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SITE CLEARANCE

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MODULE 1 SHEET 1

Groundworks
Before any foundation construction can begin on site a number of preparatory activities need to be undertaken. These activities are generally termed groundworks. Typical groundwork activities include: Site clearance. Site preparation. Excavation of foundation trenches. Groundwater control.

Site Clearance
It is normal practice for any above ground clearance requirements, such as removal of trees, bushes, walls, slabs, buildings etc to be shown on a site plan. This plan may show the position of services, both above and below ground, allowing these to be cleared if necessary or avoided for safety if to be left alone. Construction sites vary a great deal, and clearance procedures will, of course, be different on each one. A greeneld site out of town may only require soil removal, whereas a browneld site, having been previously developed, may need extensive demolition and clearance of concrete slabs etc before any excavation can commence.

Contaminated Ground
Due to the increase in use of browneld sites, and regulations imposed by the government, many sites have to be decontaminated before structures can be built on them. This often involves the contaminated soil being totally removed from site and being replaced by clean soil when the site is landscaped.

Protection of Trees
Trees may have a preservation order placed on them by the local authority. This protects the tree from displacement or removal. The removal of other trees generally is subject to agreement with the planning authority before the work on site commences (usually at planning stage). When trees have to be protected, a barrier should be erected around each tree to prevent accidental damage. Care should be taken to avoid damaging branches that overhang the working area.

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SITE CLEARANCE

Removal of Waste
Waste material can be removed by lorry or skip to a licensed landll site, or if the waste is inert, such as brick rubble or subsoil, it can be used as ll in certain earthworks. This will generally reduce the cost of removal of the waste to the contractor. Burning of rubbish on building sites is not normally allowed. On browneld sites, where masonry and concrete demolition is required, it is often cost-effective for the material to be crushed and used for hardcore in the contract (if acceptable to the architect and building control).

A concrete crushing machine being loaded with demolished material

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MODULE 1 SHEET 3

Removal of Vegetable Soil

The removal of vegetable soil, or what is commonly known as top soil, is an essential task to be undertaken before any further work can be carried out with the foundations. The Building Regulations Part C states that the ground to be built upon must be reasonably clear of vegetable soil and matter. It may not be necessary to remove any vegetable soil if the work is of a redevelopment or alteration nature. Vegetable soil is soft, easily compressed and rich in organic material. These properties make it totally unsuitable for building on. Vegetable soil is found at a variety of depths from about 150mm to 300mm, and has usually been naturally building up for many years.

This photograph shows the organic vegetable or topsoil layer on top of the lighter coloured subsoil below. The vegetable soil is excavated separately from the subsoil excavation, and the material is usually stockpiled in a spoil heap. This stockpile is sited on an area of the site which is not required for building operations. The vegetable soil is then used for landscaping purposes when the building is completed externally, any shortfall being brought in from external sources. Alternatively, excess soil may be sold or simply transported to another site.

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SITE CLEARANCE

Reduced Level Excavations

Removal of the vegetable soil often results in a level subsoil base, through which further excavation work can be undertaken. It may not be necessary to remove any further soil from the buildings base area, other than foundation trenches. If the area is not left reasonably level after vegetable soil removal, further excavation will be necessary. This process involves nal grading and levelling of the subsoil base to prepare it for the oor slab of the building. Grading and levelling is carried out by the use of any of the following methods: Cut. Cut and ll. Fill. Cut is the process of removal of high ground to produce a level work area. This method results in a solid and compact base.

Cut and ll techniques are used to provide a level base for construction on sloping sites (see gure above). This method requires compaction of lled areas of soil, in layers. The soil for lling may be won from the cut areas. The cut area will be already sufciently compact. Fill is used when part of the site is below the required level, and soil, or other suitable material, is imported to the site to raise the work area. This method requires compaction of the lled area in layers. After completion of the nal grading and levelling of the site, the excavation of foundations can commence.

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MODULE 1 SHEET 5

Trench Excavation
Trenches must be excavated for foundations, drainage pipes and services. On small scale works, such as extensions to houses etc, hand tools such as pickaxes, spades, shovels and wheelbarrows are used for manual excavation of soil.

