main tasks:

1. 2. 3. 4.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Rescuing life. Extinguishing fire. Restriction of fire. Executing the retreat.

8.3.4 Rescuing of life In most cases, it is not direct contact with the fire that causes the loss of life. In a fire, smoke and the damaging gases that develop cause most deaths. As soon as someone is determined missing, the manager must be informed so a search can be carried out. Notice that this search involves risk for the rescue crew, plus it directly delays the extinguishing activity because of impaired capacity and conditions that may have vital importance to the outcome. It effects fire fighting and the security work drastically when a delay is caused by the search for personnel who not are in any danger. It is therefore an unalterable requirement that all the crew show up at their posts according to instruction, as quickly as possible, and that missing personnel are immediately revealed.

8.3.5 Extinguishing of fire The faster the extinguishing activity is effectuated, the greater the chance of a successful result. In choosing an extinguishing method, quencher remedy and capacity, the goal must be total elimination. One must also consider the amount of damage the extinguishing agent will cause to the area. However, put out the fire before causing any larger damage. In some parts of the vessel, one can choose between permanently installed extinguishing equipment and manual efforts. On parts of the ship, a manual effort is the only alternative. Permanent equipment should be used in an area where the fire risk is large and has a large risk of spreading. Any manual combating involves a large risk for the extinguishing force. The decision about what to utilise in a specific situation must be well substantiated. 8.3.6 Securing the retreat Due to the limited possibilities on board, it is natural upon securing the retreat will involve clarifying if is necessary to abandon the vessel. The fire may block the access to rescue units. In addition, it is very important that the psychological effect will influence all of the crew in the knowledge that the retreat is prepared and protected in case of ending the fire fighting. 5.1 8.4 FIXED FIRE FIGHTING PLANS & FIRE FIGHTING REMEDY 8.4.1 Manual call point plant Fixed fire detections plants, discovery and alarm equipment should be installed on vessels that are regulated by SOLAS. Approval type for these detections plants takes place according to a determined procedure by posting the plants documentation. This documentation should contain user instructions, procedures for routine testing on board, fault location procedures, power supply information, connection of detector loop, alarm organs, fan failure, door magnet, assembly work, function description, accordingly all requirements in accordance to the documentation claim. The plant is tested to determine if it fulfils the regulations required. The manual call point plant should at all times be according to the regulations in force. Some of the criteria follow: It should give optical and acoustic alarm at fire. It should indicate where fire breaks out. It allows for fault warning. The central unit automatically goes over to reserve power to supply upon voltage failure. Positive indication on the panel by interruption of functions. Otherwise according to the approval companies, it is important to notice that the plant should have two independent power sources. If one falls out the other will operate the plant with full power. However, please refer to the regulations regarding complete approval.

8.4.2 Safety plan The fire control draft or as called on board; the safety plan illustrates the safety installations and equipment on board. The draft shows the vessel sidewise and a sketch of each deck top wise. It indicate zones with isolated bulkheads and fire doors, manual call point plants with detectors, alarm buttons and alarm bells, the fixed main extinguishing plant and where on board these can be remote controlled. Valves to stop engines, machinery, and from where one can remote operate these are also indicated. It indicates where the ventilation plant with fans, ducts and damper is and from where one can stop the plant. All portable extinguishing equipment, protection equipment and utility equipment appear on the draft, and where on the vessel the equipment is kept. It also displays all decks, rooms, and all emergency exits. Symbols for marking equipment are utilised to make the draft well arranged. Also, on the draft is a list with an explanation of the different symbol. Colouring is often utilised to keep the symbols apart. This draft is available for all on board. To effectively utilise the different fire technical installations, thorough knowledge of the individual plants is required, plus how to use them. The gangway during the port stay should keep a copy of the safety plan. If anything occurs during the stay and local help is required, the local fire department can quickly approach the plan, and from an early stage, have knowledge of the preparedness plan. All are advised to thoroughly study the safety plan in detail. 8.4.3 Fire pumps A fire pump in the engine room is connected to the fire pipeline network. In addition, there is a separate fixed emergency fire pump installed in a distance from the engine room. One can either operate the emergency fire pump by its own diesel engine; it can be hydraulically driven or electrically driven by power from the emergency power unit. Oil, for at least 12 hours of running power, is kept nearby the emergency pump, in addition to oil for the fuel tank itself in case it a should be filled at any time. Fire pumps, which are able to produce more pressure than the pipeline network is designed for, are at all times equipped with a safety valve. All centrifugal pumps, for instance, are supplied with non-return valves. 8.4.4 Fire pipeline network The fire pipeline network branches all over the vessel and has a number of hydrants - hose connections with valves. The pipeline network is divided into sections with a cross over, arranged in a way that if damage occurs on a part of the system, the damaged part is shut off without shutting off the entire pipeline network. Properly study the pipeline network on board to understand how the network is divided, plus where the shut-off valves are placed. If parts of the network are damaged, it is possible to bypass the damaged part by help of hoses from hydrant to hydrant. Hydrants are placed such that two water jets at the same time can reach any part of the vessel, one jet from a hose length, the other from two hose lengths. On the main

