Chapter 49 Electrical Logging M.P.

Tixier, Consulting Engineer * Fundamentals Well logging is an operation involving a continuous recording of depth vs. some characteristic datum of the formations penetrated by a borehole. The record is called a log. In addition, a magnetic tape is usually made. Many types of well logs are recorded by appropriate downhole instruments called sondes, lowered into the wellbore on the end of a cable. The winch of the logging cable is generally brought to the well on a special logging truck (Fig. 49. l), which also carries the recorders, power sources, and auxiliary equipment. The parameters being logged are measured in situ as the sonde is moved along the borehole. The resulting signals from the sonde are transmitted through electrical conductors in the cable to the surface, where the continuous recording, or log, is made. Electricalloggingis an important branch of well logging. Essentially, it is the recording, sections in uncased ofa borehole,of (or their reciprocals, the resistivities the conductivities) of the subsurface formations, generally along with the sponfaneous potentials (SP) generated in the borehole. Electrical logging has been accepted as one of the most efficient tools in oil and gas exploration and production. When a hole has been drilled, or at intervals during the drilling, an electrical survey is run to obtain quickly and economically a complete record of the formations penetrated. This recording is of immediate value for geological correlation of the strata and detection and evaluation of possibly productive horizons. The information derived from the electrical logs may at the same time be supplemented by sidewall samples of the formations taken from the wall of the hole or by still other types of borehole investigations that can be performed by using additional wireline equipment available for use with the logging truck [deviation surveys, caliper (hole-diameter) surveys, dipmeter surveys, temperature surveys, radioactivity (gamma ray, density, neutron, and nuclear Authors of rhe orlglnal chapler on this top!c in the 1962 edltion included fhts a uthor. Ii G Doll, M. MarIm. and F Segesman. spectrometry) surveys, acoustic surveys, wireline formation tester, etc.].

As explained later, several types of resistivitymeasuring systems are used that have been designed to obtain the greatest possible information under diverse conditions-e.g., conventional devices (normals and laterals), induction log (IL), Laterolog (LL), microresistivity devices, and electromagnetic propagation logs. Table 49.1 gives the service company nomenclature for various logging tools. The typical appearance of a standard electrical log is illustrated in Fig. 49.2. The left track of the log contains the SP curve. The middle track contains a l&in. short normal (shallow-investigation resistivity curve), recorded on both regular and amplified sensitivity scales as solid curves, and a 64-in. normal (medium-investigation resistivity curve, dashed curve). The right track contains an 1%ft 8-in. lateral (deep-investigation curve). Logs recorded with other combinations of resistivitymeasuring devices have a similar general appearance, although the corresponding devices differ in principle and performance. Microresistivity logs generally include a microcaliper curve (hole-diameter recording), which is useful in the location of permeable zones. Of late, fourlogarithmic tracks are often replacing the two-arithmetic track mentioned previously. The curves are recorded on the most appropriate of several available sensitivity scales. The usual depths of scales are 2 in. = 100 ft (regular) and 5 in.=100 ft (detail). Less frequently a scale of 1 in. = 100 ft is used. For cases where great detail is involved, as in micrologging and dipmeter logging, special expanded scales are available. In many parts of the world, metric depth scales are used instead of English scales. Earth Resistivities Formation resistivities are important clues to probable lithology and fluid content. With a few exceptions that are rare in oilfield practice, such as metallic sulfides and

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK CABLE TENSION MEASUREMENT CONTROL Fig. 49-l-Setup for wireline logging operations in wells (schematic). graphite, dry rocks are very good insulators but, when their pores are impregnated with water, they conduct electric current. Subsurface formations in general have finite measurable resistivities because of the water contained in their pores or adsorbed on their interstitial clay. Formation resistivity also depends on the shape and the interconnection of the pore spaces occupied by the water. These depend on the formation lithology and, in the case of reservoir rocks, on the presence of nonconductive oil or gas. Units of Resistivity and Conductivity. In electrical logging, the resistivity is usually measured. An exception is induction logging, in which the conductivity is recorded along with its reciprocal, the resistivity. Measurements made with electromagnetic propagation are discussed later. The resistivity (specific resistance) of a substance to the flow of electrical current, at any given temperature, is the resistance measured between opposite faces of a unit cube of that substance. In electrical-logging work, TABLE 49.1-SERVICE COMPANY NOMENCLATURE Schlumberger Electrical Log Induction Electric Log (IEL) Induction Spherically Focused Log (ISF) Dual Induction Spherically Focused Log Laterolog.3 (LL3) Dual Laterolog Microlog (ML) Microlaterolog (MLL) Proximity Log (PL) Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL) Borehole Compensated Sonic Log Long Spaced Sonic Log Cement Bond/Variable Density Log Gamma Ray Neutron Sidewall Neutron Porosity Log Compensated Neutron Log (CNL) Thermal Neutron Decay Time Log Dual Spacing TDT Compensated Formation Density Log Litho-Density Log High Resolution Dipmeter

Formation Interval Tester Repeat Formation Tester Sidewall Sampler Electromagnetic Propagation Log Bore Hole Geometry Tool Ultra Long Spacing Electric Log Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry General Spectroscopy Tool Well Seismic Tool Fracture Identification Log Gearhart Electrical Lag Induction Electric Log Dual Induction-Laterolog Laterolog-3 Dual Laterolog Micro Electrrc Log Microlaterolog Sorehole Compensated Sonic Log Sonic Cement Bond System Gamma Ray Neutron Sidewall Neutron Porosity Log Compensated Neutron Log Compensated Density Log Four Electrode Dipmeter Selective Formation Tester Sidewall Core Gun X-Y Caliber Fracture Detection Log Dresser Atlas Electrolog Induction Electrolog Dual Induction Focused Log Focused Log Dual Laterolog Minilog Microlaterolog Proximity Log Sorehole Compensated Sonic Log Long Spacing BHC Acoustilog Acoustic Cement Bond Log Gamma Ray Neutron Sidewall Epithermal Neutron Log Compensated Neutron Log Neutron Lrfetime Log Dual Detector Neutron Compensated Densilog

Diplog Formation Tester Formation Multi Tester Corgun Caliper Log Spectralog Carbon/Oxygen Log Welex Electric Log Induction Electric Log Dual Induction Log Guard Log Dual Guardlog Contact Log F,R,, Log Acoustic Velocrty Log Microseismogram Gamma Ray Neutron Srdewall Neutron Log Dual Spaced Neutron Log Density Log Diplog Formation Tester Sidewall Coring Caliper Log

ELECTRICAL LOGGING 49-3 the meter was chosen as the unit of length; so the unit of resistivity is taken as the (Q.m) /m, or more simply, the ohm-meter, 52.m. Since conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity (C=lIR), a possible unit of conductivity would be l/(Q.m), or G/m. However, since this unit would necessitate extensive use of decimal fractions, a unit one-thousandth as large, the millimho/meter (mu/m), is employed. Thus, formations having resistivities of 10, 100, or 1,000 Q*rn have conductivities of 100, 10, or 1 mu/m, respectively. Dependence of Water Resistivity on Salinity and Temperature. The resistivity of an electrolytic solution decreases as the amount of chemicals therein increases. At any given temperature the electrical conductivity of a formation water or a drilling mud will depend on the concentration and nature of the dissolved chemicals. In most cases the predominant solute is sodium chloride (NaCl); therefore, the NaCl conversion chart (Fig. 49.3) may generally be used to obtain resistivity from concentration. If other chemicals are present in relatively large amounts, it is possible to convert the concentrations of such chemicals into equivalent concentrations of NaCl to find the resistivity. To make the conversion, apply the appropriate multipliers given in Table 49.2 for the concentration of each separate ion [in parts per million (ppm) or (m 3 /m 3 ) by weight, or in grains per gallon (gr/gal) or (kg/m )], and add the products. Note that concentrations expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) and in ppm may be appreciably different at high tt f t LATERAL concentrations. Below about 50,000 ppm, however, measurements at room temperature in the two units may be used interchangeably without serious error. Fig. 49.2-Typical electrical log. CONCENTRATION G/GRESISTIVITY OF SOLUTION OHM-METERS Fig. 49.3~Resistivity vs. concentration for NaCl solutions at various temperatur es.

The resistivity of an electrolytic solution decreases as its temperature increases. This is of great importance, since temperature in the earth increases with depth. Before the resistivity of the drilling mud (measured at surface temperature) can be compared with that of a formation (measured at a much higher temperature in a deep well) the resistivities must be converted to values that would have been observed at a common temperature. The temperature conversion is accomplished by means of Fig. 49.3, which shows for NaCl solutions the effects of both salinity and temperature on resistivity . Downhole temperatures may be estimated from a so-called bottomhole temperature (BHT) obtained by means of a maximum-reading thermometer inserted in the body of the sonde. Resistivities of Formation Waters. Formation waters can vary remarkably with geographic location, depth, and geological age. Shallow groundwaters are usually fresh (not saline), with resistivities sometimes exceeding 20 to 50 !l. m at room temperature. They also may contain appreciable amounts of calcium and magnesium salts, which make them hard. At great depths, formation waters generally tend to be more saline. In deep wells, formation-water resistivities sometimes may correspond to complete saturation (0.014 O.rn at 200F). A knowledge of R,., the formation-water resistivity. is important in electrical-log interpretation. R,,may be obtained from the readings of the SP curve (Eq. 9) or from resistivity measurements on samples of formation water recovered from production or in drillstem tests. It also may be estimated from measurements of the resistivity of the permeable formations of interest when they are 100% water-saturated, Ro,if the porosity or formation factor is known (Eqs. 1 and 2). R, may be computed, as has been explained, from analyses of formation waters. Resistivity of formation waters is discussed further in Chap. 24. Mud, Mudcake, and Mud-Filtrate Resistivities. Resistivities of the mud, R,,the mudcake, R,,, and the mud filtrate, R,,,f, in log interpretation. are all important R, is obtained by direct measurement on a mud sample. R,,,f are by direct measurements on and R, obtained filtrate and mudcakes pressed from a sample of the mud, or they can be estimated from average statistical data on the basis of mud resistivity. 2-4 Correction for the variation of these resistivities with temperature is made by use of Fig. 49.3. Formation Resistivity Factor. If R. is the resistivity of a clean (nonshaly) formation completely saturated with water of resistivity R,, the ratio Ro/R,will be a con-

stant that depends on the lithologic structure of the forTABLE 49.2-CONVERSIONS FOR CATIONS AND ANIONS Cations Anions Na 1.0 Cl 1.0 Ca 0.95 so4 0.5 WI 2.0 co3 1.26 HCO, 0.27 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK mation and not on the resistivity, R,,of the saturating water. This constant is the formation resistivity factor, FR,commonly called formation factor. Ro FR=- R, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(I) Dependence of Formation Factor on Porosity and Lithology. The formation factor, F,, of a clean formation can be related to its porosity, 6. by an empirical formula of the form F~=alc$'?', a m are conwhere and stants. The exponent m,sometimes called the cementation exponent or factor, varies with the lithology. In the construction of many graphs for log interpretation, 2 the Humble formula proposed by Winsauer et a1.5 has been generally adopted: 0.62 FR= ~2.,5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . (2) An early formula proposed by Archie, which fits particularly well for consolidated formations such as hard sandstones and limestones, is FR=L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(3) 4J2 Limestones often contain vugs, interconnected with fissures, which add their porosity to that of the matrix. When the vugs and fissures are spaced closely, compared with the spacings of the resistivity-measuring devices, Eq. 3 often can be used as in the case of sandstones or limestones with only granular porosity. Nevertheless, it is sometimes advisable to use values of m greater than two as required to fit local observations. Shaly (Dirty) Formations. Shales and clays are themselves porous and are generally impregnated with mineralized water. Therefore, they have appreciable conductivity, which is enhanced by ion-exchange conduction through the shale matrix. (This shale conduction

is sometimes, though not quite properly, referred to as resulting from conductive solids. ) On the other hand, the size of the shale pores is so small that practically no movement of fluid is possible. Accordingly, shale, whether deposited in thin laminations or dispersed in the interstices of the sand, contributes to the conductivity of the formation without contributing to its effective porosity. The relation between formation resistivity and porosity becomes more complex for shaly formations than for clean formations. Because of the additional shale conductance, the ratio of formation resistivity to water resistivity (i.e., the formation factor) is not constant when the resistivity of the impregnating water changes. 6 Nevertheless, if the shale content is not too great, experimental observations show that for low enough values of water resistivity this ratio is almost constant, as though the conductance of the shale were then negligible in comparison with that of the water; and a limiting formation factor is found, which is related approximately to the effective porosity in the same way as the formation factor of a clean sand.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING Relation Between Formation Resistivity and Saturation. When a part of the pore space is occupied by an insulating material such as oil or gas, the resistivity of the rock, R,,is greater than the resistivity that it has when 100% water-bearing, R,. The resistivity of such rock is a function of the fraction of the PV occupied by water. For substantially clean formations, the water saturation, S,, is related to R, (resistivity of formation containing hydrocarbons and formation water, with a water saturation S,) and R,J (resistivity of same formation when 100% saturated with the same water) b an empirical relation known as the Archie equation. 7 l/II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4) Empirically determined values of n range between 1.7 and 2.2, depending on the type of formation. Experience shows that n =2 should give a sufficiently good approximation. Then, combining Eqs. 4 and 1 gives SW=(+) 1/i =(F) I/?.. . . . . . . . . . . The ratio RJR0 is sometimes designated as the resistivity index, 1~; accordingly, S, =(ZR) -I . The relation between formation resistivity and water saturation is more complex when the formations contain some shale or clay because of the additional conductance resulting from the interstitial shale. sv9 Ranges of Resistivity-Formation Classifications. Clays and shales are porous, practically impervious formations and are often very uniform throughout their mass. Their resistivity is comparatively low and practically constant over wide intervals. Compact and impervious rocks, such as gypsum, anhydrite, dense calcareous formations, or certain kinds of coal, are highly resistive because of their very small interstitial water content. Resistivities of porous and permeable formations, such as sands, vary widely, depending on their lithology and fluid content. In electrical logging it is convenient to classify reservoir rocks as follows. SoftForma&ions. These formations are chiefly poorly consolidated sand/shale series. The porosity of the sands is intergranular and exceeds 20%. Resistivities range from 0.3 !2* m for saltwater-bearing sands to several fl. m for oil-saturated sands. Intermediate Formations. These are chiefly moderately consolidated sandstones but frequently

limestones and/or dolomites. Reservoir porosity is generally intergranular, ranging from about 15 to 20 % . The reservoir formations are interbedded with shales and very often with tight rocks. Resistivities range from 1 to about 100 Q-m. Hard Formations. These are chiefly limestones andior dolomites, and also consolidated sandstones. They consist mostly of tight rocks containing porous and permeable zones, and shale streaks. The porosity of reservoirs is less than 15 % . Most often, the porous and permeable zones contain fissures and vugs. Resistivity range is from 2 to 3 Q. m to several hundred. For the completely tight formations, such as salt and anhydrite, the resistivity may be practically infinite. Anisotropy. In many sedimentary strata, the mineral grains have a flat or plate-like shape with an orientation parallel to the sedimentation. Current travels with great facility along the water-filled interstices, which are mostly parallel to the stratification. These strata, therefore, do not possess the same resistivity in all directions. Such microscopic is observed anisotropy mostly in shales. Moreover, in electrical logging, the distance between electrodes or coils on the measuring devices is great enough that the volume of formation involved in the measurements very often includes sequences of interbedded resistive and conductive streaks. Since current flows more easily along the beds than perpendicular to them, the formation has macroscopic anisotropy. Both kinds of anisotropy may add their respective effects to influence the apparent resistivity. The longitudinal, or horizontal, resistivity , RH, measured along the bedding planes is always less than the transversal, or vertical (perpendicular) resistivity, Rv. Resistivity-measuring devices whose readings are not appreciably affected by the borehole [the deep induction log (IM), and under certain conditions, the laterolog (LL), and the long lateral when the ratio RHIR, is low or moderate] will read RH.Because of the borehole effect, the short-spacing-electrode devices usually read values greater than RH. lo Distribution of Fluids and Resistivities in Permeable Formations Invaded by Mud Filtrate. Inasmuch as the hydrostatic pressure of the mud is usually maintained greater than the natural pressure of the formations, mud filtrate (forced into the permeable beds) displaces the original formation fluids in the region close to the borehole. Solid materials from the mud deposited on the wall of the hole form a mudcake, which tends to impede