When the depth of excavation exceeds 1.2 metre, and/or the excavation becomes larger, mechanical methods of soil removal must be employed. Factors that inuence the choice of methods for excavation include: Volume of subsoil to be excavated. Nature of the site. Type of soil (e.g. stone requires mechanical excavation). Time constraints (how much time available for excavation). Safety of operatives.

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SITE CLEARANCE

Mechanical Excavators
The most common machine used for the excavation of trenches is the backactor. There are many types of machine in a variety of sizes. The backactor has a clawing action that scoops soil from an excavation and deposits this, either in a temporary spoil heap, or into a dumper/lorry for disposal elsewhere.

Modern backactor machine (wheeled) the photo on the left shows the backactor bucket clearly

The wheeled backactor (shown above) is very versatile and can move about a site quickly. The tracked excavator with backactor can turn through 360, and is usually larger allowing greater volumes of soil to be excavated in a given time period.

Large tracked backactor excavator

The backactor can be tted with various size buckets. The choice of which will depend upon the width of trench required.

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MODULE 1 SHEET 7

Groundwater Control
Care must be taken when excavating soil as it is possible that the water table level may be reached. This is the point at which the water level stands naturally in the ground. The amount of water (and therefore the water table level) in a given soil depends on the season, the composition of the soil and the nature of the land. Low lying areas are likely to have a high water table, whilst higher ground may typically have a lower water table. Water in soil can be classied by its position in the ground: Water can be classied as either: Surface water. Ground water. Subsoil water.
Rain, snow etc on the surface

Surface water run off from the surface Ground water water held in the subsoil Subsoil water water held in the ground below the water table

Water table Upper level of water held in the subsoil

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SITE CLEARANCE

Problems Caused by Subsoil Water

The following are potential problems caused by the presence of water in the subsoil of a construction site. Subsoil water can cause problems during excavation works by its natural tendency to ll in excavations due to hydrostatic pressure i.e. it will ow from the ground where it is under greater pressure into open space. A high water table may cause excessive ooding of the site (and the nished works) during wet periods. Water can cause an increase in humidity around completed substructures of buildings. Water can be a serious hazard in excavations. Construction in waterlogged trenches is difcult and may result in weaknesses in the substructure. The contractor must, therefore, resist the ingress of water into excavations as much as possible. This is typically done by employing pumps.

A vacuum piston pump being used to reduce ground water from an excavation

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Foundations
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

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MODULE 2 SHEET 9

Denition of the Term Foundation

A foundation is that part of a building or structure which is in direct contact with the ground and which transfers the loads imposed upon it to the subsoil beneath. The foundation that is constructed as part of the building or structure is termed the articial foundation, whilst the ground that supports this is termed the natural foundation.

Purpose of a Foundation
The purpose of a foundation is to spread the load, from the structure above, over an adequate bearing area of the subsoil, and to provide a stable, level base on which to build. Although foundations are normally out of sight, the effect of any movement of a foundation is likely to be very noticeable in the structure above. The foundation is sandwiched between the forces from the structure and those from the ground thus subjecting it to compressive forces, so the foundation must be constructed from a material that is strong enough to resist any forces being imposed upon it.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations are required to prevent undue settlement and consequent fracture of the building due to unequal loads and stresses at various points and to distribute these loads evenly over an area.

The foundation then, requires both strength and stability to full its role. The strength is related to the materials used to construct the foundations, but the stability depends on the way in which the foundation transmits the load to the subsoil, and the way in which the subsoil reacts. The strength of a material is a measure of its power to resist forces placed upon it. Some materials will resist both tensile and compressive forces; others will resist compressive but not tensile forces. It is therefore very important to know both the nature of the forces acting on a material and how the material reacts to such forces. The forces which act on a foundation are the weight of the building acting downwards, and the supporting resistance of the ground underneath which acts upwards (see gure above).

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MODULE 2 SHEET 11

Spread of Loads on Foundations

The manufactured material which is used to carry the weight of the building is usually concrete. Concrete is stronger than the natural soil which has to support it, so that the forces acting through the foundation may have to be distributed over a wider area of subsoil to support the weight. It is usually assumed that this spreading of the forces through the foundation happens within an angle of 45 from the vertical.
Load

Wall

Foundation

45

Spread of compressive forces in the natural foundation

As long as the foundation does not extend beyond this 45 line at its base, the forces within it can be assumed to be compressive only. To maintain this, however, when the wall becomes wider, the foundation should also become wider and deeper.