line of the tank area there should be one shut-off valve for each 40 metres. This is, of course, fitted to the size and type of the vessel. 8.4.5 Main fire extinguishing plants (For gas and chemical carriers) 8.4.6 Dry chemical system Powder is elected as extinguishing remedy on the tank deck of gas carriers and chemical tankers. A number of minor stationary powder aggregates can be placed on deck or a powder central unit with pipes forward to a number of powder monitors and hose stations on deck. One or several powder containers are placed with a capacity calculated for the specific vessel with accompanying pressure bottles in the powder central unit. The plant can be released from each powder post by opening the valve of the releasing bottle. The gas is lead into tubes to the releasing mechanism of the pressure bottles in the powder central unit. It opens the valve of the powder tube that proceeds to the powder post being released. Several posts can be utilised at the same time, but each post must be triggered in the same way. Stationary dry powder systems are normally delivered with powder (NaHCO3 - calcium hydrogen carbonate) for natrium hydrogen carbonate or KHCO3 extinguishing fire in class B or E. That is all types of liquid like: petrol, alcohol, acetone, oil, painting etc., and different types of gases like methanol, methane, butane, propane etc. Dry powder systems utilise N2 (Nitrogen) or CO2 (carbon dioxide) as propellant gas. The gas is kept in pressure cylinders. A gas pressure regulator reduces N2 gas or CO2 gas (200kg/cm2) to 20 kg/cm2 before it goes via the riser in to the powder aggregate. The risers gas taps are very important, as the powder together with the propellant gas must be able to float as a liquid through the pipe system and the powder jet. The stationary powder post (monitor) should have a capacity of at least 10kg/second. Manual equipment, hand hoses, should have a capacity of at least 3,5kg/second, but not too large for one man to operate. The length of a hand hose should not exceed 33 m. It is very important that the hose is pulled out to its full length before setting the pressure. The extension should be at a minimum of 10 metres for both stationary and hand based equipment. The plants powder capacity should be of the size that utilises all posts. The delivery of powder should progress at a minimum of 45 seconds.

Below is an example of this with the following data: 4 stationary and 4 hand stations: Stationary: (4 pcs. x min.10kg./s x min. in 45s) Hand based: (4 pcs. x min.3,5kg./s x min. in 45s) kg. Minimum powder capacity: kg. = 1800 kg. = 630 = 2430

8.4.7 Technical description The powder type NaHCO3 and KHCO3 has an extinguishing effect based on a reaction inhibitor along with some cooling of the fuel surface and the gas face. Powder is not electrically conductive in dry conditions. To avoid humidity in the powder, a waterrepellent material is added usually silicon. Dry chemical systems consist of a mechanical part that includes a powder aggregate with valves, release mechanism, pipe system and jets. Everyone must memorise maintenance routines and test routines, based on the plant on the specific vessel. (This is part of the fire drill onboard).

8.4.8 Water - spray system (Gas and chemical carriers) In addition, certain ship types should be equipped with a water-spray system, as an object for a cooling, fire preventive and crew protective effect. We refer here to the IGC-code, chapter 11, point 11.3.1, what areas the plant should cover. The plant onboard the specific ship is designed according to this.

The system should have the capacity to cover the designated area with at least 10 ltr./m2 pr minute on horizontal surfaces, and 4 ltr./m2 pr minute on vertical surfaces. If parts of the line are damaged, shut-off valves must exist on the main line so that the line can still be utilised. This is operable by shutting off the line to the damaged area. The alternative is that the system is devisable into several sections that can be operated independent of each other. The delivery pumps should have such a capacity that they can deliver simultaneously with full capacity to the whole plant. The plant should contain a material that is resistant to corrosion. There has to be a possibility of remote start of the water delivery pumps, plus remote control of the plants shut valves from a place outside the cargo area. We recommend studying the plant on your vessel, how it is operated, where the remote control is, plus the inclusion of this in the fire drill executed onboard. 8.4.9 Main extinguishing plant (oil tanker) 8.4.10 Foam in general A system consisting of gas or air bubbles bound in a water coating (membrane), is called foam. Constant foam is when the wall/membrane consists of a constant material, such as pumice stone, gas concrete and foam rubber are examples of constant foam. When the wall has a coating, we are talking about floating foam, such as soapsuds. Different types of floating foams are used for fire extinguishing. On new gas and chemical carriers we also find foam utilised for fire extinguishing. 8.4.11 Producing foam In order to produce foam that will extinguish fire, you need: water, a frothing material that dissolves in water in anatomised condition, and a non-flammable gas mixed with the solvent. The foam is shaped when gas/air is mixed into the foam/frothing liquid and into the water by help of mechanical equipment. The result is mechanic foam. 8.4.12 Mechanical foam Different types of pumps, sprinklers and foam pipes are used. The foam liquid is dissolved (or emulsified) in the water. After this, the air is mixed in by mechanical means. Normal equipment produces bubbles, which have a diameter of 0,1mm to 1,5mm.