and reduce further infiltration. The thickness and the nature of the mudcake depend on the kind of mud and on the drilling conditions rather than on the formations. The thickness, is usually h,,,,, between /s and 1 in. For water-based muds the mudcake resistivity, R,, , is about equal to one or two times the mud resistivity, R,. In some oil-emulsion muds, R,, may be somewhat greater. Fig. 49.4a represents a schematic cross section of an oil-bearing permeable bed penetrated by a borehole. Fig. 49.4b and 49.4~ show the corresponding radial distribution of fluids in formation and resistivities. As indicated in Fig. 49.4a, the zones of different resistivity may be divided into the drilling mud within the borehole (of resistivity R,);the mudcake R,,,the flushed zone R,,;a transition zone; in some cases an annulus. R, (present only in certain oil-or gasbearing formations); and the uncontaminated zone (of resistivity R,).The invaded zone (of average resistivity, Ri)includes the flushed zone and the transition zone. Invaded Zone. This zone is behind and close to the wall of the hole; it is believed that most of the original interstitial fluids have been flushed out by the mud

rANNULU5 (Ran) MUD CAKE (Rnxl t k--HOLE WALL Fig. 49.4-a. Horizontal section through a permeable oil-bearing bed (S, < 60%); b. radial distribution of fluids in formation (qualitative); c. radial distribution of resistivities. filtrate. This flushed zone, of resistivity R,,, is considered to extend, under usual conditions of invasion, at least 3 in. from the wall. Exceptions to this rule can occur. If the bed is water bearing, the pores in the flushed zone are completely filled with the mud filtrate, and for clean formations R,,is nearly equal to F,R,f; FR being the formation factor and Rmf the mud-filtrate resistivity If the bed is oil bearing, the flushed zone contains some residual oil saturation, S,, . From Eq. 5, S,, , the water saturation in the flushed zone is % or FRRtnf R,,=T, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s x0 where S,=l-S,,. Beyond the region of maximum flushing, R,,, there is a more or less extended transition region, the nature of which depends on the characteristics of the formation, the speed of invasion, and the hydrocarbon content. The invaded zone includes the flushed zone and the part of the transition zone invaded by filtrate. In the case of water-bearing sands and oil-bearing sands of high water saturation, the invaded zone extends up to the uncontaminated zone, R,. There can be no exact definition of the depth of the invaded zone, but it is convenient to introduce a factor di, called the electrically equivalent diameter of inva-

sion, corresponding to an average invaded zone of resistivity Ri, which has the same effect as the actual inPETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK vaded zone on measurements made in the borehole. The depth of invasion is variable. It depends on the plastering properties of the mud, pressure differences between the mud column and the formation, time elapsed since the formation was drilled, porosity of the formation, proportion and nature of the fluids (water, oil, gas) present in the pores, reaction of any interstitial clays with the mud filtrate, etc. All other conditions being the same, the greater the porosity, the smaller the depth of invasion. With usual muds, di seldom exceeds 2dh (dh =hole diameter) in high-porosity sands, but it may exceed 5dh and even 1Odh in low-porosity formations such as consolidated sandstones or limestones. In some cases, invasion can be extremely shallow in very permeable formations and in gas-bearing formations. In very permeable beds, when there is an appreciable difference between the specific gravities of the mud filtrate and the salt-laden interstitial water, gravitysegregation effects may occur, with the fresher filtrate tending to accumulate at the top boundary of the bed, resulting in a decrease in the depth of invasion in the lower part of the bed. I In fissured formations, the permeability is quite often enormous because of the fissures-much greater than the permeability of the matrix material surrounding them. Suppose that a formation is composed of a porous but relatively impermeable material, broken by networks of roughly parallel fissures. Mud filtrate penetrates the fissures easily and deeply, driving out much of the original fluids (oil and formation water). On the other hand, the matrix itself may be penetrated hardly at all by the filtrate. Since the l%.sures constitute a small part of the total PV, only a vety small portion of the total original fluids is displaced. As a result, R, is little different from R,,and the ratio R,IR,,fis no longer representative of the formation factor. Annulus. When the formation contains hydrocarbons, the process of invasion is complex. The distribution of fluids is then affected by the two-phase permeabilities, relative densities (gravities) and viscosities of the fluids, capillary forces, etc. When the initial water saturation is low (less than about 50%), one important feature is the existence of an annular region just inside the uncontaminated zone, containing mainly formation water and some residual oil. This annulus is explained as follows. The mud filtrate penetrates the formation radially, sweeping the removable oil and formation water ahead of it. For large oil saturation, the relative permeability to oil is ap-

preciably greater than that to water. Therefore, the oil moves faster, leaving a zone (the annulus) enriched in formation water behind it. It seems likely that, because of the effects of diffusion, capillary pressure, gravity, etc., the existence of a welldefined annulus is a transitory phenomenon. Field log experience nevertheless seems to show that the annulus does very often exist at the time the logs are run. Computations have shown that the presence of the annulus has a practically negligible effect on the response of the devices with electrodes (normals, laterals, and laterolog) It may have an effect on the induction log, but this can be taken care of for practical purposes by means of appropriate interpretation charts. 2

ELECTRICAL LOGGING Uncontaminated Zone. For clean formations, from Eq. 5, FRR, R,= s,2. . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . In the usual case, R,,,f is 10 to 25 times as large as R w. Thus, comparing Eqs. 6 and 7 with usual values of S, and S,, , R,, even in oil-bearing formations, is often less than R,, as represented in Fig. 49.4~. Apparent Resistivity. Since any resistivity measurement is affected in some degree by the resistivities of all the media in the immediate vicinity of the sonde (i.e., mud, different parts of the formation that vary in resistivity, adjacent formations if the bed measured is thin), any given device records an apparent resistivity. Each resistivity device is calibrated so that when the sonde is in a homogeneous medium (or in some other condition appropriate to practice, specified for the particular device) the apparent resistivity reading is equal to the actual resistivity. Requirements for and Types of Resistivity Devices. Inspection of basic relations in Eqs. 1, 2, 5, and 6 shows that a determination of S, and 4 requires a knowledge of R, and R,, (or Ri, in certain cases where R,, is not easily determined). Thus, for the reservoir-evaluation problem, it is necessary to have resistivity-measuring devices with different depths of investigation to obtain values indicative of the resistivities of the invaded zone and the uncontaminated zone. The readings of the deep-and shallow-investigation curves may often be used to correct each other, through correction charts or departure curves, to obtain better values of R, and Ri Another function of resistivity recording is to provide an accurate definition of bed boundaries, particularly of permeable beds. Finally, it is desirable that the readings not be influenced by the effect of the mud column or, in case of thin beds, by the adjacent formations. These requirements are only partly satisfied with the conventional resistivity devices. The introduction of microdevices and focused devices has brought about an appreciable improvement. Currently used resistivity devices may be classified in two categories. 1. Macrodevices, which derive their reading from about 10 to 100 cu ft of material around the sonde (useful for R, and Ri evaluation), and include unfocusedelectrode devices, focused-electrode devices, and induc-

tion logging devices. 2. Microdevices (also called wall-resistivity devices), which derive their readings from a few cubic inches of material behind or close to the wall of the hole. Since the electrodes are mounted on an insulating rubber pad pressed against the wall of the hole, measurements are affected only marginally by the mud column. Microdevices arc of unfocused and focused types. Resistivity devices that have electrodes may be used in holes filled with water or water-based drilling mud, which provides the electrical contact necessary between electrodes and formation. The induction log can also be used in empty holes or in holes filled with nonconductive oil-based mud. The various resistivity devices are described later. 49-7 Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log The SP log is a record of the naturally occurring potentials in the mud at different depths in a borehole. The measurement is made in uncased holes containing waterbased or oil-emulsion muds between an exploratory electrode on the sonde in the borehole and a stationary reference electrode at the surface. Usually the SP curve (Fig. 49.2) consists of a more or less straight baseline (corresponding to the shales) having excursions or peaks to the left (opposite the permeable strata). The shapes and the amplitudes of the excursions may be different, according to the formations, but there is no definite correspondence between the magnitudes of the excursions and the values of permeability or porosity of the formation. The principal uses of the SP curve are to (1) detect the permeable beds, (2) locate their boundaries (except when the formations are too resistive), (3) correlate such beds, and (4) obtain good values for R,, the formation-water resistivity. Origin of the SP. The character of the potentials measured in the mud results from ohmic drops produced by the flow of SP currents through the mud resistance. If the mud is extremely conductive, these ohmic drops may be insignificant, and the variations in the SP curve may be too small to be useful.* The SP currents flow as a result of electromotive forces (EMF s) existing within the formations or at the boundaries between formations and mud. One phenomenon that could cause an EMF to appear across the mudcake opposite a permeable bed is electrofiltrahon.The mud filtrate, in being forced through the mudcake, would tend to produce an EMF, positive in the direction of flow. According to experiments, I2 the EMF across the mudcake may be quite sizable, but there is also an electrotiltration EMF generated across the adjacent shales. Thus, the net effect of electrotiltration in

causing variations of SP is small and in most cases negligible for all practical purposes-a conclusion verified by field experience.** Most important ate the EMF s of electrochemical origin, which occur at the contacts between the drilling mud (or its filtrate) and the formation water, in the pores of the permeable beds, and across the adjacent shales. I6 In a clean sand lying between shale beds, all penetrated by a borehole containing conductive (water-based) mud, the total electrochemical EMF, E,, is produced in the chain (Fig. 49.5): Mud/mud filtrate/formation water/ shale/mud. The EMF of the junction, mud/mud filtrate, is taken to be practically nil because, although the resistivities of the mud and its filtrate may differ, their electrochemical activities should be the same. The part of the chain consisting of formation water/shale/mud gives rise to the shale-membrane EMF, Em. The part mud ftltrateiformation water gives rise to the liquid-junction EMF, EJ. For NaCl (monovalent-ion) solutions, at 75 F, E,=59log,+ amf *In such acase the gamma ray log. which distinguishesshales from nonshale beds, IS sometimes recorded as a subslltute for the SP Further information on the electrof~ltralion EMF, or streaming potential, may be found in Refs. 13 through 15.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK MUD I-t I-t INVADED ZONE Fig. 49.5--Schematic representation of electrochemical chain and SP current path at boundary between permeable bed and adjacent shale. and where a, and a,f are the chemical activities of the formation water and mud filtrate, respectively (at 75 F), and EM and EJare in millivolts. The total E,is the sum of E,+, and E,: E,=K, log,,% . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . (8) Umf where K, is the electrochemical coefficient and is equal to 71 at 75F. Eq. 8 is general, provided that both formation water and mud filtrate are essentially NaCl solutions of any concentration. The values of K,are directly proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus, at 150F the coefficient K,in Eq. 8 becomes 81 instead of 71, and at 300F it becomes 101 (see Fig. 49.6). From Eq. 8, in the usual case of a, greater than a,,f, E, is positive. However, if a,f is greater than a,, corresponding to mud mom saline than formation water, then E,is negative and the SP deflections corresponding to permeable beds are then reversed on the log. Effect of Invasion on Generation of the EMF. In the explanation of the electrochemical potential, it has been assumed that no shale-type potential is created by the mudcake. In the normal case, mud filtrate bathes both sides of the mudcake and no shale-type potential can arise. In some formations, there is only a little filtrate behind the mudcake. Such small amount of filtrate will be contaminated easily by the formation water. In this case, one face of the mudcake is wetted by the filtrate in the hole, the other face by contaminated filtrate of dif-

ferent activity. This will give rise to a shale-type potential of the same polarity as the main shale potential, and the SP curve will be decreased. This explains the decreasing of the SP curve with time in very highly permeable beds. I7 The filtrate is evacuated by gravity STATIC SP (mvl Fig. 49.6--R, determination from the SP. The inset chart of true R, vs. R, applies to formation waters of average composition. segregating forces and the formation fluids tend to come back toward the hole with time. Conversely, an increase in SP with time is observed often in low-permeability water-bearing formations. Very little filtrate invades the formation in a freshly drilled hole and the filtrate is contaminated by the forma-. tion water. As the invasion proceeds, more and more filtrate goes into the formation and the mudcake is wetted on both faces by the mud filtrate. When the mudcake does not contribute any shale-type potential, the SP curve, recorded on the front of a thick permeable sand, is said to be fully developed. Effect of Interstitial Shales on the SP. Increasing amounts of shale or clay in a permeable bed effectively result in a reduction of the SP curve. At the limit, for 100% shaliness, E,becomes zero; that is, the sand is then all shale and indistinguishable from the surrounding shales. The presence of oil in a shaly sand tends to enhance the effect of the shale. All other conditions being the same, the total E,of a shaly sand will be smaller if oil bearing than if water bearing. The effect of interstitial shale is also greater in lowporosity formations. In these cases, only a small amount of shale reduces the SP deflection appreciably. Conversely, the E, of shaly water-bearing sands of high porosity remains practically equal to the E, of a clean sand, as long as the shale content is reasonably low-i.e., does not exceed a few percent.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING Geometric Effect Influencing the SP Curve Circulation of the SP Current, The various EMF s add their effects to generate the SP currents, which follow the paths represented schematically in Fig. 49.7 (right) by solid lines. Each current line encircles the junction of mud, invaded zone, and uncontaminated zone. In the usual case where the formation waters are saltier than the mud, E, is positive and the current circulates in the direction of the arrows. The potential of a point in the mud column opposite the sand is negative with respect to one opposite the shale. Along its path, the SP current forces its way through a series of resistances, both in the ground and in the mud. Along a closed line of current flow, the total of the ohmic-potential drops is necessarily equal to the algebraic sum of the EMF s encountered. Moreover, the total potential drop is divided between the different formations and the mud in proportion to the resistance of the path through each respective medium. Static SP (Clean Formations) and Pseudostatic SP (Shaly Formations). It is convenient to use an idealized representation in which the SP current is prevented from flowing by means of insulating plugs placed across hole and invaded zones, as shown in Fig. 49.7a (right). Under these conditions, a plot of the potential in the mud column would appear as the dashed cross-hatched curve on the left of Fig. 49.7a, with a maximum negative deflection opposite the permeable bed equal to the algebraic sum of all the EMF s of various origins. This is the maximum SP that could be measured. It is therefore convenient to use this theoretical value as a reference. In the case of a clean sand, it is called the static SP, ESp. If the sand is shaly, it is called the pseudostatic SP. Epsp. For given values of the activities of mud and formation water, the pseudostatic SP of a shaly sand is smaller than the static SP of a clean sand. The ratio E,rplEsp is called the reduction factor or ratio and is designated by the symbol (Y sp. The SP log records only that portion of the potential drop occurring in the mud. When the bed is sufficiently thick the amplitude of the SP deflection approaches the static SP (or EpsP in case of shaly formations), hccause then the resistance offered to the current by the bed itself is negligible compared with the resistance of the path through the mud in the borehole.

Factors Influencing the Shape and Amplitude of SP Deflections. As seen in Fig. 49.7b, the current circulates in the hole not only opposite the permeable formation but also a short distance beyond its boundaries. As a result, although on the static SP diagram the boundaries of a permeable bed are indicated by sharp breaks, those on the actual SP curve show a more gradual change in potential. An analysis of the circulation of the current shows that, for uniform resistivity in the formations, the bed boundaries are located at the inflection points on the SP log. This fact provides a means of determining the thickness of a bed from the SP log. Both the shape of the SP deflection and its relative amplitude (in fractional parts of the Essp or EpsP) are influenced by four factors, which determine the conditions for the circulation of SP currents: (1) bed thickness, (2) resistivities of the bed, the adjacent formations, and the -----STATIC SP DIAGRAM--POTENTIAL IN MUD WHEN SP CURRENTS ARE PREVENTED FROM FLOWING. :SP LOG-POTENTIAL IN MUD WHEN SP CURRENTS ARE FLOWING. Fig. 49.7-a. Static SP diagram (left) that would be observed in hole when current IS prevented from flowing by means of insulating plugs (right); b. actual SP diagram (solid curve, left) and schematic representation of SP current distribution in and around permeable bed (right). mud, (3) borehole diameter, and (4) depth of invasion. All other factors remaining the same, a change of the total EMF s affects the amplitude but does not modify the general shape of the SP log. Influence of Mud Resistivity and Hole Diameter. The mud resistivity has a predominant influence on the SP curve. If the mud is of about the same degree of salinity as the formation water, electrochemical EMF s are small. If the mud is more saline than the formation water, the SP may be reversed (sand deflections toward the positive side of the log). Moreover, the lower the mud resistivity (compared with the formation resistivity) the broader the deflection above and below the permeable bed and, because the ohmic drops in the mud are decreased, the smaller the amplitude of the deflection. An increase in hole diameter acts approximately like an increase in the ratio of formation resistivity to mud resistivity. It tends to round off the deflections on the SP log and reduce the amplitude of the deflections opposite thin beds. A decrease in hole diameter has the same effect as a decrease in the ratio of formation resistivity to

mud resistivity. The SP log would also be influenced by a lack of homogeneity of the mud-a change in salinity of the mud