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Foundations
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Spread of Loads on Foundations

As stated previously the effect of spreading the load through 45 will affect the width and thickness of foundation as the load being carried becomes wider.

The effects of spreading of loads on foundations This widening and deepening of the foundation is unlikely to be economical though. The amount of excavation and concrete required would result in a very heavy and expensive structure. Solving the problem The solution is to make the foundation wider without making it thicker. This will ensure the load is spread over an adequate area of ground to support it safely. In this case, there is a tendency for the foundation to bend across its width and this in turn results in tensile forces in the bottom of the foundation. In this case, a material which is strong in tension and compression must be used to reinforce the foundation. The material most commonly used is steel reinforcement. Steel reinforcement can be either steel bars or steel mesh which is encased within the concrete.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

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MODULE 2 SHEET 13

Bearing Pressure
The bearing capacity of a foundation is the force per unit area imposed by the foundation on the subsoil beneath it. The bearing pressure of the subsoil is the force per unit area that the subsoil is capable of supporting.

Factor of Safety
Subsoil is a mixture of solid particles, air and water. As with any other material it has to be a certain strength to resist compressive forces, but it will fail if it is overloaded. In order to provide a factor of safety, it is usual to design a foundation so that the bearing pressure on the ground, imposed by the structure through the foundation, is about one third of the bearing pressure of the subsoil. Since on any particular building site it is necessary to take the subsoil as it is found, it is the foundation which has to be designed to provide a safe bearing pressure. This can be carried out in one of two ways: 1. By spreading the load over a wide area so that the force per unit area imposed upon the soil is reduced. 2. By taking the load to a greater depth where the subsoil is stronger and the force per unit area that the subsoil can carry is greater.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Settlement and Heave

The pressure which the foundation exerts on the soil will cause it to compress and move downwards, taking the foundation with it. This downwards movement is known as settlement, and one of the functions of a foundation is to ensure that uneven settlement across a building does not occur. Very little of the settlement of the soil under the weight of the building is due to the compression of solid particles in the soil. Almost all of the settlement is due to the water between the particles being forced out, enabling the solid particles to pack closer together. Therefore anything else which changes the amount of water in the subsoil will cause soil movement. When water freezes, it expands; in very cold weather, the water in the subsoil may freeze and cause the soil to heave, i.e. move upwards. When this occurs beneath a foundation, the pressure exerted could be sufcient to lift the foundation.
Roof and oor of the building protects the ground below from the elements

Wall tends to tilt when ground moves, and cracks can occur

Soil exposed to elements

Foundation will tend to tilt since the ground movement is greater at the outer edge

Depth of foundation base 600mm or less below ground level

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MODULE 2 SHEET 15

Further Factors Affecting the Depth Required for Foundations

After a long dry spell of weather, cracks sometimes appear in buildings which have stood for many years, indicating that the foundation has moved. In this case, the cause is likely to be that the water in the subsoil has dried out and the soil itself has shrunk.

Tree roots tend to accelerate this process by absorbing water in the soil and consequently drying it out. The roots of certain trees can often extend out in all directions greater than the tree. When a site has been cleared of trees, the reverse can happen. The roots no longer dry out the subsoil which in turn becomes wet and swells, resulting in heave, and possible cracking of the structure.

Cracks in external brickwork are often stepped and diagonal. The walls tend to be drawn outwards and downwards by the movement in the ground. Care must be taken when building near trees.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

The Solution to Movement of the Structure Due to Inadequate Depth

To avoid settlement or heave due to the effects of frost (or to extreme changes in water content, more likely in clay subsoils) the foundation must be taken down to a greater depth. For some soils this may need to be 600mm deep, and for clay the depth must be a minimum of 1 metre.
Wall remains stable under most conditions Roof protects the ground oor from elements

At least 1.00m

Note! No ground movement should occur if the foundation is at a depth of more than 1.80m

Depth at least 1.00m below ground level will produce only very slight movement which will not affect foundation

Benets of ensuring the foundation is at an adequate depth

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MODULE 2 SHEET 17

Typical Failure of Foundations

Strip foundations can fail due to cracking at their base induced by bending of the foundation, or due to shear cracking when it becomes overloaded.
Load Load

Strip foundation fails through shear force

Tension cracks appear when stress exceeds the concretes own resistance. Failure will occur through bending

Un-reinforced strip

Reinforcing the foundation to resist the forces that cause bending and cracking The foundation can be reinforced by inserting steel reinforcement bars or mesh into the concrete. This will reduce the tendency of the foundation to crack or bend.