Extinguish effect Foam has a suffocating effect and acts as a cooling extinguishing agent. The suffocating or the cooling effect can be more or less the dominating effect, but depends on what material is burning and what sort of foam is used. By extinguishing a burning liquid with a surface temperature higher than +100o C, the cooling effect is the dominating force. This is caused by evaporation of the liquid that penetrates into the surfaces layer of the burning material as the foam collapses. By extinguishing fire when the temperature in the surface is below +100oC, the extinguishing effect is connected with the heat-insulating foam and, above all, a differentiation effect. When the foam cover has spread outward across the liquids surface, the heat rays from other, still burning parts of the liquid surface, is not able to penetrate through the area covered with foam. Therefore, combustible gases are no longer formed, evaporation ceases and the fire dies out. Foam plant 8.4.13 Foam is chosen as the main extinguishing agent for the tank area. A foam plant consists of a foam central unit with a foam tank, foam pump that is also connected to an emergency generator, distribution manifold, foam jets, automatic valves, and a pipe system connected to fixed monitors on the tank deck. The capacity of the plant should be big enough that the whole tank area could be covered with foam. If the vessel has an inert gas plant, the foam capacity must have a volume that can deliver foam for a minimum of 20 minutes. The demand is at a minimum of 30 minutes if the ship is not equipped with inert gas plant. The main foam line from the foam central unit to the monitors should contain shutoff valves within determined requirements, in order to bind the line in case of damage. The foam line going to each monitor has a delivery valve installed to supply

foam. The valve can also be used to regulate the amount of foam supplied in order to achieve the right mixture condition between foam and water. A foam jet pipe is attached to the monitors. Study the plant installed on your vessel, and understand how this plan is operated. This equipment (the foam plant) is mandatory for oil tankers. Mobile foam equipment is also available on many ships, gas and chemical carriers also. This consists of a fire hose with a foam nozzle unit, small foam containers (20 litre), a foam ejector, a small hose for the transmission of foam from a foam container to a foam hose pipe, and protection equipment. This equipment is prepared for use with fire hoses and a foam nozzle unit connected to the fire line. A foam ejector with a tap for supplying foam liquid is installed between the fire hose and foam nozzle unit. Water pressure is established, foam liquid is sucked (ejector function) from the foam container via hose connection between the foam container and ejector.

CO2 plant 8.4.14 The engine room and pump room are protected with a bar plant that utilises CO2 as an extinguishing agent. CO2 (carbon dioxide) is a colourless, non toxic, scentless, corrosion free, non-electrical leading gas with qualities that extinguish fire quickly and effectively with a recommended gas concentration, which does not damage electronic equipment and requires no clearing/cleaning after use. CO2 plants are delivered either as a Total Flooding System, where the entire room is filled with gas, or as Object Protection, where a part of the room is filled with gas. The room on vessels with Total Flooding System is filled with a CO2 -content corresponding to 40% by volume, that is 0.72 kg/m3 with gas. CO2 plants consist of CO2 cylinders with valves, a cylinder rack, releasing mechanism, accumulating manifold, pipe system and jet. Extinguishing effect 8.4.15 CO2 has a suffocating extinguishing effect in that the oxygen content in the air is reduced to the point where combustion becomes impossible. Familiarise yourself with your vessels plant. Choosing extinguishing agents 8.4.16 If an active extinguishing method is chosen, the extinguishing agent must be properly suited for the actual situation. The extinguishing agent should:

- extinguish the fire, as quickly as possible. - not cause the fire object any additional damage. - not harm the environment. - not cause damage to the user. - not demand risky operation. - give protection to the user.