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION SCHEMATIC OF FORMATIONS AND SPLOG DISTRIBUTION OF SP CURRENTS m SHALE (IMPERVIOUS AND COMPARATIVELY CONDUCTIVE 1 COMPACT FORMATON fzl (VERY HIGH RESISTIVITY) PERMEABLE m (COMPARATIVELY CONOUCTIVE 1 Fig. 49.8-SP phenomena in highly resistive formations (schematic). at a certain level would result in an SP baseline shift at that level. However, it has been found in practice that such changes in salinity are rare. Effect of Invasion. Permeable beds in general arc invaded by mud filtrate. Because the boundary between mud filtrate and interstitial water is somewhere inside the formation, a fraction of the SP current flows directly from the shale into the invaded zone, without penetrating the mud column. As a result, the presence of the invaded zone has an effect on the SP log similar to that of an increase in hole diameter. SP in Soft Formations. Theory and field experience have shown that the amplitude of the SP deflection is practically equal to the static SP (of a clean sand) or to the pseudostatic SP (of a shaly sand) when the permeable beds are thick and the resistivities of the formations are not too great compared with that of the mud. Moreover, the SP curves define the boundaries of the bed with great accuracy. The amplitude of the deflection is less than the static SP or pseudostatic SP for thin beds, and the thinner the bed, the smaller the deflection. On the other hand, when the resistivity of the formation, R,, is considerably greater than that of the mud, R,, the SP curves are rounded off, the boundaries are marked less accurately, and all other conditions being the same, the amplitude of the peak is less than when the ratio R,IR, is close to unity. For the case of shaly sands, the SP curve may also be affected by the presence of oil. A change in the magnitude of the SP deflection occurs very often when passing an oil/water contact in a shaly sand. This change is not a positive criterion for the detection of oil because

the same effect would be obtained if the salinity of the interstitial water were reduced or if the percentage of shale were increased. SP in Hard Formations. Hard formations are highly resistive except for permeable beds, whether oil-or water-bearing, and shales, which are impervious. The SP currents generated by the different EMF s flow into the hole out of the shale sections and out of the hole into PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK the permeable sections. In between, they flow through the mud rather than through resistive sections close to the borehole, because of the large resistances the latter paths offer. However, within the formation at a distance from the borehole, where the paths through the resistive beds have larger cross sections and hence lower resistances, the SP currents can complete their circuits from permeable beds to shale. They cannot return to the mud through adjacent permeable beds because there they encounter EMF s opposing them. Opposite a given resistive bed, the SP current in the mud column remains essentially constant along the borehole. This means that the potential drop per unit length of hole is also constant,-thus giving g constant slope on the SP log as shown by the straight-line portions of the SP in Fig. 49.8. At the level of each conductive bed, some SP current will enter or leave the mud column, thus modifying the slope of the SP log. For instance, the slope of the SP log changes at the level of the permeable bed, P2, because part of the current leaves the hole and flows into the bed. * As a general rule, in hard formations the permeable beds are characterized on the SP log by slope changes or curvatures that are convex toward the negative side of the log. Shales are characterized by curvatures that are convex toward the positive side of the log. Highly resistive beds correspond to essentially straight parts of the SP log. Determination of Static SP (SSP). The SP deflection is measured with respect to the shale baseline, a reference line which can generally be traced along the extreme positive edges of the SP curve. Usually the shale line is straight and vertical. * In any given well, since the mud salinity is constant

and the interstitial waters may tend to be constant, there is often a definite tendency for the maximum SP deflections to be the same for the same types of permeable formations at comparable depths. Thus, it is usually possible to draw, parallel to the shale line, a sand line on the log along the maximum negative deflections of the clean sands of sufficient thickness. It is very likely that, for all the beds where the SP peaks reach the sand line, (1) the formation-water resistivity is practically the same, (2) the beds are virtually free from shaly material, and (3) the amplitude of the deflection is equal to the SSP. For thin beds in cases where the SSP cannot be determined as above (or for a thin shaly sand), the SP reading from the log must be corrected by means of appropriate charts in order to obtain the Essp or Epsp. 2 Determination of R, from SSP Since the variations of electrotiltration potential from sand to shale can generally be neglected, the SSP is taken in practice as equal to the corresponding value of -EC as long as the SP is fully developed. It is convenient to replace Eq. 8 by R Essp = -Kc log+ . . . . . . . . . . . . (9) R we field experience has shown that in certa#n regions there may be shifts of the sha le line. Sometimes rhese shifts are found systemattcatty at the ?.ame places in the geologlcal column and can be used as markers.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING where R, is an equivalent formation-water resistivity . The computation of R, is given in the chart of Fig. 49.6, and R, is derived from R, by means of the auxiliary chart at the lower right of Fig. 49.6. The solid curves on this auxiliary chart correspond to highly saline formation waters, where the presence of salts different from NaCl is negligible in practice. They are derived from the known activity/resistivity relationships for pure NaCl solutions. The dashed curves correspond to formation waters of low salinity, where the presence of other salts (calcium and magnesium chlorides, sulfates, and bicarbonates) have an important bearing on the activity values. These curves are derived from empirical observations and cover formation waters of average composition. I9 Note that, for intermediate salinities (0.08< R,~0.3 at 75 F), the value of R,,is practically equal to R,. The mud filtrate is taken here as an NaCl solution, and this is generally done in practice, except for muds containing gypsum, CaC12, or NaOH. In such cases, the determination of R, from the SP curve requires the measurement of the activity of the mud. A field instrument is provided for this purpose. Resistivity Logging Devices* A general classification of the types of rcsistivity logging devices was given previously. Electrical Survey (ES). During the first 25 years of logging practice, the standard ES (Fig. 49.2) usually included, in addition to the SP, three conventional (unfocused) resistivity curves; namely, a short normalcurve (distance between electrodes A and M is 16 in.), a long normal(AM=64 in.) or a lateral beshort (distance tween electrodes and A and 0 is 6 to 9 ft), and a standard lateral all recorded

(AO= 18 ft, 8 in. in general), simultaneously. In some regions, such as the Permian basin (west Texas and New Mexico), the short-normal spacing was reduced to 10 in., and the limestone sonde was recorded instead of the long normal. The ES log is rarely run today, but it was the standard log for many decades. Induction-Electrical Surveys (IES) (Figs. 49.9 and 49.10). The simultaneous recording of induction (conductivity and resistivity) curves, 16-in. normal, and SP curve, is a good combination for the logging of fonnations of low to moderate resistivities in fresh muds. Of late, the 16-in. normal has been replaced by a focused electrode system, and two induction logs of different investigations may also replace the single induction. Focused Electrode Devices. In wells drilled with very saline mud, or in high resistivity formations, a laterolog or dual laterolog is used with a gamma ray tool. Fullest benefit of these combinations usually is derived if a microresistivity survey is also run. Microresistivity surveys generally include a microcaliper curve (holediameter recording) (see Figs. 49.9 and 49.10). To avoid multiple runs, many of the above devices are combined with porosity logs-acoustic, density, and neutron logs. These porosity logs are discussed in other chapters. See Table 46.6 for the names of the various service companies 1ools. 49-l 1 l 1 Bed Thxkncrr, Feel 1 I 1 I 2 3456 6 IO 20 30 4050 .2F----------+ 1 Bed Thdner!, Feet 1 2 3 4 56 6 IO 20 M 4050 Fig. 49.9-Shoulder-bed corrections, LLS (top) and LLD (bottom). LATLROLOG Flg. 49.10-Principle of Delaware effect.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK GENERATOR METER POINT T---A Fig. 49.11 -Normal device (schematic). GENERATOR METER GENERATOR METER AMX LATERAL BAM LATERAL (01 (b) Fig. 49.12-Lateral device (schematic). R.0 2 4 6 8 IO Fig. 49.13-Laboratory curves for normal sonde of spacing AM =2d through uninvaded beds more resistive than adjacent formations. Conventional Resistivity Devices During the first quarter century of well logging, the only electrical surveys available were the conventional resistivity logs plus the SP. Thousands of them were run each year in holes drilled all over the world. Since then, new logging methods have been developed to measure values much closer to R, and R,,which are the values sought. Nevertheless, the conventional ES (consisting of SP, 16-in. normal, 64-m. normal, and 18-ft 8-in. lateral) still is being run in some parts of the world. For this reason, and also because new information can often be obtained by reinterpreting old ES logs, this chapter includes discussion on the principles and responses of the ES measurements. Principles: Normal and Lateral Devices. In conventional resistivity logging a current of known intensity is sent between two electrodes, A and B (A on the sonde, B on the sonde or at the surface), and the resulting potential difference is measured between other electrodes M and N. The apparent resistivity is proportional to the measured potential difference. For normal devices, the distance AM is small (1 to 6 ft) compared with MN, MB, and BN. In practice N or B may be placed in the hole at a large distance above A and M (Fig. 49.11). The voltage measured is practically the potential of M (because of current from A), referred to an infinitely distant Point. The distance AM of a normal device is its spacing. The point of measurement is midway between A and M.

For lateral devices, measuring electrodes M and N are close to each other and located several feet below current electrode A. Current-return electrode B is at a great distance above A or at the surface. The voltage measured is approximately equal to the potential gradient at the point of measurement 0, midway between M and N. The distance A0 is the spacing of the lateral device. The two arrangements shown in Fig. 49.12 (in which current and measuring electrodes are interchanged) are equivalent as regards measured potentials (and resistivities), Curve Shapes-Laboratory Results. Fig. 49.13 shows laboratory curves from a normal device for homogeneous resistive layers between adjacent beds of low resistivity. The curves are symmetrical with respect to the center planes of the layers. The same curves are recorded if M is above A instead of, as in the figure, A above M. The upper part of Fig. 49.13 shows a resistive bed thicker than the spacing (bed thickness, h, is 6dh ; spacing AM is 2dh; where dhis the hole diameter). At the boundaries of the bed the curve tends to be rounded off owing to the influence of the borehole. Moreover, the indicated bed thickness (distance between the inflection points P and P ) is less than the actual thickness. Normal curves tend to show resistive beds thinner than they actually are (and conductive beds thicker than they actually are) by an amount equal to the spacing AM. The error in picking the boundaries of thick resistive beds is small for short-spacing normals, which is one reason for the recording of a short normal. As shown in the lower part of Fig. 49.13, for a resistive layer thinner than the spacing, the curve shows

ELECTRICAL LOGGING R.01 5 io 15 20 I U-\REFLECTIOIN PEAK Fig. 49.14-Laboratory curves for lateral sonde of spacing A0 = 1 Id through uninvaded beds more resistive than adjacent formations. a depression opposite the layer with two symmetrical small peaks, c and d, on either side. The main disadvantage of the normal device is that beds thinner than the spacing, no matter how resistive they may be, appear on the log as being conductive. Fig. 49.14 shows similar curves for a lateral. The lateral curves are markedly dissymmetrical, and their features are more complex. Again the transitions in the curves at the boundaries have been rounded off by the effect of the borehole. When the bed is thicker than the spacing, the upper boundary of the bed is not well defined on the lateral curve, and, as a whole, the bed appears as being displaced downward by a distance equal to the spacing AO. In the lower part of Fig. 49.14 the lateral indicates a resistive layer thinner than the spacing by a sharp peak of relatively low apparent resistivity. Below the layer is a low-resistivity blind zone, followed by a reflection peak at a distance A0 below the bottom boundary of the layer. The blind zone is recorded when the resistive streak is located between the current electrode and the measuring electrodes. The lateral is useful for the location of thin, highly resistive streaks, although interpretation may be difficult if several resistive streaks are close together. A lower streak located in the blind zone of an upper resistive streak may be missed, and the reflection peaks may be mistaken for actual resistive streaks in the formation. For a resistive layer of thickness approximately equal to the spacing (cn ticul rhickness), the lateral is almost completely flattened. Similar generalizations are possible for lateral curves recorded for beds more conductive than the surrounding formations. Whether the layer is thick or thin, the shape of the curve is dissymmetrical and the anomalies are spread downward, outside the bottom boundaries. The apparent increase of bed thickness is roughly equal to AO. Normals and Laterals in Hard Formations. Fig.

Fig. 49.15--Responses of normals and laterals in hard formations (qualitative). 49.15 shows schematically the behavior of the normals and laterals in thick, highly resistive formations containing porous or shaly (that is, more conductive) zones. In a highly resistive formation most of the current from electrode A flows up or down the borehole, dividing in inverse proportion to the resistances of the two paths, which are determined mostly by the resistance of the mud column in the hole between the current electrode and the nearest conductive beds. At the conductive beds, depending on their thickness and conductivity, the current has low-resistance paths from the hole. The lopsided appearance of the normal and lateral curves is explainable in terms of the unequal division of current flowing up and down the hole. The normal, for example, has M and N above the current electrode. The voltage measured is the ohmic potential drop in the hole resulting fmm current flowing in the mud between M and N. When the device is near the bottom of a resistive bed, most of the current flows down to the conductive bed just below, and there is little potential drop between M and N because the current up is small. When the device has moved farther up in the bed, the current down decreases because the resistance of that path has increased. Also, since the resistance of the upward path has decreased, the current up increases. Therefore, the potential drop between M and N increases as the device moves upward until electrode N reaches the next conductive bed, where the upward current is diverted from the hole. Above that level the normal reading decreases. The explanation of the shape of the lateral curve is similar. The direction of the lopsidedness for either device depends on whether the measuring electrodes are above or below the current electrode. The depressions read on the curves opposite the conductive beds are smooth and, in the case of the lateral, much broadened and displaced downward. Accurate determinations of bed boundaries from the curves are practically impossible.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK GENERATOR METER Fig. 49.16-Limestone sonde (schematic). Limestone Sonde. Four current electrodes (A, A , B, and B ), connected as shown in Fig. 49.16 by insulated wires of negligible resistance, are symmetrically arranged so that AB=A B . A measuring electrode, M, is placed in the middle of the device. Depths are measured from electrode M. In practice AM = A M =30 or 3.5 in., and AB =A B =4 or 5 in. The device is therefore a symmetrical double lateral. Opposite a thick, highly resistive layer (upper part of Fig. 49.17) practically all the flow of current is confined to the spaces between A and B and between A and B . No current flows from B or B , up or down the hole away from the device. Hence, from Ohm s law, B and B are at zero potential. Similarly M is at the same potential as A and A . The potential of M is, therefore, equal to the potential drop in the mud, because of the flow of current, between A and B (or A or B ). As long as all the electrodes of the devices are opposite the resistive formation this potential difference is dependent only on hole size and mud resistivity; if these are constant, a constant apparent resistivity is recorded. If the device is located just above a conductive streak (as in the lower part of Fig. 49.17), the streak is effectively a low resistance connecting adjacent portions of the device to points at zem potential. Part of the current now flows in the paths indicated by the arrows, and the potential of electrode M is correspondingly decreased. The conductive streak is indicated on the log by a relatively sharp, symmetrical depression. The limestone sonde gives clearer and simpler logs in hard formations, but measurements with the limestone sonde arc strongly affected by the mud column. When the formations are much more resistive than the mud, the readings are appreciably lower than the formation resistivities. Application of Conventional Resistivity Logs. The three devices that are generally recorded in the conventional electrical log (16-in. normal, 64in. normal, and 18-ft, 8-in. lateral) were designed to provide the most complete information with a system of nonfocused macmdevices. Fig. 49.17-Principle of limestone sonde (schematic).