8.4.17 Water Water must be in direct contact with the fire to gain an extinguishing effect. The effect emerges when water changes to vapour. Water takes heat from the fire via evaporation; the vapour displaces air and consequently the oxygen. Since water does not evaporate, it can add to the objects damage. To obtain maximal evaporation, the water must have as large surface as possible when hitting the heat zone. A scattered jet obtains this, the water comes in shape of drops, the smaller the drop, the larger the surface. Drops with 1 mm diameter have a surface of 0.126 cm2, the same water amount in drops of 0,1 mm in diameter have a 1,26 cm2 surface. The smaller the drops are, the shorter the air throw is needed. With a drop size of 0,2 0,3 mm, the most practical proportion between air throw and surface is obtained. By throwing, as much as possible, atomised water into the warmest part of the fire zone, the largest effect is obtained. Powder 8.4.18 To have any effect, the powder must be lead down to the fire object. To obtain an extinguishing effect, one must reach a position from where the powder can reach the fire itself. The powder works partly by suffocating and partly by poisoning the flame, it also has a little bit of a cooling effect. Danger of re-ignition is therefore large until the temperature is brought down below the self-ignition temperature. The powder has no direct damaging effect on the object. In sensitivity instruments and in electronic equipment, powder has a disturbing effect on the functions. 8.4.19 Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is utilised either as a total flooding agent where the whole area on fire is filled with CO2 in large concentration, or is used as a spot extinguishing agent. The gas has little cooling effect, so that re-ignition is a danger. One must utilise total flooding, as early as possible. Evacuation of the area is necessary, and before releasing the plant, one must check that no one is missing. The gas has no damage on the environment. In utilising spot extinguishers, the thermal effect may cause damage to sensitivity instruments. Foam 8.4.20 Foam has both a cooling and suffocating effect. Light foam contains less water than heavy foam, and thereby the extinguishing agent causes less damage. One can

utilise light foam to cover larger areas and thereby suffocate the fire. One can also utilise foam as secondary remedy to prevent re-ignition, or prevent ignition from oil leakage, etc. When selecting an extinguishing agent, one must consider the type of fire:

only a glow, or glow and flames, (fire in solid material), where the
fire core has high temperature. only flames (fire in liquids) where gas vaporised from the surface is on fire, relatively low temperature in the liquid itself. fire in alive, electrical components (glow/flame fire in isolation materials, painting, lubricating oil etc.). The main rule when choosing an extinguishing agent is: a. glow fire and glow/flame fire is extinguished by cooling (damp extinguishing remedy). one extinguishes a flame fire by suffocating. one extinguishes an electrical fire with a dry extinguishing remedy. One must also consider the surroundings (as little extinguishing damage as possible), special circumstances (alive plants), danger of re-ignition (need of cooling), special material (chemicals, explosives, dangerous goods, swelling), protection of the fire squad (protect the users). One must also evaluate the practicality of utilising a combination of mutual extinguishing remedies. For example, at first extinguish the flames with powder, thereby cooling with water, and possibly cover with foam to prevent spontaneous ignition. Portable fire extinguishing apparatus 8.4.21 There are a number of transportable fire extinguishing apparatus (handextinguishing apparatus) placed in different places onboard. The placement and type of apparatus is in accordance to the regulations based on the specific vessel. These apparatus are marked by symbols on the vessels safety plan. Knowledge of placement and use is introduced in the fire exercises onboard. WATER Normally there are 10 litre apparatus placed in different locations onboard. 10 litres is a very limited amount, and has a period of use lasting approximately 60 seconds. Some types have a united jet, while others alternate between united and spread jets.

Powder There are mostly 12 kg powder apparatus onboard, except for where something else ahs been determined, for example 25 kg, 50 kg or 6 kg. This is clearly found in the safety plan onboard. A 12 kg powder apparatus has a period of use lasting approximately 20 seconds; a 50 kg apparatus has a period of use of approximately 60 seconds. The apparatus has good air throw, and will provide the user good protection. To utilise powder extinguishing equipment at full effect, a well-drilled technique is demanded. Add this to the training exercises onboard. Carbon dioxide There are carbonic acid apparatus of 6 kg stationed on board. These apparatus have a very limited capacity and no air throw. The protection for the user is poor. The period of use is approximately 20 seconds. These apparatus are suited for spot extinguishing of relatively small fires. One should have high goals regarding knowledge in utilizing, of function and capacity of the fire extinguishing apparatus on board your vessel.

8.5 PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT

8.5.1 FIRE FIGHTER EQUIPMENT The requirement onboard oil tankers, as well as onboard gas tankers less than 5000 m3, are 4 sets of fire fighter equipment. Onboard gas carriers of more than 5000 m3, a minimum of 5 sets of fire fighter equipment is required. Each set consists of: One breathing apparatus (BA) with an air capacity of minimum 1200 litres. Protection suit including boots and gloves. Fire resistance safety line with belt. Safety lamp. Firemans axe.