The short normal is well adapted for bed definition, boundary determination, and correlation of formations of low or moderate resistivities (sand-shale series). The lateral generally shows sharp peaks at the level of thin resistive beds, but the definition of these beds is often obscured by blind zones and spurious peaks. The precision of the normal and lateral curves for bed definition is limited in hard formations and is quite poor when salty muds are used. Somewhat better resolution is obtained with the limestone sonde. In all cases, formation delineation is more detailed and accurate with the IL and focused devices (LL) and with the microdevices. In hard formations the 16-in. normal and the limestone sonde can provide an approximation to the value of Ri and hence an approach for formation factor evaluation. The capabilities of the conventional tools for the determination of R,are discussed later in this chapter. Induction Logging The IL was first developed to measure formation rcsistivity in boreholes containing oil-based muds. O Electrode devices do not work in these nonconductive muds, and attempts to use wall-scratcher electrodes proved unsatisfactory. Experience soon demonstrated that the induction tools had many advantages over the conventional ES for logging wells drilled with waterbased muds _2 Induction logging devices are focused to minimize the influence of the borehole and of the surrounding formations. They are designed for deep investigation and reduction of the influence of the invaded zone. Principle Practical induction sondes include a system of several transmitter and receiver coils. However, the principle can be understood by considering a sonde with only one transmitter coil and one receiver coil (Fig. 49.18). High-frequency AC of constant intensity is sent through the transmitter coil. The alternating magnetic field thus created induces secondary currents in the formations. These currents flow in circular ground-loop paths coaxial with the transmitter coil. These groundloop currents, in turn, create magnetic fields that induce

ELECTRICAL LOGGING signals in the receiver coil. The induced receiver signals are essentially proportional to the conductivity of the formations. Any signal produced by direct coupling of transmitter and receiver coils is balanced out by the measuring circuits. The IL operates to advantage when the borehole fluid is an insulator-even air or gas. But when properly designed the tool also will work very well when the borehole contains conductive mud, provided that the mud is not too salty, the formations are not too resistive, and the borehole diameter is not too large. Equipment Four types of induction equipment are now in use. 1. The 6FF40 IES tool includes a six-coil induction device of 40-in. normal spacing, a 16-in. normal, and an SP electrode. The induction array provides the greatest lateral depth of investigation presently available with induction tools. 2. The 6FF28 IES is a small-diameter (2% in.) tool for use in slim holes. It is a scaled-down version of the 6FF40, having a 28-in. coil spacing, and incorporates a standard 16-in. normal and an SP. 3. The Dual Induction-Laterolog 8 (DILTM) or Spherically Focused Log (SFL) system uses a deepreading induction device (ID, similar to the 6FF40), a medium induction device (IM), an LL8 (or an SFL), and an SP electrode. The IM device has vertical resolution similar to that of the 6FF40 tool but about half the depth of investigation. It is much more affected by large hole diameters and/or salty muds. The DIL log, with its three focused resistivity readings of different depths of investigation, is superior to the IES log for determination of R,and R, in extreme ranges of invasion depths and in cases of annulus. 4. The ISF/Sonic combination incorporates an ID measurement similar to that from the 6FF40 tool, the new ISF log, an SP curve that may be electronically corrected for noise, a borehole compensated (BHC) sonic log, and an optional gamma ray curve. Of late, the BHC sonic tool can be replaced in this tool string by a combination neutron/density device. Log Presentation and Scales The SP and/or gamma my curve are recorded in Track 1

for all tools; they can be recorded simultaneously with ISFisonic equipment. A gamma ray curve may also be run with 6FF40 or DIL equipment. Fig. 49.19 illustrates the standard IES presentation. The induction conductivity curve is sometimes recorded over both Tracks 2 and 3. The linear scale is in millimhos per meter (mu/m), increasing to the left. In Track 2 both the 16-in. normal and the reciprocated induction curves are recorded on the conventional linear rcsistivity scale. The DIL introduced the logarithmic grid for resistivity presentations. The current form is the log-linear grid shown in Fig. 49.20. In this, the resistivity curves on the detail log (5 in. I100 ft) have a split 4-decade logarithmic scale. On the correlation log (1 or 2 in./100 fi), the scale is linear. This presentation offers several advantages over the other alternatives. The detail log has good readability in low resistivities, a wide range without backup traces, and the ease of reading resistivity ratios Fig. 49.18-Induction-logging equipment (schematic). SPONTANEOUS POlENlIAl $ RtSlSIlVlrY CONDUClIVIlY mllllvoltr : ohm, m'm m,ll,mhos m .$& --?* I . -Fig. 49.19-Induction-electrical log presentation.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK SPOHlANtOUIPOItNllAl millivolts : ::::,: i lid : .-.-_ _-*. L!-8 _: * :.;..: j-r. .:. v; :.. )>+.h i __::.. ~~ 3-N -! : : : t-. ,:. : : : : ::I j y;* : :: +:..:: : 7 : I.. :: 77 ,,.I :1..: ,:: : +:.:: :. : ~ Fig. 49.20-Dual Induction Laterolog 8 presentation. directly from the logarithmic scale. The linear scale is more easily correlated with earlier logs. This format has gained acceptance as the standard for resistivity logs. 1, +

The ISF log in combination with the sonic log requires a modification of this grid usage because Track 3 is needed for the sonic At curve. The grid selected is shown in Fig. 49.21. Skin Effect In very conductive formations the induced secondary currents are large, and their magnetic fields are important. The magnetic fields of their ground loops induce additional EMF s in other ground loops. This interaction between the loops causes a reduction of the conductivity signal recorded by the induction log. This signal reduction is known as skin effect. Induction logs usually are automatically corrected for skin effect during recording. The correction is based on the magnitude of the uncorrected tool response treated as Fig. 49.21~ISFkonic presentation. if it were from a homogeneous medium. A secondary skin-effect correction may be required when the media surrounding the sonde are not of uniform conductivity. Such corrections are incorporated in various interpretation charts. Geometrical Factor When conductivities are not high, skin effect may be neglected, and the response of induction logs can be described in terms of conductivities and geometrical factors of the volumes surrounding the tool. The geometrical factor, G, of a volume having a specific geometrical orientation with the sonde is simply the fraction of the total signal that would originate with that volume in an infinite homogeneous medium. For computation of geometrical factor to be practical, it is necessary to assume that the volumes conform to symmetry of revolution about the sonde. The magnitude of the signal in conductivity units is the product of the geometrical factor and the conductivity of the material, and the total signal sensed by the tool is the

ELECTRICAL LOGGING INTEGRATED RADIAL GEOMETRICAL FACTOR 0.6 -No Skin Effect I 0 ----Skin Effect Included: Case of W 0 -0 40 00 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 DIAMETER OF INVADED ZONE di (in.) Fig. 49.22-Geometrical factor. Dashed curve includes skin effect under condition s ILd device. sum of these products for all volumes within range (which extends to infinity, but can be circumscribed to practical limits). Since the G s add up to unity by definition, this can be stated: CtL=CtG, +C2G2+C3G3...+CNGN, . . . (10) where C and G refer to the zones of differing conductivity and N is the total number of such zones. The chief significance of this concept is the fact that a volume of space defined only by its geometry relative to the sonde has a fixed and computable geometrical factor. This permits the construction of mathematically sound correction charts to account for the effects of borehole mud, the invaded zone, and adjacent beds on the R, measurement, providing symmetry of revolution exists. 2 These charts incorporate the secondary skin effect correction mentioned above. Invasion Effects Fig. 49.4 illustrates an invaded formation. It includes volumes having several conductivities, C,, C,, Ci, and C, (corresponding to R,, R,,, Ri, and R,).The total conductivity signal, CT, received from this zone by the induction tool is C,=C,G,+C,G,+CiGi+C,G,. . . . . . .(ll) If the zone were infinitely thick, this would be the only signal received, and CT = C,L. If the tool is a 6FF40, the hole size moderate, and the mud relatively fresh, the borehole signal is negligible, and the C,, and Ci zones can be merged into one for this example. If a moderate diameter of invasion, say 65 in., is assumed, Fig. 49.22 reveals that the geometrical factor

of all material within the 65in. diameter is 0.2. If R,r,is taken equal to 4 R,,then C,, =C,/4, and the induction tool response is C,=C,G,,+W,, =(C,/4) (0.2)+C,(O.S), =0.85 C,. In the same conditions, but R,, =R,i4, the response is GIL =4 C,(O.2) + C, (0.8), =1.6 C,, shown, for the using salty mud so that which illustrates the conductivity-seeking characteristic of the induction devices, and shows why they must be used with discretion in salt-mud environments. As a rule of thumb, R,should be less than about 2.5 R,,and di (diameter of invaded zone) no greater than 100 in. for satisfactory R,determination from 6FF40-type induction logs. Annulus In oil-bearing formations of low S, and high permeability, an annulus of low resistivity , R, , may exist between the flushed zone, R,,,and the virgin formation. When R, is greater than R,, R,, is less than R,,and the effects of the two on the induction log tend to cancel. However, the high conductivity of the annulus has more effect in medium invasion ranges (2dh < di < 4 or 5dh), and it may cause a single ID to read resistivities lower than either R,,or R,. The DIL 8 tool is often capable of detecting the presence of annuli, since in these circumstances the IM measurement reads lower than either the LL8 or the ID values, Thin Bed Corrections The skin-effect correction accomplished automatically in the induction tools assumes infinitely thick beds. Skin effect in thin beds may require additional corrections, and these are provided in Ref. 2.

49-1 a PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Fig. 49.23-Schematic of focusing-electrode devices. Borehole Corrections Conductivity signals from the mud can be evaluated using geometrical factors. Chart Rcor-4 (Ref. 2) gives corrections for the various induction tools and standoffs. On the basis of bit size the nominal borehole signal is sometimes removed from the recorded log. When the hole signal is significant, log headings should always be consulted to ascertain whether this was done. This precaution applies most frequently to the IM measurement of the DIL tool. For hole diameters in the range of 7 to 13 in. there is an uncertainty of about f0.0003 on the geometrical factor of the borehole for the 6FF40 sonde. This results from several factors, including diameter and shape of the borehole, mudcake thickness, standoff, and sonde tilt. To preclude the possibility of cumulative errors exceeding 20% of the 6FF40 reading, the tool should not be used where the resistivity to be measured is greater than about 500 R,. Very Resistive Formations There is an uncertainty of about 52 mO/m on the zero of the present induction sondes (6FF40, ID, and IM), and consequently the resistivity error may be great as conductivity approaches zero. To preclude an error of more than 20%, the formation conductivity should be greater than 10 mu/m (i.e., the resistivity less than 100 Q.m). This error can sometimes be practically eliminated by downhole calibration techniques if suitable formations are present. Calibration Primary calibration is performed by placing a test loop around the sonde. The conductive loop has a resistance, which has been adjusted to produce a certain conductivity signal in the sonde. An additional calibration procedure has a signal produced internally in the sonde to adjust the control-panel sensitivity for proper galvanometer deflections. The zero errors of the electronics in the equipment arc also checked and balanced out. Calibrate tails, usually attached to the log, serve as a record of the calibration tests made before and after the logging run. In some regions it is possible to check the calibration of the IL by observing that the conductivity reading opposite an impervious formation of exceedir,gly high resistivity (such as anhydrite) represents the sum of all spurious signals. If the hole diameter is known, it is then possible to correct the IL reading so that the range of

uncertainty is reduced and greater accuracy is obtained in formations of practical interest. Summary 1. The IL can be used most effectively in holes filled with moderately conductive drilling muds, nonconductive muds, and in empty holes. 2. Vertical focusing is good, making possible reliable evaluation of beds down to about 5 ft thick with 6FF40, ID, and IM devices, and down to about 3% ft thick with 6FF28 tools. 3. The deep induction logs (ILd) are only moderately affected by invasion in relatively fresh muds, and good R, determinations are possible where R, is less than about 2.5 R, and di is less than 100 in. 4. The three curves of the DIL give more precise knowledge of invasion profiles and hence better R, values in the cases of deep invasion or annulus. 5. The log-linear presentation of the DIL and other IL s meets most log requirements better than alternative displays. Focused-Electrode Logs The responses of conventional ES can be greatly affected by the borehole and adjacent formations. These influences are minimized by a family of resistivity tools that use focusing currents to control the path taken by the measure current. These currents are supplied from special electrodes on the sondes. Equipment The focused-electrode tools include the Latero!ogs (LL) and SFL s. These tools are much superior to the ES devices for large R&R, values (salt muds and/or highly resistive formations) and for large resistivity contrasts with adjacent beds (RJR,or R,IR,). They are much better for resolution of thin to moderately thick beds. Focusing-electrode systems are available wit! deep, medium, and shallow depths of investigation. Devices using this principle have as quantitative applications the determination of R,and of R,. The R, tools are Laterolog 7 (LL7), Laterolog 3 (LL3), and

ELECTRICAL LOGGING RESISTIVITY LATERLOG 0,0,=32 =4d,A,A,=80 =10d,l AC,= 18% = 28d Fig. 49.24--Response of Laterolog 7 and ES opposite a thin, resistive, noninvade d bed, with very-Salty mud (laboratory determination). LLD of the deep dual laterolog. The medium-toshallow-reading devices, all integral with combination tools, are Laterolog 8 (LL8) of the DIL, LLS of the shallow dual laterolog, and the SFL of the ISFisonic combination. Laterolog 7. This deviceI comprises a center electrode Ao, and three pairs of electrodes: M 1 and Mz; M 1 and M z; and Al and A2 (Fig. 49.23). The electrodes of each pair are symmetrically located with respect to A0 and are connected to each other by a short-circuiting wire. A constant current 1, is sent through electrode Ao. Through bucking electrodes A, and AZ, an adjustable current is developed; the bucking current intensity is adjusted automatically so that the two pairs of monitoring electrodes, M , and Mz and M , and M 2, are brought to the same potential. The potential drop is measured between one of the monitoring electrodes and an electrode at the surface (i.e., at infinity). With a constant IO current, this potential varies directly with formation resistivity. Since the potential difference between the M 1 -Mz pair and the M I -M 2 pair is maintained at zero, no current from A0 is flowing in the hole between M I and M 1 or between M2 and M 2. Therefore, the current from A0 must penetrate horizontally into the formations. Fig. 49.23 shows the distribution of current lines when the sonde is in a homogeneous medium; the sheet of 10 current, indicated by the hatched area, retains a fairly constant thickness up to a distance from the borehole somewhat greater than the total length A, A2 of the sonde. Experiments have shown that the sheet of IO current retains substantially the same shape opposite thin resistive beds. The thickness of the IO current sheet is 32 in. (distance 0 I 02 on Fig. 49.23), and the length A I A2 of the sonde is 80 in. Fig. 49.24 compares the curves obtained experimentally opposite a thin resistive bed using the conventional devices (16 and 64-in. normals and 18-ft, g-in. lateral) with the corresponding LL7 recording. The conventional

devices give poor results; the LL7, in spite of difficult conditions (RJR,,, is 5,000), shows the bed very clearly and reads close to R,. An SP curve may be recorded on depth simultaneously with the LL7. Laterolog 3 Like LL7, LL3 also uses currents from bucking electrodes to focus the measuring current into a horizontal sheet penetrating into the formation. However, as seen in Fig. 49.23, large electrodes are used. Symmetrically placed, on either side of the central A0 electrode, are two very long (about 5-ft) electrodes, Al and AZ, which are shorted to each other. A current, 10, flows from the A0 electrode whose potential is fixed. From Al and A2 flows a bucking current, which is automatically adjusted to maintain A, and A2 at the potential of A0 All electrodes of the sonde are thus held at the same constant potential. The magnitude of the IO current is then proportional to formation conductivity. The IO current sheet is constrained to the shaded, approximately disk-shaped area in Fig. 49.23. The thickness, 0, 02, of the IO current sheet is usually about 12 in., much thinner than for LL7. As a result, LL3 has a better vertical resolution and shows more detail than LL7. Furthermore, the influences of the borehole and of the invaded zone are slightly less. The simultaneous recording of an SP curve is possible, but the SP has to be displaced in depth, usually by about 25 ft, because of the large mass of metal in the sonde. However, a gamma ray curve is normally run simultaneously with the LL3 for lithology definition, since the SP has very little character in the salt muds where the LL is used. There is also available a simultaneous LL3-neutron/gamma ray combination tool.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK LLD m Thick Beds 8 Ho a---:T---Flh Fig. 49.25-Schemalic of the dual laterolog. Guard-Electrode Device. In the guard-electrode system, the surveying current flows into the adjacent formations from a measuring electrode disposed between relatively long upper and lower guard electrodes from which current also flows. The guard electrodes tend to confine the current from the measuring electrode to a generally horizontal path. The measuring and guard electrodes are connected through a very low impedance, as necessary to measure the surveying current supplied to the measuring electrode. A resistivity value is obtained by recording the ratio of the voltage of an electrode in the assembly (referred to a distant point) to the current emitted from the measuring electrode. The guard-electrode device is used mostly in hard-rock territories for detailed bed definition, correlation, and as a help in reservoir evaluation. For the determination of R, it is preferable that R,fIR, be small (less than 4), as in the case of salty muds. Laterolog 8. The shallow-investigation LL8 device is recorded with small electrodes on the DIL sonde. It is similar in principle to LL7 device except for its shorter spacings. The thickness of the 10 current sheet is 14 in., and the distance between the two bucking electrodes is somewhat less than 40 in. The current-return electrode is located a relatively short distance from Ao. With this configuration, the LL8 tool gives sharp vertical detail, and the readings are more influenced by the borehole and the invaded zone* than arc those for LL7 and LL3. The LL8 data are recorded with the DIL on a split 4-decade logarithmic scale. Dual Laterolog. Since the measure current of an LL has to traverse mud and invaded zone to reach the undisturbed formation, the measurement is necessarily a combination of effects. With only one resistivity measurement, the invasion profile and R,, had to be known or ---RX,= 0.1 Rt -Rx0 Rt 8 20 40 60 80 Diameter d i 1 inches)

Fig. 49.26-Radial pseudogeometrical factors, fresh muds (solid) and salty muds (dashed). estimated in order to calculate R, . The need for a second measurement at a different depth of investigation resulted in the dual laterolog/gamma ray tools (Fig. 49.25). One version of the tool records the two laterologs sequentially; another does it simultaneously and has added a shallow MICROSFL (MSFL) for R,, information. Both can record a gamma ray curve on depth, simultaneously with the resistivity curves. An SP can also be run. By use of effectively longer bucking electrodes and a longer spacing, the LLD (deep latemlog) has been given a deeper investigation than either LL7 or LL3 devices. The LLS (shallow laterolog) uses the same electrodes in a different manner (Fig. 49.25 right) to achieve a current beam equal in thickness to that of LLD, 24 in., but having a much shallower penetration. The LLS depth of investigation lies between those of the LL7 and LL8 devices (Fig. 49.26). Spherically Focused Log. The SFL log is part of the ISF/sonic combination, and it was developed as an improvement over both the 16-in. normal and the LL8 as a short-spacing companion to the deep induction log. Normal resistivity devices rely on the concept of equal intensity of current radiation in all directions, as would happen in a homogeneous isotropic medium. When the current distribution is distorted from the spherical model, as by the presence of a borehole, the readings must be corrected by departure curves. The SFL device uses focusing currents to enforce an approximately spherical

ELECTRICAL LOGGING J

10 Ii --I : : . I I I : r--I<--LL : : -1. ._: i : : : i I .: :: I . ._.~ --.:. .: ::;f : : 11 z ; ;r;i ._._ fT ::Y : 7 :::: . . 1 ;-i j : : .ii .~_ y< : : +k :::::: ::.:I :: ::: ii:L/ ,:..:

T I :-j 1 T..... _ I . T r..... :1:::1: : : :::: L.... : _:.. / . ! I..! : : : ; i -: : f : . Fig. 49.27-Laterolog recorded on hybrid scale. shape on the equipotential surfaces over a wide range of wellbore variables. The borehole effect is virtually eliminated where dh 5 10 in., yet most of the response is from the invaded zone in all but extreme conditions. Scales. The linear resistivity scales originally used for LL data were poorly adapted to record the wide range of measurements characteristic of these tools. Although linear scales are still used occasionally, compressed scales of either the hybrid or logarithmic type have supplanted the linear for quantitative work. The hybrid scale, first used on the LL3 log, presented linear resistivity on the first half of the grid track and linear conductivity on the last half. Thus, one galvanometer could record all resistivities from zero to infinity. (See Fig. 49.27.) The logarithmic scale was used first with the dual in-

duction tool, and it has also been adapted for the LL and the SFL devices (Fig. 49.28). It combines readability and detail in low msistivities with a wide range of values, and it also offers the advantage of graphic (quick-look) interpretations. Influence of Wellbore Variables These logging devices can be significantly affected by the borehole mud, the invaded zone, and adjacent beds. Charts Rcor-1 and Rcor-2 of Ref. 2 provide needed corrections. Where only one measurement is available, some knowledge or assumption of depth of invasion must be used for deriving R,. Readings must be corrected for borehole effect before the shoulder-bed charts are entered. (See Figs. 49.29 and 49.9.) These figures Fig. 49.29-Laterolog over same interval as Fig. 49.22, recorded on logarithmic scale. Fig. 49.29--Shoulder-bed corrections, LL3 (top) and LL7 (bottom).

give R, /R, as a function of bed thickness, R, being the corrected resistivity and R, the apparent resistivity corrected for borehole effect. Pseudogeometrical Factors Geometrical factor may be defined as that fraction of the total signal that would originate from a volume having a specific geometrical orientation with the sonde in an infinite homogeneous medium. The only well-logging devices for which this concept is sound are the induction tools, because only with these is the measuring geometry independent of variations in RJR,. However, it is useful to construct charts based on pseudogeometrical factors for other resistivity devices, for purposes of comparative evaluation. Such a chart is shown in Fig. 49.26 in which the integrated pseudogeometrical factors of progressively larger cylinders are plotted vs. the diameters of the cylinders. The apparent resistivity, R,, measured in a thick bed is given approximately by R,=R,,G,i+R,(l-G,;), . . . . (12) where G,; is the pseudogeometrical factor. It must be emphasized that a pseudogeometrical factor relating to an electrode-type resistivity device is applicable in only one set of conditions, and therefore charts of this type are not valid as general-purpose invaded-zone correction charts. The most useful feature of the Fig. 49.26 chart is its graphic comparison of the relative contribution of invaded zones to the responses of the various tools. The Delaware Effect If both B and N electrodes are placed downhole as in Fig. 49.10, LL data may exhibit Delaware effect * (or gradient ) in sections located just below thick nonconductive beds such as anhydrite. It appears as abnormally high resistivity for 80 ft or so below the resistive bed. The LL3 is the only field tool now using this arrangement. Fig. 49.10 illustrates the effect and its causes. As B enters the thick anhydrite, the current flow is confined to the borehole, and if the bed is thick enough (several hundred feet) practically all the current will flow in that part of the hole below B. Then when N enters the bed, it can no longer remain near zem potential as intended. It is exposed to an increasing negative potential as it rises farther from the bed boundary. This potential appears at the surface as an increase in the resistivity measurement. LL7 and LLD devices normally use surface electrodes for current return. so they are not subject to Delaware effeet. However, a small anti-Delaware effect has been observed, which produces resistivities that are too low just below the resistive beds.

Conclusions ConclusionsConclusions Resistivity ResistivityResistivity devices devicesdevices with withwith the thethe focusing focusingfocusing electrode electrodeelectrode principle principleprinciple meet meetmeet certain certaincertain logging logginglogging requirements requirementsrequirements better than other types bette-+hon n+hpr +l~noc now nownow available. available.available. These TheseThese requirements requirementsrequirements are (1) to take measurements measurementsmeasurements leading leadingleading to toto determination determinationdetermination of R, in conditool tions tionstions for forfor which whichwhich the thethe induction inductioninduction tools are not well suited-i.e., suited-i.e.,suited-i.e., R, R,R, values valuesvalues in inin excess excessexcess of ofof 100 100100 Q-m and/or mud resistivities resistivitiesresistivities of ofof the thethe same samesame order orderorder or oror lower lowerlower than those of the So-called So-calledSo-called because becausebecause 1 11 was

waswas ilrst ilrstilrst observed observedobserved ,n ,n,n Ihe IheIhe Delaware DelawareDelaware sawsand of the Delawarev, ,,,r Y basin (west (west(west Texas) Texas)Texas) This ThisThis sand sandsand underltes underltesunderltes a aa very veryvery thick thickthick anhydrite anhydriteanhydrite bed bedbed PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK formation waters-and (2) to provide correlation and R,, determinations in conjunction with deeper-reading R, devices. Microresistivity Devices Microresistivity devices are used to measure R,, (resistivity of the flushed zone) and to delineate permeable beds by detecting the presence of mudcake. In the discussion that follows, the micmlog (ML) will be treated in considerable detail, not because of its relative importance-the micmlaterolog (MLL), the proximity log (PL), and the MSFL are superior tools for obtaining R,,-but because its principle is fundamental, and it is still the best of the three microresistivity devices for delineating permeable-bed boundaries, hence for making sand counts. Measurements of R,, are important for several reasons. When invasion is moderate to deep, knowledge of the R, value makes possible more accurate determinations of true resistivity and hence of saturation. Also, some methods for computing saturation are entered with the ratio RJR,. Also, in clean formations, a value of F may be computed from R,, and R,,f, if S,r, is known or estimated. From F, a value for porosity may be found. To measure R, a shallow-investigation tool is desirable, since the R,, zone may sometimes extend only a few inches beyond the hole wall. Also, the reading should preferably not be affected by the borehole. A sidewall-pad tool is indicated. The pad, carrying short-spacing electrode devices, is pressed against the mudcake, thus reducing the short-circuiting effect of the mud. Currents from the electrodes on the pad must pass through the mudcake to reach the R,, zone.

Microresistivity readings are more or less affected by mudcake, depending on its resistivity, R,,, and thickness, h,, Moreover, mudcakes can be anisotmpic, with mudcake resistivity parallel to the borehole wall less than that across the mudcake. Mudcake anisotropy increases the mudcake effect on micmresistivity readings, so that the effective, or electrical, mudcake thickness is greater than that indicated by a caliper. The micmresistivity tools incorporate two-arm calipers, which show the size and condition of the borehole. Equipment Present equipment includes a combination tool with two pads mounted on opposite sides. One is the ML pad, and the other may be for either the MLL or the PL, as required by mudcake conditions. The measurements are recorded simultaneously. The MSFL is a combination tool, which can be run with either formation density or dual latemlog equipment. Log LogLog Presentation PresentationPresentation The TheThe mirrnr&rtivitv lnuc nn-a-sled, of ofof course, course,course, in inin microresistivity logs are scaled, resistivity units. When recorded by itself, itself,itself, the thethe ML MLML data datadata ~ are usually recorded over Tracks 2 and 3 on a linear resistivity scale. The microcaliper data are in Track 1. The MML or PL is recorded on a four-decade logarithmic scale on the right of the depth track (Fig. 49.30). The caliper is recorded in Track 1. When the ML data are also recorded, they are in Track 1 on a linear scale. The MSFL data are also recorded on the

ELECTRICAL LOGGING logarithmic grid. When run with the dual laterolog, it is presented on the same film as the LL curves. With the Compensated Formation Density (FD?) log, it must be presented on a separate film, since the FDC log uses a linear grid; the two logs arc normally recorded simultaneously. Microlog With the microlog too1,23 two short-spacing devices with different depths of investigation provide resistivity measurements of a very small volume of mudcake and formation immediately adjoining the borehole. They readily detect the presence of any mudcake, indicating invaded (hence permeable) formations. Principle. Arms and springs press a rubber pad against the hole wall. In the face of the pad are inserted three small electrodes in line, spaced 1 in. apart. With these electrodes a 1-X l-in. micminverse, R, Xl, and a 2-in. micronormal, R2, are recorded simultaneously. As drilling mud filters into the permeable formations, mud solids accumulate on the hole wall, forming a mudcake. The resistivity of the mudcake is about equal to, or slightly greater than, the resistivity of the mud. Mudcake resistivity is usually considerably smaller than the resistivity of the invaded zone near the borehole. The 2-in. micronormal has a greater depth of investigation than the 1-x l-in. micminverse. It is therefore less influenced by the mudcake and reads a higher resistivity, producing positive curve separation. In the presence of the low-resistivity mudcake, both devices will measure moderate resistivities, usually ranging from about 2 to 10 times R, Interpretation. Positive separation in a permeable zone is illustrated in Fig. 49.30, at Level A. The caliper shows evidence of mudcake. However, quantitative inferences of permeability are not possible from the ML data. When no mudcake exists, for whatever reason, the ML data may yield useful information as to borehole condition or lithology , but the log is not quantitatively interpretable. Under favorable circumstances, R, values can be derived from the ML by use of Fig. 49.31. R,, values for this purpose can be measured directly or estimated fmm Ref. 2, and h,, is obtained from the caliper. Limitations of the method are (1) the ratio R,,lR,, must be lower than about 15 (porosity more than 15%), (2) h ,,,= must be no greater than /2 in., and (3) depth of invasion has to be over about 4 in., otherwise the ML readings are affected by R,. Eqs. 6 or 14 permit the porosity derivation from the ML measurements. For this, the value of S,, must be reasonably well known.

Mud Log The ML sonde is lowered into the hole with arms closed. Except in holes smaller than 8 in., the measuring pad will randomly face away from the wall part of the time, and its reading then will be determined mostly by the mud. A recording of these readings, conveniently made going down, serves as a mud log, on which the lowest resistivities correspond to the upper limit of the in-situ value of R,. This log has several potential applications, including crosschecking the surface R, measurement, detecting mud-system changes, and identifying downhole water flows. I RESISTIVITY RESISTIVITY yll, II -hrn, -r: ,I 3 ? 70 803 moo

Fig. 49.30-Presentation of proximity log-microlog Ftg. 49.31-Interpretation chart for 8-in.-hole series C microlog for which adjacent electrodes are 1 in. apart. R, in designates reading of 2-in. micronormal (AM, =2 in.) and RIx, , , is I- by I-in. microinverse (AM, = 1 in., M, M, = 1 in.). Type I hydraulic pad, noninsulated sonde.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Fig. 49.32-Microlaterolog pad showing electrodes (left) and schematic current lines (right). Microlaterolog (MLL) On ML (Fig. 49.31) for values of RIO/R,, greater than about 15, the curves for constant values of R,,lR,, arc crowded; as a result, the accuracy of the determination of R, from the ML is poor in this region. With the MLL method, it is possible to determine R,, accurately for higher values of R,,lR,,, provided, however, that the mudcake thickness does not exceed X in. Principle. The MLL pad is shown in Fig. 49.32.24 A small electrode, Ao, and three concentric circular electrodes are embedded in a rubber pad applied against the hole wall. A constant current, I,, is emitted through electrode AO. Through the outer electrode, A I , is sent a current automatically adjusted so that the potential difference between the two monitoring electrodes is maintained essentially equal to zero. The 10 current flowing past the M 1 electrode cannot reach M2 and is forced to flow in a beam into the formations. The current lines are shown on the figure. The IO current near the pad forms a narrow beam, which opens up rapidly at a few inches from the face of the pad. The MLL reading is influenced mostly by the formation within this narrow beam. Fig. 49.33 compares qualitatively the current-line distributions of the MLL and the ML when the corresponding pad is applied against a permeable formation. The greater the value of R,,lR,, the greater the tendency for the microlog 10 current to escape through the mudcake to reach the mud in the borehole. Consequently, for high R,IR,, values, the readings of the ML respond very little to variations of R,. On the contrary, all the MLL I0 current flows into the formation and the MLL reading will depend mostly on the value of R,,. Response. Laboratory tests have shown that the virgin formation has practically no influence on the MLL readings if the invasion depth is more than 3 or 4 in. The influence of mudcake is negligible up to h mr = % in. but increases rapidly with greater thicknesses. Chart Rxo-2 in Ref. 2 gives appropriate corrections; however, if mudcakes thicker than % in. arc anticipated, the PL is prcferred for R,, determination. Mud Mud Coke Microloterolog Mlcrolog Fig. 49.33-Comparative distribution of current lines of Microlaterolog and Microlog.

Proximity Log (PL) Principle. The proximity tool is similar in principle to the MLL tool. The electrodes are mounted on a somewhat wider pad, which is applied to the wall of the borehole; the system is automatically focused by monitoring electrodes. Response. Pad and electrode design arc such that isotropic mudcakes up to % in. have very little effect on the measurements (see Chart Rxo-2 in Ref. 2). If the invasion is shallow, the reading of the proximity device is influenced by R,. The resistivity measured can be expressed as RfL=GpiRxo+(l-Gpi)R,, . . . where G,i is the pseudogeometrical factor of the invaded zone. The value of G,i as a function of invasion diameter di is given in Fig. 49.34; this chart gives only an approximate value of G,; , which in fact also depends to some extent on the diameter of the borehole and on the ratio R,, lR, . If di is greater than 40 in., GpI is very close to 1 and, accordingly, RPL will differ little from R,, . If di is less than 40 in., R, is somewhere between R,, and R,, usually much closer to R,, than to R, . RPL can be fairly close to R, only if the invasion is very shallow (of course when R,, and R, are nearly equal, the value of RPL will depend very little on d,). MICROSFL (MSFL) This is a pad-mounted SFL device. It embodies two distinct advantages over other microresistivity devices: (1) it is compatible with other logging tools, specifically the FDC and the simultaneous dual laterology (SDL), which eliminates the need for a separate logging run to obtain R, information, and (2) it responds to shallow R, zones in the presence of mudcake. The MSFL gives good R.w resolution in thick-mudcake conditions, but

ELECTRICAL LOGGING does not require as great an invasion depth as does the PL. This characteristic makes it useful in a wider range of conditions than either the PL or the MLL. The effect of mudcake on the MSFL data is shown in Ref. 2. Principle. Spherical focusing is the shaping of the equipotential surfaces produced by the resistivity device to approximately spherical form. The focusing is accomplished by auxiliary electrodes, as in the MLL and PL; but, instead of being forced into a narrow beam, the measure current is merely prevented from following the borehole mud or mudcake paths. A careful selection of electrode spacings achieves an optimal compromise between too much and too little depth of investigation. Conclusions The ML permits a very accurate delineation of permeable beds in all types of formations. It can also provide satisfactory R,, and porosity determinations under favorable conditions, which are (1) R,,IR,, < 15, (2) h,, c % in., and (3) depth of invasion greater than about 4 in. The focused microresistivity tools can provide good R,, values under a much wider range of conditions. The MLL is limited chiefly by mudcake thickness, but is well adapted to salt-base muds. When h,, exceeds % in., the PL or the MSFL log is preferable. Uses and Interpretation of Well Logs Bed Detection and Definition Formations encountered in uncased boreholes may be detected and their boundaries defined by a number of different logs. The SP and short-investigation curves are most commonly used. For great detail, the microdevices are superior-ML in fresh muds and MLL in very salty muds. A substitute for the SP in salt muds is the gamma ray log, which distinguishes shales from nonshale beds. Also, the sonic and density logs could be used in all types of formations, with any type of mud. In holes filled with nonconductive muds, or in empty holes, the induction, radiation, temperature, sonic (not applicable in empty holes), and perhaps section-gauge logs can provide useful information. Sometimes conventional devices with wall scratchers, for contact with the formation, may be run. Porous and Permeable Beds-Sand Count. Porous and permeable beds are of primary interest since they are the potential oil and gas reservoirs. A sand-count determination of the total effective thickness of a permeable section, excluding shale streaks and other impermeable zones, can be derived from electrical logs.