The equipment is specified in SOLAS, chapter 11-2, rule 17. National, and classification companies requirements may come in addition. This is of course considered for each vessel and the equipment is at all times in accordance to existing requirement and rules. 8.5.2 THE BREATHING APPARATUS BA SET The breathing apparatus onboard must be of an accepted type, and must fulfil the requirements in accordance to the regulations. Frequent training exercises on board will familiarise you with the apparatus and use of a breathing apparatus. The requirement for the air content in bottles is minimum 1200 litre clean air. Spare bottles are required for each apparatus, so that each apparatus has a period of use of 2 hours minimum. If a consumption of 60 litre air pr. minute (equivalent to hard work) is assumed, one obtains, as follows: Min. 1200 litre: 60 litre pr. minute = 20 minutes pr. bottle. 2 hours (120 min. : 20 min.) = 6 bottles Totally (1200 litre x 6 bottles) = 7200 litre air pr. apparatus.

A compressor is also required to fill up the breathing bottles after use. The period of use for the apparatus is dependent upon the consumption of air pr. time unit, for light or heavy work and the bottle size. EXAMPLE An air bottle of 7 litres and a pressure of 200 bar give (7 x 200) = 1400 litres clean air. Assume that heavy work is to be carried out with a consumption of 60 litres pr. minute. Disposal time will then be (7 x 200): 60 = 23,3 minutes. The apparatus has an audio signal that alerts the user that its time to abandon the area. This audio signal is released at approximately 40 bars, and leaves us with (40x7) = 280 litres air for retreat. The time for retreat is (280: 60) = 4,66 minutes. We then have 4,5 minutes to abandon the area.

It is recommended to train in the use of the apparatus in order to learn the special breathing technique for such an apparatus. The definition of breathing technique is a rational way of utilising the air to obtain a maximum safe user time. The user is dependent upon the state of the apparatus when residing in smoke or gas filled rooms. Before entering such rooms, the user himself must control the apparatus. After strapping the bottle on his back, a special routine must be followed regardless of the duration and regardless of others. The procedure varies with each apparatus. It is of great importance to knowledge of the apparatus onboard your vessel. The control will mainly be, as follows: 1. Bottle pressure: Open the bottle valve 2-3 shifts and read the manometer pressure. Then put on the mask, the panorama mask is put on with all straps extended. Set the chin in the mask and lead the straps behind the head. Tighten the lower strap, then the upper straps and finally the top strap. 2. Retreat signal: Shut the bottle valve and breath carefully until the retreat signal appears. The manometer indicates approximately 40 bars when the signal appears. If there is a change over valve on the apparatus, ensure that this is in the right position. The change over valve is activated when the retreat signal appears and has an opening effect for spare air to release. 3. Masks seal ability: Suck the mask empty of air. The mask will then be pressed against the face, if not, tighten the head straps. If it is airtight, open for air again. 4. Pneumonic automatic: The bottle valve is set fully open, breath a few times to make sure that the pneumonic automatic unit is working. 5. Flushing button: The button on the pneumonic automatic unit is activated and air will flow into the mask. Sometimes extra air in the mask is needed. 6. Bottle pressure: Control again the pressure manometer to make sure that the bottle is full. Place the manometer back in the clip. All tests must be repeated for each exercise, or change of bottle, to make sure of satisfactory operation at all times. 8.5.3 FIRE STATIONS The fire stations are marked on the safety plan, and also the content of all required equipment at the stations. In addition to mentioned fire fighting equipment, the content must include personal protective equipment, fire hoses, jet nozzles that can switched from jet to fog dispersement, keys to hose coupling and an extra fire axe. Other equipment included is an electrical drill with 5/8 drill steel together with an extension cord. It is smart to obtain a smaller drill steel to drill a pilot hole, if this is a matter of necessity. A portable oxyacetylene torch that renders it possible to make a quick carving of a manhole or other openings to ease access is also included. This equipment is marked on the safety plan, where it is placed onboard and at the right number according to type and size of vessel.

Everyone is encouraged to know the seriousness of exercises onboard, being prepared in a realistic and objective way can be, as a matter of fact, very interesting and informative. Anxiety is relieved because confidence leads to safety. 8.5.4 INTERNATIONAL SHORE CONNECTION SOLAS chapter II-2, rule 19, deals with the international land coupling that is required onboard all vessels in accordance to this rules specification. The existence of this is shown in the safety plan. It must be readily available during harbour stay. It is used as connection between the vessel and harbours equipment, in case of fire during the stay. Familiarise yourself with the escape and protection equipment onboard the gas tanker/chemical tanker, masks with filter for all onboard, appropriate protection equipment placed for easy availability. This protection equipment contains large aprons, special gloves with long cuffs, appropriate footwear, coveralls made of chemical resistant material, tightened glasses or face shields. Clothes and equipment must protect all body parts. An escape apparatus with oxygen mask that makes the carrier independent of the oxygen in the air at a minimum of 15 minutes must be available on all vessels. This is only for use of escape. Specifications state how much of this equipment exists onboard. The safety plan informs where it is located. 8.5.5 BOARDING TANKS Before boarding tanks and closed spaces, one must take measurements, make sure that dangerous gas is non-existent and that the oxygen content is satisfactory. After tank ventilation, take great care in the measuring and the certainty of the atmosphere before entering. Ensure that the pump room is well ventilated by running the fans for awhile before entering. There is monitor supervision of the pump room atmosphere onboard many vessels today. This takes place by automatically testing the pump room atmosphere at different sampling points. Then it is analysed and indicated on the control room monitor. This is also equipment you need to be familiar with. 8.5.6 PERSONNEL INSIDE TANKS When entering tanks, it is very important to prepare equipment and make it easily available in case of emergency. Preparation includes a complete set of fire fighting equipment (also an extra fresh air mask in case it is needed for a rescue action), lines, communication, and crew on deck for supervising. The knowledge of the number and names of crew in the tank at all times is very important in order to be as prepared as possible for any rescue action.