Fresh Muds. The SP and microresistivity devices are the principle curves for locating and defining permeable beds. The SP has a good resolving power in formations of low and moderate resistivity. In very resistive formations it can still detect shales and permeable beds, but it cannot define their boundaries accurately. In most types of formations the ML is best for establishing the detailed location of the boundaries of permeable beds. The microcaliper helps in the location of permeable beds because it can usually detect the mudcakes. particularly if the adjacent formations are approximately at bit size. Shales, on the other hand, generally tend to cave I I \ f7 I I I / / RIO R, --RX,,= 0 I I, f Depth of Invasion, in Fig. 49.34-Pseudogeometrical factors, MLL and PL. or erode more than the permeable or hard impervious beds. Very often, and mostly in sand-shale series, the difference between the readings of a short-investigation and a long-investigation device is a clear indication of the presence of a permeable bed. Salt Muds. The combination of very salty mud with moderate-to-high formation resistivity adversely affects the conventional (nonfocused) devices and the SP curve. Also, mudcakes are thin; as a consequence, the microcaliper (or also the section gauge) is not of great help for the detection of permeable sections but detects clearly the caved shales. In conjunction with the LL and MLL the gamma ray log distinguishes between shales and nonshales, and the neutron, sonic log, and density log provide indications of porosity. Correlation The process of correlating two (or more) logs in different wells depends essentially on the similarity in shapes or outlines of the curves (Fig. 49.35). In some regions such

correlations may be easily made for wells miles apart; in other cases (where serious faulting, lenticular deposits, or unconformities are present) it may be difficult to correlate logs from wells only a few hundred feet apart. The knowledge of formation dip from dipmeter determinations assists in correlation. Correlations are facilitated when the curves show characteristic markers such as a well-known chalk or shale section. Thin resistive beds such as lignites or evaporites frequently furnish valuable correlation points. For long-range correlation, the devices that investigate large volumes of formation are best. However, when the

Fig. 49.35-Example of long-distance correlation. pay zones are known in a field, they can be correlated in great detail from well to well by comparing the ML or MLL; thus, the geometry of the reservoir can be obtained. Investigation of Porosity Evaluation of formation porosity from electrical logs is based on determination of the formation factor, FR, which is related to porosity, 4, by Eq. 2. FR can be found from the value of R,, as determined from the ML or MLL with Eq. 6 rewritten as R FR=-Rx* (S,)2, . . . . . . (14) mf where S,, = 1 -S,, . To determine R, from microresistivity measurcmerits, it is necessary that invasion be deep enough that the measurements are not affected by the formation resistivities beyond the flushed zone. An exceedingly great mudcake thickness may also limit the accuracy of the R, determination. For reliable porosity interpretation from ML data the porosity should be greater than about 12 to 15%. In an oil-bearing sand, the residual oil saturation (ROS) must be surmised for use in Eq. 14. Taking a value of 20% for the ROS would not usually entail too great an error in most cases, at least in formations with granular porosity and containing light oils. Greater ROS s are frequent, however, chiefly in the cases of highly viscous oil. Gas-bearing formations also seem to display high residual gas saturations in the flushed zone if the permeability is high. This is because of segregation effects resulting from a combination of gravity and capillary forces. Because of these residual saturations, the ML may show water contacts. To check the results of the microresistivity devices, or to replace them in case they are not available, FR may be determined as equal to RoIR,, R. being the true resistivity of the formation at a level where it is 100% water bearing. Extrapolation of a value of FR determined at a water-bearing level to the oil-bearing section within the same formation implies that the lithological PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK characteristics are approximately constant, which is not always the case, however. Still another approach often used in hard formations is based on the value of Ri, the average resistivity of the in-

vaded zone estimated from the readings of the limestone sonde or the short normal.25,26 This procedure has proved valuable in many cases. Other Tools for Obtaining Porosity. The sonic log, the neutron log, and the density log are increasing in importance as auxiliaries to the electrical logs for improved porosity determination.* In addition, with the present sample taker, reliable determination of formation factor and porosity are often possible from sidewall cores. Investigation of Fluid Content Quite often good qualitative judgments about a formation as a potential producing zone can be had by direct visual inspection of the log. Basically such judgments usually depend on (1) identification of a permeable formation by means of the SP, mudcake indications on microcaliper, positive separation on ML, indication of invasion by separation between shallow-and deepinvestigation macmresistivity curves, etc., and (2) indication by the deep-investigation resistivity devices that R, in the permeable formation is appreciably larger than the resistivity, Ro, that the formation would be expected to have if water bearing. When it can be assumed that there is no abrupt change in the salinity of the formation waters, the radius of invasion, etc., qualitative evaluations of saturation may be made by comparing a porosity log with a resistivity log over a large enough section of formations. Such a method, in which the neutron log was the source of the porosity data, was proposed several years ago.27 Also, the possibility of accurate measurements of porosity with the sonic and density logs has mmpted similar 29 qualitative interpretation procedures. When invasion is not too deep, so that the deepinvestigation resistivity devices read fairly close to R,, the following procedures are applicable. 1. Sonic** transit time may be plotted vs. a deep IL resistivity (in case of fresh muds) or vs. the LLD resistivity (in case of salty muds). 29 By a proper choice of scales, lines of constant resistivity index, I,, become straight lines on the chart, as in Fig. 49.36. The line of 100% water saturation (ZR = 1) is constructed as the line bounding the leftmost plotted points and passing through the point corresponding to infinite resistivity and zero sonic log porosity. Lines for other values of iR may then be constructed. It is possible to distinguish between oilor gas-bearing and water-bearing zones by the relative positions of the plotted points. For a zone to be oil- or gas-productive the plotted point should fall appreciably to the right of and below the line of 100% saturation. This method is useful even if the formation-water resistivity is not initially well known.

2. By use of porosity derived from the sonic or neutron log and the resistivity from the deep-investigation log, apparent values of the formation-water resistivity The shon-interval sonic velocity log (Sony log) IS discussed I neutron lag IS dlscusssd ln Chap. 51. With some precautons. den%ty or newon data may be employed I data in a similar crossplot technique

Chap. 50. The place 01 90~

ELECTRICAL LOGGING R, =R,IFR may be computed (using Eqs. 2 or 3 to obtain FR). When tabulated in terms of depth, those apparent values that stand definitely above the average trend indicate the presence of hydrocarbon saturation. This procedure is rapid and applicable in shaly sands. It is also applicable when formation-water salinity varies appreciably with depth, provided that the variation is gradual and continuous. 3. The readings of a short-investigation resistivity log should give indications of the variations in the formation factor (and porosity). Accordingly, hydrocarbon satumtion can also be qualitatively determined by examining the ratios of the readings of a short-investigation device (such as a short normal, LLS, or PL) to those of the deep induction log (IM) or LLD. The two sets of readings may be used to locate points on a graphic plot, as described previously, or to construct a continuous curve of the ratio vs. depth. In either case the comparison is facilitated if the logs have been recorded on a logarithmic sensitivity scale. The following procedure is helpful when, because of deep invasion, the value of the true resistivity is in doubt. The porosity from the sonic log is compared with the porosity computed from a shallow-investigation resistivity log (such as short normal, limestone sonde, LLS or PL). The latter porosity is affected by any residual oil saturation, whereas the sonic log porosity is not. Zones where the two porosities differ should accordingly indicate potentially productive formations. Also, in hard formations (where permeability is generally low) a resistivity gradient (corresponding to a saturation gradient) is observed on the logs between the zone of lowest water saturation and the level of 100% water saturation. The existence of this gradient is the basis of a method for the delineation of intervals saturated with hydrocarbons. 3o Quantitative Interpretation* Quantitative determinations of the hydrocarbgn saturation from electrical logs are essentially determinations of the water saturation, S,, in the uncontaminated zone. Recalling Eq. 5 The evaluation of R, is a major step in the determination. Evaluation of FR is equivalent to an evaluation of porosity, as already discussed. R. may be determined in a 100% water-saturated section of the same sand or in a lithologically similar sand. Some interpretation procedures do not require explicit evaluation of R, and FR . Along with a knowledge of the SSP, or equivalently the ratio R&R,, they are based on the ratios of readings taken with deep-and shallow-

investigation devices [e.g., R,,IR, method, inductionelectrical log (IEL) interpretation, Rocky Mountain method]. A special approach is applied in case of shaly formations. Only ~omp~tatmns that can be made by hand wll be studled here Latest ~nterpretaban techniques ate made by computers and are explalned under The Digital Age. SONIC LOG TRANSIT TIME. u SECFT SONC LOG POROSITY (TAKING YM*,R,X 21.000 FT/SEC) -37k-+F,(FOR rn: 2 1 Fig. 49.36--Qualitative method for differentiating water-bearing and oil-or gas-bearing zones by plotting deepinvestigation resistivity values against sonic-log transit times. The ordinate scale is proportional to (l/R) . Determination of Rt. Conventional resistivity logs can provide for the value of R, only for thick beds, since the readings in general cannot be reasonably corrected for the effect of adjacent formations. The long lateral, because of its large radius of investigation, is practically unaffected by the mud column and the invaded zone and gives a good approximation of R, when the beds are reasonably uniform over a thickness of at least 30 ft. Such favorable conditions are seldom met in practice. The long-normal reading usually requires a correction for the borehole effect. This correction is sufficiently accurate in fresh mud. The reading is close to R, when the bed thickness is at least 10 to 15 ft and invasion is shallow. The effect of deep invasion can be accounted for, to some extent, by means of departure curves. 31,32 Correction for invasion requires the help of other devices with shorter radii of investigation (ML and/or short normal), which provide values of the invaded-zone resistivity. The advantage of the ILD and the LLD is that under usual conditions of application their readings are practically unaffected by the mud column or by the adjacent

formations for bed thicknesses greater than about 5 to 6 ft. The ILd, with the present technique, is appropriate for logging in fresh mud. Its accuracy is excellent for formations reading up to 50 0-m and reasonable up to 200 n-m. Above that figure the accuracy is not so good. The ILd gives R, when the invasion diameter does not exceed 25 to 40 in. and can be corrected for deep invasion. The auxiliary readings are the ML and/or the short normal, or better, the LL8 or SFL, particularly in case of consolidated formations.

The LL is the essential tool for the logging of hard formations in salty mud. It gives R, for shallow invasion (d; less than 15 to 25 in.). Correction for invasion is made with the help of the MLL or MSFL. The most efficient way to correct for invasion and thus obtain R, is the use of a three-log combination: (1) DIL or dual induction/SFL in fresh muds and in soft and intermediate formations and (2) dual laterolog/R, in hard formations or salty muds. The so-called butterfly or tornado charts in Ref. 2 provide a simple procedure to obtain R,. Maximum Producible Oil Index If the porosity, 4, of a formation is uniform and intergranular, the quantities S,4 and S,$ represent the amounts of water per unit of bulk volume present in the pores of the flushed and uncontaminated zones, respectively. The difference Y=(S,, -S,)+ is the amount of oil per bulk volume displaced by the mud filtrate. Y is called maximum producible oil index because it approximates the maximum amount of oil per bulk volume producible with water drive. Y is given approximately by the equation 29 Y=@ lh -(-+) %.. . . . . . . . (15) Evaluation of Y by this equation does not require a direct knowledge of porosity, 4, formation saturation, S,, or flushed-zone saturation, S,, (or ROS). Ratio Methods It is impossible, in the space available, to present all loginterpretation techniques or to present all charts and tabulations made up thereof. For the practicing log interpreter most of the charts needed are included in Ref. 2. The R,IR, Method. For clean formations, saturations can be computed from the empirical relationship found by combinations Eqs. 5 and 6, sw=sxo(~.~) A. . . . . . . . . (16) Any method which gives correct values for R,, , R,, R mfi and R, may be used to determine S,, provided S,, is known or can be reasonably surmised. The chart of Fig. 49.37 provides a convenient way for solving Eq. 16. The ratio R&R,* is entered in abscissas (upper scale) and the ratio RIO/R, in ordinates. From the point so plotted, an oblique line is extended up to its intersection with the edge of the chart; from this intersection, a horizontal line is drawn which gives the values of S, for different values of S,, . The value of S, found directly by interpolation be-

tween the two nearby oblique lines is based on the assumption that S,, , on the average, is related to 5, through the empirical equation S,, = a,. Within the limits where R ,+ = R,, (i.e., R, between 0.08 and 0.3 O-m at 75 F), the Essp can be entered, instead of R&R,, using the lower grid. Microlog Shaly-Sand Method. The amplitudes of both the SP deflection and the resistivities are reduced by the presence of interstitial shale in a formation. In some exPETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK SATURATION DETERMINATION Rwc Fig. 49.37-Interpretation chart for RJR, and shaly-sand methods. (Working lines illustrate example of Fig. 49.38). treme cases shaly oil sands are hardly differentiated from the adjacent shales on the logs. Furthermore, the ML does not show much separation between the curves. Interpretations in shaly sands, therefore, are generally made under comparatively unfavorable conditions. The practical method of interpretation described hereafter is quite approximate and is applicable only when the amount of shaliness is not too great.* The practical method of interpretation in shaly formations33 is based on the observations made on field logs that in 100% water-saturated shaly sands the PSP (pseudostatic SP) is given by R Epsp=-Kc log?, _. (17) Ro For an interlaminated sand-shale formation containing oil and/or gas, the PSP can be expressed by the equation R E PSP=-Kr. logf-201srK,. lo+, . , 1, where asp is the SP reduction factor and is defined as Epp/E~p. For clean sands, asp = 1 and Eq. 18 reduces to Eq. 17 as a special case. According to Eq. 18 the determination of S,,, in a shaly sand requires the knowledge of R,, , S,, , R,, E,, and ESSP. The Essp can be determined from clean sands reasonably close to the shaly formations considered. The

Epsp is given by the deflection of the SP curve at the level of the bed, after correction for bed thickness, if necessary. The value of S,,, =l -S,,, again must be surmised. The solution of the equation for S,,. is given by Fig. 49.37, which applies to both clean and shaly formations. For a shaly sand, the PSP and R,,/R, are first entered in abscissa and ordinate, respectively. This gives us the apSane other shaly-sand references are Refs. 8 and 9.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING __- .___ L __._.._ BHT (14OOF). d= 83/i in. parent saturation. To find the true saturation, a line is drawn through the origin (circled), and the point representing the apparent saturation; and this line is extended until it intercepts the Essp or the corresponding value of R,fIR,. The saturation at this point is treated in the same manner as in the R,,IR, method above. If the Essp is not known and R,%,is unobtainable, it is not possible to determine the water saturation, S,,.. Nevertheless, plotting the ratio R,,IR, vs. PSP on Fig. 49.37 will show whether or not the sand falls on the 100% water-saturation line. If it falls some distance below this line, there is a chance for production. Note that in sand-shale laminations the value of S,,, is the water saturation of the sand itself. In sands containing disseminated shale, it is the water bound by the quartz grains and does not include the water held by the colloids. Example Problem 1. Fig. 49.38 shows the IEL and the ML over a portion of a well in Jefferson Davis Parish, LA. The shaly sand from 8,046 to 8,054 ft will Fig. 49.38-Shaly-sand example: induction-electrical survey and microlog-microcal iper survey in well on Louisiana Gulf Coast. I?, = 1.45, R,, = 1.2, and R,, = 1.3 at be interpreted. The mud resistivity at formation temperature of 140F is 1.45 Q-m, R,, = 1.3 Q-m, and R,,,,= 1.2 9-m at 140F. Bit size is 8% in. From the IEL, the Epsp is -55 mV. The Essp (sand at 7,830 to 7,850 ft) is -130 mV. Thus cusp is 0.42. The short-normal resistivity R 16 is 2.2 n-m, and the induction-log resistivity R,L is 1.9 B-m. Invasion is known to be quite shallow, as further substantiated by the readings of the microlog. Therefore R,L may be taken as equal to R,. As shown by the positive separation on the ML, three distinct porous intervals, A, B, and C, appear between 8,046 and 8,054 ft. The values of R,, and h,, for each

interval are found by use of Fig. 49.31. Thus, for Interval A R,, is 4.0, for Interval B it is 5.6, and for Interval C it is 6.8. The average R,, is 5.5, and for all three intervals the mudcake thickness is % in. Note that the microcaliper indicates a hole diameter of 7 3/4 in., exactly 1 in. smaller than bit size, corresponding to a %-in. mudcake, thus verifying the h,, values from Fig. 49.3 1.

49-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK !jFF 40 INDUCTlOrJ -16 NORMAL SATURATION DETERMINATION THICK BEDS OF LOW AND MEDIUM RESISTI I I , I IO 2 3 4 5 6jBYlO 9 _ INTERPRET ONLY B ~. SHOWN PERMEAbu BY MICROLOG 7 _ 6 BO NOT USE WHEN --. ~~~ R,,/R,<~ FORd, = 3d, -4 \ 3 q K,= * SCALES ~APPROXIMAT 70 80 90 100 NOTE NON lN;ADED WATER SANDS OF LOW RESISTIVITY WILL GIVE THEY ARE USUALLY RECOGNIZED BY NEGATIVE SEPARATION ON MICROLOG. IN ANY CASE NO OIL HAS BEEN FOUND BELOW 0 7 OHM Fig. 49.39-40-in. induction log, l&in. normal interpretation chart. (Working lin es illustrate example of Fig. 49.40.) All necessary data are now at hand: Rx0 R,(=R,L) EPSP ESSP asp

K, R,r,IR, R.,,,lR,,,f Fig. 49.37 at K, =79, = = = = 5.5 D-m 1.9 n-m -55 mV -130 mV

= 0.42 = (for the SP) at 140F is close to 79 = 2.9, and = 4.6 is entered with R,,IR, =2.9 and PSP= -55 locating a point on the chart. Then a line is drawn through this point from the origin and extended until it intersects the vertical line erected at Essp = -130 mV for K, =79. This intersection gives a value of S, equal to 43 %, assuming that S,, is 15%, which is reasonable. The sand was perforated from 8,046 to 8,050 ft and made 75 BOPD and 280,000 cu ft/D gas through a 7/64-in. choke. IEL Interpretation Method. A chart for practical interpretation of fluid saturation from the readings of the IEL combination is shown in Fig. 49.39, Ref. 2. The conditions limiting valid use of the chart are: (1) the invasion diameter di must be between 2dh and 1Odh (dh is the hole diameter), (2) R,, must be greater than R,, which is generally fulfilled if R,,fIR, is greater than three to live, as for fresh muds and saline formation waters, and (3) the beds must be fairly homogeneous-i.e., the shortnormal reading must not be perturbed by the presence of resistive streaks. The chart incorporates approximate compensation for the presence of an annulus, assuming equal viscosities for the oil and water and an S,, in the flushed zone of 15 to 30%. To use the chart the value of the ratio R~~IRIL (resistivity fmm 16-in. normal divided by the IL resistivity), corrected, if necessary, for effect of borehole and adjacent formations, is plotted either vs. the SSP (lower grid) entered opposite the appropriate formation temperature or vs. R,fIR, (upper scale). Points falling within the shaded area correspond to water-bearing sands. Points falling below the shaded area correspond to oil saturation. Approximate saturation scales are provided for dj values of 3dh and 5dh. The

dashed lines represent lines of equal saturation on the chart. The critical saturation corresponds to S,U =60% in soft formations and 50% in consolidated sandstones. These may not be the correct critical saturations for many limestones. For shaly formations a construction like that used in the shaly-sand method can be used in Fig. 49.39. Although not rigorously correct, this procedure should give acceptable results if the shaliness is not too great. Since it is not always known beforehand whether the interpretation chart (Fig. 49.39) is within its limits of applicability, it is useful to employ the value of porosity or formation factor, when known from independent sources, to check the results by means of Eq. 5. Details of this porosity balance check are given in Ref. 34.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING Fig. 49.40-Induction-electrical log and microlog-microcaliper log on a well in Y oung County, TX. I?,,, = 0.95 and R ,,,, = 0.61 at BHT (117OF). d= 7% in. Example Problem 2. Fig. 49.40 shows part of the induction-electrical log and ML on a well in Young County, TX. The sand at the bottom of the figure is divided into two parts, A and B, by a thin, hard streak, as shown on the ML. A and B will be interpreted separately. Necessary well data are R, =0.95 and R,,lf=0.61, at BHT of 117F; hole diameter, d,, , is 7% in. Interval A. From the induction-electrical log, RIL=17.5 R-m, R16=32.5 R-m, SP=-95 mV, and BHT is 117F. Applying Fig. 49.39, the ratio R,6IR1~=32.5/17.5=1.85. The SP is -95 mV, so the point is fixed on the chart, giving an average S, of about 30 % . Interval B. Here the RIL=26.0 R-m and R16=37.0 n-m. R161RIL=37.0/26.0=1.42. The SP is -90 mV at 117F. This fixes a point on Fig. 49.39, which gives a value of S, of about 25 % . Drillstem tests on the two intervals showed that the sand contained gas and distillate, with a higher flowing pressure over Interval B. Rocky Mountain Method. The Rocky Mountain method* was developed for the interpretation of conventional electrical logs to yield values of S, and 4 in invaded, clean, hard formations when they are sufficiently thick and homogeneous. It is necessary that the invasion be such that the average resistivities recorded by the short normal and the lateral (when corrected for borehole effect) approximate the average values of Rj ami R,, respectively. For this to be true, the shortnormal readings should be at least 10 times the mud resistivity. Only average values, over thick intervals, can be obtained with this method. FRRwi Ri= F, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (19) where: 1. R,i is the resistivity of the water found in the invaded zone. It is usually made up of filtrate and interstitial (connate) water mixed in such proportion that 1 (1 -fw) -=-+ fw -, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (20) Rwi Rw Rnzf wheref, is the fraction of interstitial (connate) water in the total mixture (usually 5 to 10%).

2. Si is the water saturation in the invaded zone. It has been found by experience that Si * =S,; so Ri=FR,ISw. Inasmuch as R,=FR~IS,*, we obtain S,=(RiIR,)t(RwiIR,). Since R,IRwi =f,+(l -f,)R,/R,,,f, it follows that R,iIR, is a function of the SP value. The upper part of Fig. 49.41 gives a graphical solution of the equation for S,. The SP is entered in ordinate and the ratio RiIR, on oblique lines. The intersection gives the abscissa S,. The lower part of the chart is used to obtain the porosity by using the water saturation, S,, just found, with the

Fig. 49.41-Interpretation chart for Rocky Mountain method. value of R,IR,. The intersection falls on or between oblique lines that are graduated into porosity values, according to the Humble formula, Eq. 2. This method should not be used in salt muds. Electromagnetic Propagation Tool Principle. The EPT (electromagnetic propagation too13 ) measures the travel time and attenuation rate of an electromagnetic wave through the formation near the borehole. In addition, a caliper and a ML can also be recorded. The tool can be combined with the gamma ray, neutron, or density instruments. The propagation time of water differs sharply from those of gas, oil, or matrix rock and is, moreover, little affected by the salinity of the water. This tool permits the evaluation of water saturation that is relatively independent of water resistivity (salinity) and, in fact, is most accurate in the fresher waters. Dielectric permittivity is one of the main factors determining electromagnetic propagation in a material. Dielectric permittivity of any medium is proportional to the electric dipole moment per unit volume. The electric TABLE 49.3-ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION VALUES Relative Dielectric Loss-Free Permittivity, Propagation Time, t,, Gas or air 1 .o 3.3 Oil 2.2 4.9 Water 56-60 25-30 Quartz Limestone 4.7 7.5 7.2 9.1 Dolomite 6.9 6.7 Anhydrite 6.5 6.4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK dipole moment is made up of one or more effects: electronic, ionic, interfacial, and dipolar. Since each of these dominates over a certain range of the electromagnetic spectrum, they can be separated experimentally. * The electronic contribution results from the displacement of electron clouds, and is the only one that operates at optical frequencies. The ionic and interfacial contributions come from displacement and movement of ions, hence arc confined to low frequencies. The dipolar contribution is from permanent electric dipoles, which orient themselves in the direction of an applied electric field. With the exception of water, there are very few materials

abundantly found in nature that have permanent electric dipoles. A borehole dielectric measurement in the 109-Hz frequency region, where the dipole polarization of water dominates, should lead to a measurement of water content that is independent of salinity. Table 49.3 gives laboratory-measured values of propagation time and dielectric permittivity (relative to air) of typical reservoir materials. Tool. The tools now in the field carry two transmitters and two receivers on a wall-contact pad, configured as shown in Figs. 49.42 and 49.43. These transmitters and receivers must be antennas to operate as they do in the microwave frequency range. The tool uses a differential measurement based on the signals detected by near and far receivers, similar in principle to the widely used method of measuring At with a two-receiver sonic tool. In a similar manner, the two receivers produce cancellation of any effects caused by mudcake or variations in signal coupling (so long as both receivers are affected equally). To reduce any error caused by sonde tilt, the EPT uses an antenna configuration similar to the transducer array used in a borehole-compensated sonic tool. Transmitting antennas are placed above and below the receiver pair and are pulsed alternately. Simple geometric considerations show that if these two transmission modes arc averaged, the first-order effects of pad tilt will be eliminated. The basic principle of the tool involves a surface or lateral electromagnetic wave launched along the surface of a conducting pad. In the absence of mudcake, the electromagnetic wave would move along the pad face past two receiving antennas, but in the normal borehole case with mudcake present, propagation takes place on the surface between mudcake and formation. The phase shift and attenuation per unit distance along the surface of the pad are proportional to E and C (as shown in theory) for a plane wave. It has been demonstrated both theoretically and experimentally that for mud cakes up to % in. the travel time measured by the EPT is essentially the same as the travel time in the invaded zone without any mud cake. Above such thickness the measurement deteriorates rapidly until the tool responds only to the mud. Limited experience with air- and oil-based mud-filled tools indicates that even very thin layers of these fluids between the pad and the formation cause the tool to respond only to the fluid and not the formation. This is because of the short travel time of these fluids. The tool contains a 1 .l-GHz microwave transceiver. The transmitter is capable of generating more than 2 W of output power

ELECTRICAL LOGGING while the receiver can process a 0.3 pico watt (pW) signal. This allows accurate measurements in formations when R, approaches 0.3 a-m. Theory. Assuming a plane wave varying sinusoidally in time, the electric field, E, at the second receiver is given by E=E,,e - YL+bJt > . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (21) where E, is the electric field at the first receiver; L is the distance between the two receivers; j is the vectorial operator fi ; o is the angular frequency; t is the time of travel of the waves over a distance L in the formation; and y is the complex propagation factor given by y=cY+jp, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(22) where CY is the attenuation factor (coefficient) in neper/m, and /3 is the phase factor in rad/m. For a lossless formation,* or=O. From Eq. 21, the phase velocity vPO is given by L Cd 1 -=. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (23) Vpo=t= Yo tPo where the subscript o indicates loss-free conditions and

tpo is the loss-free propagation time of a given medium in ns/m. From Maxwell s equations, it can be shown that y. =jw& =jwtpo, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (24) where is the magnetic permeability (H/m). Since most formations of interest are nonmagnetic, of the formation is the same as that of free space (O =47rX 10-7 H/m), and E is the dielectric permittivity (F/m). When Fig. 49.42 Schematic of EPT antenna the formation is lossy, y and E are complex. pad, showing principle of 2-receiver measurement of *Formation with no electromagnetic energy losses transit time. Fig. 49.43 The EPT antenna pad.

49-34 Squaring Eq. 22 and Eq. 24 and equating the real and imaginary terms, we have w2/.Loc=p2 -a?, . . . . . . . . . . . . (25) and wp,C=2aUp, . . . . . . . (26) where C is the equivalent conductivity (a/m) of the losses in the formation. Dividing Eq. 25 by w2, p2 a2 Poe=---w2 ,2 . . . . . . . I.. . . . . . . . From Eq. 24, 40~=tpo2. Since filw=t,l is the travel time in the lossy medium, a2 tpo 2--tp1I?--* w2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (28) Remembering that 01 is the attenuation factor, Eq. 28 implies that the actual propagation time in a conductive formation is longer than that of a corresponding loss-free formation. If the propagation wave is not a plane wave, suitable spreading-loss corrections to the measured attenuation (A,,,) are made before Eq. 28 is applied. Thus the corrected attenuation A,. =Aiog -G,Y (dB/m) where G,, is the geometrical spreading loss and AI,,~ the recorded attenuation in dB/m. G,? is about 50 dB/m in air or G,f =45.0+ 1.3r,/ +O. 18r,/. Here tp/ is the recorded travel time in ns/m. Interpretation. The range of travel time encountered in the borehole in common reservoir rock varies from 6.3 ns/m for a 40-pu sandstone filled with hydrocarbons to 17.2 ns/m for a 40-pu water-filled limestone. In terms of phase shift, this corresponds to angles between 100 and 270 when computed over a 4-cm receiver spacing. The EPT log responds primarily to the bulk volume of water in the formation. Since the tool has a relatively shallow depth of investigation-about 1 to 6 in. depending on the conductivity-it normally responds to the flushed zone of an invaded section. Eq. 28 can be transformed into tpo= (tJ-&) lh . . . . . . . . . . . . . (29) The apparent water-filled porosity (dEPT) can be derived in a way similar to the derivation of the porosity from sonic At. Thus tpo-tpm

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (30) 4 EPT = tpwo-tpm tpwo, the loss-free propagation time of water, varies with the temperature and slightly with pressure and can be obtained as where T is the temperature. F. Knowledge of water salinity is not required to obtain r,,,,.,, . *a I neperlm and A ,~~ IS dWm Smce 3 neper = 6.666 dB, A ,og =6.66&t PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK The loss-free propagation time of matrix, tpm, is indicated on Table 49.2. The nature of the matrix can be determined by the knowledge of the apparent matrix density and interpolating between lithology density values. The water saturation S,, is given by +(l -Sxo)4tph f(1 -+p,, . . (31) tpo=Sxo4tpwo or tpo -tpm +d (tpm -tph) 4(tp,, _ tph) , . . . . . . . (32) s.w = where tph is the propagation time for hydrocarbon and 4 is the porosity of the formation. Since tpm and tph are fairly close, we can estimate S,, roughly as S,= !-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(33) 4 Example Problem 3. Fig. 49.44 is an example of the log presentation currently in use. Track 1 contains a conventional caliper curve, taken from the motion of the backup pad, and the attenuation curve, scaled in dB/m. Tracks 2 and 3 are given to the principal measurement, travel time (tp/), in ns/m. Track 3 also presents the signal levels from the two receivers. The chief use of these curves is to monitor the primary signal detection at the receivers, which provides an indication of the relative reliability of the log parameters at any level. A self-evident and very real advantage may be inferred from the 4-cm spacing between receivers; the tool has excellent vertical resolution. The log of Fig. 49.44 actually looks overactive in spots, but its repeatability testifies that the recording is valid. In fact, the data recorded by the tool are too detailed for direct merging

with other logs by means of computer. Averaging (smoothing) subroutines are thus required preliminaries for programs using EPT data. Example Problem 4. Fig. 49.45 shows an ISF log and the porosity computed from density. neutron, and EPT logs. Zone A is obviously gas bearing, as evidenced by the neutron porosity reading much less than the density. The EPT porosity is a little higher than the neutron porosity and much less than the density porosity, confirming the presence of hydrocarbons. Zone B exhibits a different porosity profile. Once again the neutron porosity is less than the density porosity, indicating the presence of some light hydrocarbons, but now the EPT porosity is less than both neutron and density pomsities. Since the total porosity from neutron and density logs is roughly $N+~D 4=-, 2 and the hydrocarbon volume is the volume of hydrocarbons affecting the three porosity tools is about the same for Zones A and B as determined from the EPT data. However, there is a much stronger light hydrocarbon effect on the neutron and density logs in Zone A. Thus, it would be expected that Zone B contains more condensate or oil than Zone A.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING Attenuation, dB/m 3 5n Caliper -----------w---. Travel Time,Jt,l 1, nsec/m 5oc l5l c e3 i Fig. 49.44-An unaveraged EPT log shows fine detail. Repeat sections (faint curve s) of the attenuation and t,, curves show excellent repeatability.