8.6 IN GENERAL
What is health? In short, it is when the physical is in balance with the non-physical, and the harmonisation here has a natural function. The result is good health. To maintain this, knowledge about harmonisation is the vital factor in health. Health is different for each one of us based on individual tendencies and external/internal influences that mark (or chooses to mark) our life. All crewmembers that sign on a vessel should have been through a medical check in order to have a regular status of his/her health condition. Life at sea is a special place to work, it is important that the general health condition at all times is good. What can be done to maintain a good general health condition on board? The answer is built into the safety and protection of personnel on board. You can also take care of one another in a good manor by being aware of the risks that may have direct and external effect on health, regarding the special cargoes carried onboard your vessel. Primarily, you can take good care of your own machine, the body, by paying attention to the fuel, which contains the nutrients the body needs. It is very important that the chef onboard has basic knowledge about anatomy/physiology, in order to assemble the right raw material into the right article of food, in the form of nutrient rich meals. Together with good cleanliness and comfortable surroundings in the galley, the best basis is given. If the meals are spiced-up with a nice atmosphere, in addition to existence of an inter-human working environment and well-being, the result is solidarity, well-being at work, increased efficiency, less sickness absence and saved costs. A positive mental attitude toward life is also important and, at the same time, improves or maintains health. This is an important factor of the humans total health. For example, one can turn a I will not, cannot behaviour pattern into a I can, I will attitude. This will increase co-operation between the people onboard. With an attitude change based on positive thinking, the result is noticeable onboard, due to well being, solidarity, better performance, and a healthier atmosphere for the whole crew. The human resource is the only resource. 8.6.1 THE BODY The doctrine of how the body is built is called anatomy. The doctrine of the bodys function is called physiology. This will be roughly illustrated to achieve a synopsis of how the machine functions. 8.5.2 The cell This is the smallest, independent unit of the body and the basis for all living organisms. All the processes in the body are caused by the chemical reactions that take place in the cells. Cells in different tissue and organisms co-operate in their duties. The cell has a water content of approximately 70% in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fat and inorganic material. All the cells have the same basic structure and a number of mutually basic qualities. Simultaneously each part of the cell has its function. We all utilise nutrients both to achieve energy and as building stones. In

new cell components, glucose (grape sugar) is the most important energy source. It is important to have nutrient rich and varying diet. 8.6.3 TISSUE Cells that look alike remain lying to form tissue. All surfaces of the body are covered with epithelial tissue (type of tissue that mainly covers all surfaces, the cavity and channels of the body). Connective tissue and support tissue forms the tissue network in the body and keeps tissue and organs together. There is an innumerable of tissues, for example osseous tissue, muscular tissue and nerve tissue. The cell cooperation is controlled by chemical signals. These signals consist of two types, nerve signals and hormone signals. These two systems co-operate for an appropriate reaction. This is fully necessary for our survival. The hormone system controls the activity of many internal organs, the nerve system controls muscles and glands. Several organ systems co-operate to keep the composition of tissue fluid constant. The blood renews this tissue fluid. The blood must circulate the whole time. The duty of the lymph artery is to drain excess tissue fluid. 8.6.4 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS These demolish and absorb nutrient material. It is very important that the nutrient content satisfies the bodys need. 8.6.5 THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS These absorb oxygen and partly carbon dioxide. Respiration is an exchange of gases between the blood arteries and the air in the lungs. The blood absorbs oxygen into the bodys cells and partly the excess carbon dioxide that arises. The respiratory organs consist of the bronchia and the lungs. Gas exchange between blood and air takes place in the lungs. 8.6.6 THE URINARY ORGANS These regulate the composition of the tissue fluid. The urinary organs consist of the kidneys, urinary tract, bladder and the urethra. The kidneys' most distinct duty is to separate water from waste. The resultant urine is processed in the urinary tract and bladder then empties via the urethra. 8.6.7 THE BLOOD CIRCULATION The blood circulation carries materials between the organs in the body. The tissue fluid is constantly renewed from the blood in the capillaries. The heart is a pump that makes blood circulate. Heart valves help the blood run in the right direction. The heart musculature sends blood through the coronary artery (the hearts arteries). The heart is the most persevering muscle in the body. The blood flows from high pressure to lower pressure. The pulse is thereby a regulator in the blood. The blood pressure is the pressure inside the artery, which is part of the blood circulation. The blood acts, as a sort of, transportation system. Blood sends tissue circulating through