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK GAMMA RAY I 0 60 +40 ~1~0 CALIPER t cb EPT SAND ________ !F: _----6--w----------0 1 Zone C appears to contain some residual hydrocarbons, since the EPT porosity is often slightly less than the neutron and density porosities. There is a little more hydrocarbon in the shalier bottom part of Zone C than in the cleaner top portion. The very top of Zone D contains oil since the EPT measurement is much lower than the neutron and density porosities, which read about the same. Water-bearing zones are identified when the EPT porosity is about the same or higher than the neutron and density porosity. Thus, Zone E is clearly water bearing, as is the bottom I--Fig. 49.45-ISF and EPTICNLIFDC logs. of Zones B and D. Machine programs are available to give complete quantitative interpretation of all these logs. This is especially important in the study of tar sands or crude oils where the hydrocarbon is not flushed by the mud filtrate and where S,, is very near S, . These studies arc also of great interest to provide values of residual oil saturations. The Digital Age Before 1960, all logs were recorded in analog form on film or paper. Magnetic tape recording was introduced in 1960 to record dipmeter. Shortly thereafter, various other logs were also recorded on tape, thus permitting the use of computers for various purposes. Before long, computers were made an intrinsic part of the recording systems on the logging trucks. This has revolutionized the capacity for data acquisition at the wellsite. At the same time, many computer-processed products have become available in real time or only a short time after

logging is completed at the wellsite. TABLE 49.4-WELLSITE ANALYSIS AVAILABLE IN REAL TIME Generic Name Derivation Log Input Required Presentation Schlumberger Gearhart Dr esser Welex ______ R... Assumes all formations contain 100% water. Simultaneous Sinale curve in R,,, R wa R wa R *a Computes apparent R w, R wa = R ,/F resistivity and Track 1 on .._ porosity. Usually logarithmic sonic and scale. inductlon Uses deep resistivity and shallow focused Simultaneous deep Single curve in R,IR t resistivity to estimate RJR, ratio. resistivity and Track 1 shallow focused compatibly n=sistivity scaled as a pseudo SP curve. F overlay or Derives F from a porosity curve that IS played Deep resistivity Singl e dashed R, Ro F curve F Curve Ro overlay onto logarithmic resistivity as R,. and porostty curve in Tracks 2 and 3 on logarithmic scale. Compatible Any combination of porosity logs with same Simultaneous Coded curves in Compatible Compatible Compatible Compatible porosity lithology assumptions to compute porosity. porosity logs Tracks 2 and p orosity porosity porosity porosity scales 3 with gamma scales scales scales scales ray and caliper in Track 1. Hole volume Uses caliper logs to compute cement calculation. hole volume for Caliper curvepreferably 2 Pips or tic marks in Borehole volume Borehole volume Borehole volume Borehole volume curves at 90 depth column such as 4.arm at every 10 cu dipmeter ftand 1OOcu ft Fracture Uses differences in adjacent pad readings &arm dipmeter Adjacent pad Fr acture Fracture Fracture Dipmeter locating log from 4-arm dipmeter to infer fractures. readings are identification detector locahon fracture superimposed and any 109 log @I 109

separation is coded.

ELECTRICAL LOGGING TABLE 49.5-WELLSITE ANALYSIS AVAILABLE IN REPLAY TIME

Generic Name Derivation Log Input Requrred Presentation Schlumberger Gearhart Dr esser Welex Merged and Replays all logs, shifts depths and makes Any logs run on Usually 3 t o 5 Cyberlook cross-plot Prolog Computer depth shifted sample calculattans such as R,,, R xo, tape. tracks. Varies Pass 1 (x-plot) Van data R,/Rr, compatible porosity scales or by service cross plot porosities. company, diplays only log data. Wellsite Uses all logs to provide a first order Resistivity and Usually 3 or 4 C yberlook Well Prolog CAL evaluation log computer analysis. porosity tracks. Has evaluation reservoir data derived from log log data. Formation dip Computes formatron dtp from 4-arm 4-arm dipmeter Formation dip, Cy berdip FED DDL Pro-Dip computations dipmeter hole deviation, calipers. True vertical Computes lVD of any point from dipmeter Contmuous Replay of any TV D TVD TVD depth log orientation data dipmeter plus log on TVD any log to be scale converted lo TVD All logs available in real time are also avarIable in replay time If recorded on magnetic tape Without any doubt, the digital age is responsible for 1. Real-time quick-look prod ucts, summarized in the creation of new equipment deemed impossible Table 49.4, run at the same time the log is being run. before. Many interpretation techniques and studies today Many of these curves, s uch as R, and F curves, are could not be made without the use of computers. Finally, recorded on the standar d logs and are often placed in the electronic transmission of log data is a present reality, SP or resistivity trac ks. facilitating exchange between wells and offices, towns 2. Wellsite log analysis products, summarized in and continents. An overview of this vast field is Table 49.5, are generally avai lable at the wellsite in necessary. replay time. Wellsite analysis is made after the logging is completed. The process involves playing back taped logs Magnetic Tapes and using an appropriate log analysis program, such as a shaly-sand analysis or a dipmeter computation. API-recommended standard format permits logging ser3. Computing center products am provided well after vice company tapes to be read by most computers. More

the logging is finished (days or weeks later) and are exhaustive treatment of the subject is available directly from the service companies. Quality control of the generally more comprehensive than either of the wellsite products. In general, these computations fall into three magnetic tape is ensured in real time in integrated logcategories: shaly-sand analysis, complex lithology ging systems having on-board computers. study, and dipmeter processing. The most-used products are summarized in Table 49.6. Other, less frequently Computed Log Products used products such as tar sand analysis or mechanical Log analysis performed by a computer is available to the properties are not incl uded; details on these may be oblog user at three different levels. tained directly from the service company. TABLE 49.6-LOG ANALYSIS Generic Name Derivation Advanced Uses most sophisticated analytical and sandstone statistical methods to correct and compute analysis logs in sandstones and shaly sandstones. Advanced Uses most sophisticated analytical and carbonate statistical methods to correct and compute analysis logs in carbonate and lithologically complex reservoirs Advance Uses most advanced correlation logic to dipmeter compute dips followed by a statistical computa-sorting to retain the most reliable data. tions AVAILABLE FROM COMPANY Log Input Required Presentation Rssistivhy, density, Usually 4 tracks neutron, gamma presentation ray with sonic of lithology, desirable saturation, porosity and bulk volume. Resistivity, density, Usually 4 tracks neutron, gamma presentation ray with sonic of lithology, and saturation, microresistivity porosity, and desirable bulk volume. *-arm dipmeter Arrow plot with caliper,

correlation curve and hole deviation. Also available: azimuth frequency, modified Schmidt plots, histograms, and listings. COMPUTING CENTERS Schlumberger Gearhart SARABAND Comsand YOUN F Pairs COAIBAND Comlith GLOBAl. Frax CLUSTER NEXUS (structural) and GEODlP (stratigraphic) Dresser Welex EPILOG CAL Sandstone Analysis EPILOG CA, Complex Reservoir Analysis Dresser Diplog computed analysis dipmeter

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK PASSONE Fig. 49.46-CYBERLOOK An example of wellsite log analysis is the CvBERLOOK"pmgram, 36 which requires as a minimum suite of logs a deep investigation resistivity, CNL -FDC (compensated neutron/density logs), a gamma ray, or SP curve. The CYBERLOOK computation is based on the dual-water model and is normally made in two passes. On the Pass One log (Fig. 49.46), the SP curve is on Track 1 with the gamma ray. On Track 2, in four cycles, are found the R, curve, the R, (computed fmm R,), and the porosity given by the CNL. Track 3 shows the porosity given by the density, 40, the porosity given by the neutron, fpN, and a cmssplot porosity computed from # D ami # N.

On Pass Two log (Fig. 49.47), the Track 1 gives the shale index, which is the minimum shale index of several shale indicators obtained from the SP curve, the gamma ray, and the maximum and minimum neutron readings. Track 2 shows R, as a dashed curve and Ro as a solid CO#fNSAlED fUHATlCW4 DENTaT mrom COM?ENSATED NElJmoN roIosm Pass One log. curve. The left half of Track 3 has the water saturation and the right half has the porosity and bulk volume free water. A differential caliper is presented as a dotted curve with bit size in the middle of Track 3. A gas flag appears in the depth track when a large hydrocarbon correction was necessary to obtain the porosity from neutron/density logs. VOLAP is an example of a complex analysis program (Fig. 49.48). It is based on the dual-water model, as is the CYBERLOOK program mentioned previously, but the computations are far more refined and the results more accurate. For a detailed study of the dual-water model, see Refs. 37 and 38. The dual water model simply says that in a shaly sand, its equivalent formation water conductivity is dependent on the relative amount of bound water and free water. The conductivity of the bound water is found by the use of the nearby shale resistivity and the total porosity

given by the average of CNL. In a like manner, the free

ELECTRICAL LOGGING CYBERLOOK WIT RESISTWIlY WATER POROWY owIu Y* Y ,oQ) ,JANRAllON ANALYSJS GRAIN DtWTY DEEP RENTIVITY 1 (AUPoI (-) M SIZE v (* 640 Fig. 4%47-CYBERLOOK water conductivity is found by use of the resistivity of the clean water sand and its total porosity. In a shaly water sand, the equivalent water conductivity is found in the same way by using the resistivity of the shaly water sand and its total porosity. Knowing the bound and free water conductivities, it is easy to compute their fractions of the total porosity that are necessary to obtain the same equivalent water conductivity of the shaly water sand. The fractions of bound and free water can be related to the relative deflections of the gamma ray or SP curve, etc., thus permitting the use of such calibrations when analyzing hydrocarbon saturated zones. The analysis is done by using a dispersed-clay-type equation. Nomenclature a,,f = chemical activity of mud filtrate a,. = chemical activity of formation water Pass Two log. A,. = corrected attenuation of a formation A log = recorded attenuation of a formation C = equivalent conductivity of losses in the formation C,t = conductivity as given by induction log CT = total conductivity signal

Ci = conductivity of invaded zone C, = conductivity of mud C, = true conductivity of formation c x0 = conductivity of flushed zone E = electric field E,. = total electrochemical EMF EJ = liquid-junction EMF EM = shale-membrane EMF Epsp = pseudostatic SP Esp = static SP

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK tllOliPOROSITY PRESENTATION K,. = electrochemical coefficient m = cementation exponent or factor n = saturation exponent R, = apparent resistivity R = annulus resistivity i: = corrected resistivity RIL= induction-log resistivity RpL = proximity-log resistivity R, = resistivity of invaded zone R,,. = resistivity of mudcake R 4 = resistivity of mud filtrate R, = true formation resistivity R, = formation-water resistivity R = equivalent formation-water resistivity RI = resistivity of the water found in the invaded zone R = resistivity of flushed zone i: = resistivity of a clean (nonshaly) formation saturated with 100% water RI,1 = resistivity of 1-X 1 -in. microinverse R2 = resistivity of 2-in. micronormal R 16 = short-normal resistivity Si = water saturation in the invaded zone S,, = residual oil saturation S, = formation water saturation Sx0 = water saturation in the flushed zone = propagation time for hydrocarbon ph = travel time in the lossy medium -+ tP/ = loss-free propagation time of matrix tPm = loss-free propagation time tPo tpwo = loss-free propagation time of water Y = maximum producible oil index ~

= SP reduction factor SP i l +++ y = complex propagation factor t = relative dielectric permittivity p = magnetic permeability 4~ = density porosity WEPT = electromagnetic propagation tool porosity $HC = hydrocarbon porosity1 4~ = neutron porosity w = angular frequency Fig. 49.48-High-porosity presentation. Abbreviations CNLTM = compensated neutron log En = electric field at the first receiver DIL = dual induction-laterolog 8 FR = formation resistivity factor EPT = electromagnetic propagation tool = resistivity factor of formation water ES = electrical survey FR,\ = resistivity factor of water in invaded zone FDC rM = compensated density log FR,,, f,,. = fraction of interstitial (connate) water in the ID = deep-reading inducti on device total mixture IEL = induction-electrical log Gi = geometrical factor of invaded zone IES = induction-electrical survey G,, = geometrical factor of mud IL = induction log G,j = pseudogeometrical factor of the invaded ILd = deep induction log zone IM = medium-reading induction device G,! = geometrical spreading loss ISF = induction spherically-focused log G, = geometrical factor, true formation LL = laterolog G,,, = geometrical factor of flushed zone LLD = deep laterolog iR = resistivity index LLS = shallow laterolog j = vectorial operator J-l ML = microlog

ELECTRICAL LOGGING MLL = microlaterolog MSFL = shallow MICROSFL PL = proximity log SDL = simultaneous dual laterolog SFL = spherically focused log SSP = static SP References I. Dunlap, H.F. and Hawthorne. H.R.: Calculation of Water Resistivities from Chemical Analysis, J. Per. Tech. (July 1957) 202-17; Trans., AIME, 192. 2. a. Log Interpretation Charts, Schlumberger Well Services (1979). b. Log Interpretation Charts, Dresser-Atlas (1981). c. Charts for the Interpretation of Well Logs, Welex (1979) EL-1002. d. Chart Book. Gearhart (1982). 3. Lamont. N.: Relationships Between the Mud Resistivity, Mud Filtrate Resistivity, and the Mud Cake Resistivity of Oil Emulsion Mud Systems, J. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1957) 51-52; Trans., AIME. 210. 4. Mounce, W.D. and Rust, W.M. Jr.: Natural Potentials in Well Logging, Per. Tech. (Sept. 1943); Trans., AIME. 6. 5. Winsauer, W.O., er al.: Resistivity of Brine-satured Sands in Relation to Pore Geometry, Bull., AAPG (Feb. 1952) 253-77. 6. patnode, H.W. and Wyllie, M.R.J.: Presence of Conductive Solids in Reservoir Rocks as a Factor in Electric Log Interpretation, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1950) 47-52; Trans., AIME, 189. 7. Archie. G.E.: Classification of Carbonate Resetvotr Rocks and Petrophysical Considerations, Bull., AAPG (Feb. 1952) 36, 218-98. 8.Waxman, M.H. and Thomas, E.C.: Electrical Conductivittes m Shaly Sands-I. The Relation Between Hydrocarbon Saturation and Resistivity Index; II. The Temperature Coefficient of Electrical Conductivity, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1974) 213-23; Trans., AIME, 257. 9. Waxman, M.H. and Smits, L.J.M.: Electrical Conductivities in Otl-Bearing Shaly Sands, Sue. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1968) 107-22; Trans., AIME, 243, 10.Kunz, K. and Moran, J.: Some Effects of Anisotropy on Resistivity Measurements in Boreholes, Geophpics (Oct. 1958) 23, 770-94. II. Doll, H.G.: Filtrate Invasion in Highly Permeable Sands, Pet. Engr. (Jan. 1955) 27, BJ3-66. 12.Gondouin, M. and Scala, C.: Streaming Potential and the SP Log. J. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1958) 170-79; Trans., AIME, 213. 13 Hill, H.J. and Anderson, A.E.: Streaming Potential Phenomena

in SP Log Interpretation, Truns., AIME, 216.

J. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1959) 203-08;

14.Wyllie, M.R.J.: Investigatron of Electrokmetic Component of the Self-Potential Curve, J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1951) l-18; Truns., AIME, 192. 15.Wyllie, M.R.J., de Witte, A.J.. and Warren. J.E.: On the Streaming Potential Problem in Well Logging, Trans., AIME (1958) 213, 409-17. 16. Wyllie, M.R.J.: Quantitative Analysis of the Electrochemical Component of the SP Curve. J. Per. Tech. (Jan. 1949) 17-26: Trans., AIME, 186. 17.Segesman, F. and Tixier, M.P.: Some Effects of Invasion on the SP Curve, /. Pet. Tech. (June 1959) 138-46; Trans., AIME. 216. 18. Doll, H.G.: SP Log: Theoretical Analysis and Principles of lntetpretation, J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1948) 146-85; Truns., AIME, 179. 19. Goudouin, M., Tixier. M.P., and Simard. G.L.: Experimental Study on Influence of Chemical Composition of Electrolytes on SP Curve, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1957) 58-72: Trans., AIME. 210. 20. Doll, H.G.: Introduction to Induction Logging and Application to Logging of Wells Drilled with Oil-base Mud. J. Pet. Te&. (June 1949) 148-62; Truns.. AIME, 186. 21.Dumanoir, J.L., Tixier. M.P.. and Martin, M.: Interpretation of the Inductton-Electrical Log in Fresh Mud, J. Pet. Tech. (July 1957) 202-17: Trans., AIME. 210. 49-41 22. Doll, H.G.: Laterolog-A New Resistivity Loggmg Method with Electrodes Using an Automatic Focusing System, J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1951) 305-16; Trans., AIME, 192. 23.Doll, H.G.: Micro Log-A New Electrical Logging Method for Detailed Determinations of Permeable Beds, J. Pet. Tech. (June 1950) 155-64; Trans., AIME, 189. 24.Doll, H.G.: The MicroLaterolog, J. Per. Tech. (Jan. 1953) 17-32; Trans., AIME, 198. 25.Tixier, M.P.: Electrical Log Analysis in the Rocky Mountains. Oil and Gas J. (June 1949) 48, 143-48. 26.Tixier, M.P.: Porosity Index in Ltmestone from Electrical Logs, , Oil and Gas J. (Nov. 1951) 140-42, 169-73. 27.Wyllie, M.R.J.: Procedures for the Direct Employment of Neutron Log Data in Electnc Log Interpretation, Geophysics (Oct. 1952) 17, 790-805. 28.Tixier, M.P., Alger, R.P., and Tanguy, D.R.: New Development in Induction and Sonic Logging, J. Per. Tech. (May 1960) 79; Trans., AIME, 219. 29.Doll, H.G. and Martin, M.: How to Use Electric Log Data to Determine Maximum Producible 011 Index in a Formatton. Oil ad Gas J. (July 1954) 53, 120-26. 30.Tixier, M.P.: Evaluation of Permeability from Electric Log Resistivity Gradient, Oil and Gas J. (June 1949) 48, 11323. 31.a. Resistivity Depanure Curves, Bull., Schlumberger Well Surveying Corp. (1949). b. Interpretation Charts for Electric Logs and Contact Logs,

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