the artery system. This contains blood cells floating in a protein rich fluid blood plasma with two main types of cells, red and white. The red cells are important for transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the different body tissues, while the white, in different ways, participates in the bodys defence against disease. It is important to remember that one cannot mix different blood types. Blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. 8.6.8 THE HUMAN ORGANISM AND THE SURROUNDING WORLD Our senses tell us about the surroundings. The main senses are sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. There are also important senses in the muscles, the joints and the equilibrium organ in the inner ear. Each sensory organ has its best reaction to a certain type of stimulation, but has a different reaction to long lasting stimulation. 8.6.9 THE SKIN The skin forms an essential boundary to the surroundings, and is the bodys largest breathing organ. The skin consists of different tissue with different qualities and covers the body surface, like an almost impenetrable protective film. The skin is an important sensory organ with large adaptability. 8.5.10 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

This system protects the body and consists of several parts. There is no possibility of living a normal life without this defence, as its duty is to render harmless infective agents or other strange material. In addition to combating infection from outside, this defence system also fights against any internal cell changes. 8.6.11 THE BODYS MOTION APPARATUS

This consists of skeleton and muscles. The skeleton is the bodys framework, consisting of almost 200 large and small bones tied together by link and ties. The muscles can move the bones by shortening (contracting) using an impulse from the nervous system. This was a short description of the human machine. When experiencing something exciting, frightening, unexpected, stressing, surprising or likewise, energy runs through us like an electrical blow. In such situations, one experiences the effect of endocrine hormones. The part of us that consists of feelings, thoughts, vibrations, intuition, ergo not physical parts of us, are also an important part of us (in many cases a decisive part). It is very important to provide stimulation and nutrients to these parts, as discussed below. 8.6.12 THOUGHT, ACTION, RESULT, FEELING

Positive thoughts and attitudes together with a healthy diet form the basis for good health. We can do a lot ourselves by choosing the right things, as we are free to choose.

We now take a look at your work place, onboard a vessel, and the influence this has on your health. We will also discuss what external influences can be found in the atmosphere and the injuries/incidents that may occur on board. Onboard different types of vessels carrying different types of cargo, danger to health from external influences are considered regarding the vessels protective equipment and routines. This protective equipment is placed practically and can be utilised, as necessary. Familiarise yourself with the equipment onboard your vessel and use it! With a sudden injury or illness on board, medical advice and guidance can be gathered from Radio Medico the radio medical service for vessels at sea. It is important to have all the important information when help is needed for a serious condition onboard, such as: Age Sex Weight Duration of the illness Extent of the injury Symptoms Patient's comments (complaints) Clinical findings (sign of a specific illness) How the injury happened Character of the pain (grumbling, stabbing, squeezing) Whereabouts of the pain Face colour, limpness, drowsiness, temperature, pulse, breathing trouble, nausea, blood, mucus, urination, etc. All of the above is important. There is a hospital onboard containing ordered equipment for treatment and medication. The ship medical directions regarding the ships hospital deal with the maintenance, supply, inspection, etc. It is important to know how to protect oneself against harmful skin contact, skin absorption and respiratory absorption of dangerous gases in the atmosphere surrounding us, such as entering tanks and closed spaces. Help given in the first minutes of an emergency situation is crucial. All must endeavour to have respectable first aid skills. 8.6.13 FIRST AID

First aid is used with sudden unconsciousness, stopped breathing and lack of air. (Call for help, but do not abandon the patient, immediately start helping.) A Air: Try to free the air flow, lie the patient on a flat surface, bend the head backwards, remove any dentures, vomit, etc. B Breathing: If the patient is not breathing, start resuscitation with 3-5 breaths/insufflations. Use the Pocket Mask as an option. Hold the head curved backward, check the pulse on the neck. If pulse is felt, continue with 12 respirations per minute C Circulation: With deadly paleness and no pulse, give 2-3 powerful knocks over the heart. If this has no effect, start external heart compression once per second.

8.6.14

ONE RESCUER

Alternate 2-3 respirations and 15 heart compressions. 8.6.15 TWO RESCUERS

One respiration for each heart compression. When compressing; press the breastbone down 4-5cm. 8.6.16 ABC

The method stands for air, breathing, and circulation. The priority of first-aid training and practice is of great importance. The better you are at first aid in an emergency; the chance of a good outcome is greater. 8.6.17 HEART PROBLEMS

Heart problems can be suspected if sudden, strong pain behind the breastbone is experienced. For cardiac arrest, use the ABC. 8.6.18 SHOCK INJURIES

Description of shock is acute circular failure. This may be caused by reduced blood volume from bleeding, shock by drop of blood pressure or reduced pump functions from a cardiac infarction. If a big incident occurs, shock must be calculated. The symptoms are fast pulse, coldness, pail and difficulty in breathing. Supply oxygen, warm blankets and fluids. 8.6.19 HEAD INJURIES

All knocks against the head must be taken seriously. The symptoms are headache, nausea and dizziness. Flat bed rest for 2-3 days. Limited fluid intake and be sure to supervise. 8.6.20 POISONING AND ETCH INJURIES

Refer to the IMCOs book Medical First Aid and Guide for use in accidents involving dangerous goods. This refers to the data sheets on the different cargo onboard. (This is illustrated later on in this part). Poisoning and etch injuries appear in connection with cargo contact, as air absorption, swallowing or skin absorption (skin contact). The symptoms are pink coloured skin, smell of almonds on the breath, headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Remember that in connection with cargo contact, the emergency squad should efficiently use protective equipment, gloves etc. Supply oxygen and follow the instructions on the data sheet for the cargo in question.

8.6.21

FIRE INJURIES

In fire injuries, ensure a stabile lateral position for the patient, if possible. Supply oxygen and fluid. With fire injuries, quick help is double the help. Quickly cool for at least 20 minutes. Estimate the extent of the injury. The patient mustnt freeze. Provide warm blankets and abundant fluid. The patient should rest, be under supervision, and have their pulse checked. Check the medical box for proper use of medication and bandages. 8.6.22 FROST INJURIES

Localised frost injuries on the skins top layer begins with a prickling feeling, then ascends to white spots on the skin. Careless handling of pipeline and cranes onboard vessels, which carry strongly cooled gases, can lead to localised frost injuries. Important: Frozen hands and feet must not be warmed up actively with warm water. Cover frozen skin parts with a soft woollen garment. Do not massage or rub. It helps a lot to warm up frozen skin with warm skin 8.6.23 BONE, JOINT & SOFT PART INJURIES

A lot of injuries are sprains, fracture and soft part injuries. Use the ICE method, as the proper first aid, in such injuries. ICE means ice, compression and bandage, and elevation. I stands for ice. Ice the injury in order to lower the injured spots temperature. By doing so, the bleeding is reduced in the underlying tissue. Swelling and pain will also be reduced. C - stands for compression bandage or compression. If cooling the injury is not sufficient, compression around the injured spot is recommended in order to counter the pressure from haemorrhage and reduce swelling and pain. Confer with the patient regarding the tightness of the bandage. E stands for elevation and rest. To decrease the blood pressure and reduce the seepage of blood on and around the injured place, raise an injured arm or foot to approximately heart height and rest for 1-2 days. 8.6.24 INFECTIONS

Refer to the vessels medical cupboard regarding remedies for infection. 8.6.25 INTAKE OF POISON MATERIALS

Poisonous materials can be taken in by inhaling (gas, dust), skin penetration, skin absorption (gas and liquid) and swallowing (gas and fluid). If any of this occurs, different reactions will occur depending on the kind of material, how much, etc. Refer to the materials data sheet regarding treatment. Blood is most important, since it is the higher brain centre that is first affected from lack of oxygen. A poisonous material emerges quickly to the brain cells and deprives them of oxygen. This may cause unconsciousness, at worst death. By inhaling small concentrations,

we are exposed to localised effects (nasal, throat, and lung) or poisonous gas absorption into the blood. Through skin penetration, gases and fluids are quickly absorbed into the blood and the effects depend on the characteristic of the material, the velocity of the penetration and poisonous elements. If material is swallowed, this is easily absorbed by the mucous membrane in the mouth. 8.6.26 THE EYES

The eyes are very exposed to any spill or contact to cargo. There is normally irritation, burns and tears from harmful exposure. It is of utmost importance with a very fast first aid and abundant rinsing with water. With all injuries and illness it is of the utmost importance to administer first aid and contact competent medical help if any doubt of the outcome exists. Enclosed is a data sheet for Propane, which illustrates the layout and the content of information. There are such sheets for all types of dangerous cargo, which are made readily available and visible onboard. The data sheets tell us about the cargos character, the emergency procedure for a cargo fire or cargo spill. There is also information about health hazards, fire, explosion, chemical data, reaction data, physical data and the condition of the material in freight. Information regarding the quality of material is required with the freight of the material.