Foundation reinforced with steel

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Foundations
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundation Types
Foundations are generally described by their shapes. Pad foundation For single loads which are transmitted down a brick pier, concrete column or steel stanchion, the most common foundation is a square or rectangular block of concrete of uniform thickness known as a pad foundation.

Pad foundation

In order to spread the load over a greater area it is necessary either to make the pad thicker or use reinforced concrete.

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Strip Foundation Under a wall, where the loading on the foundation is continuous, the support is commonly a continuous strip of concrete known as a strip foundation. The width of the strip will depend on the load to be carried and the strength of the ground. The traditional or shallow strip foundation consists of a continuous strip of un-reinforced mass concrete under the walls. This type of foundation is suitable for most subsoils and structural loadings associated with low to medium rise domestic and industrial buildings.

Strip foundation

In order to reduce failure through bending and shear, the foundation concrete has to be a minimum 150mm thick, and the projection from the face of the wall to the edge of the foundation concrete has to be at least equivalent to the concrete thickness. The diagram below shows the dimensions which will satisfy the current Building Regulations.

Depth to suit ground conditions

The depth D must be 150mm minimum and must be equal to, or greater than, the projection P and the distance P must be equal on either side of the wall.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Wide strip foundations If the use of traditional strip foundations is likely to overstress the bearing strata (the layer of ground on which the foundation sits), a wide strip foundation can be employed. The wide strip foundation would be designed to transmit the foundation loads across the full width of the strip. This might necessitate the foundation thickness being increased to overcome the bending and shear stress. In some cases, the thickness of concrete could become uneconomic and so reinforcement is used. Both longitudinal and transverse reinforcement are added to ensure the applied loads are supported without failure of the strip.

Longitudinal reinforcement

Transverse reinforcement

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Stepped strip foundation On sloping sites it is usual to step the foundation to follow the line of the ground and therefore reduce the amount of excavation required. A second benet of using stepped foundations is that the foundation is more likely to remains seated in the same strata of ground, avoiding potential differential settlement. When constructing stepped foundations, the construction starts at the lowest level of the site.

Building regulations relating to stepped foundations states: The minimum overlap L should be equal to twice the height of the step S or the foundation thickness T or a width of 300mm whichever is the greatest.
Height of step = two courses 150mm

Height of step = three courses 225mm

Steps should be constructed to gauge of brickwork or blockwork to avoid unnecessary cutting

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Narrow strip or trench ll foundation

In some cases, the working space required to build on top of a concrete strip foundation would make the strip wider than it would need to be to carry the load. In these circumstances, an economical alternative is the narrow strip foundation (or trench ll foundation as it is sometimes known). A narrow strip is excavated by the mechanical excavator and backlled with mass concrete. The bricklayer can then build off the foundation from ground level. A high standard of accuracy in constructing such a foundation is required, particularly if drains are to be let through the foundation. It is normal practice to box out drainage holes across the trench when pouring the concrete; this allows any drainage pipe or other services to pass through the foundation without risk of fracture at a later date. This foundation is often used where tree roots exist, the face of the trench being lined with polythene sheeting before pouring the concrete. This ensures that the concrete has a more smooth and dense surface. This tends to divert roots and avoids any potential root ingress into any holes in the foundation.

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Short bored piles It is sometimes necessary to avoid constructing foundations on soil close to the surface. This is usually due to poor bearing capacity of the soil. If this so then one alternative method is to transfer the load on the foundation to a greater depth. In this situation an economical solution is the use of a short bored pile foundation. Short bored piles are formed by boring circular holes 300mm diameter to a depth of about 3m by means of an auger. The holes are then lled with concrete and reinforced with steel bars which are left projecting from the top. The piles are placed at the corners of the building and at intermediate positions along the walls. The piles support reinforced concrete ring beams which are cast in place in the ground on top of the piles. It is on to these ring beams that the brickwork is built.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Raft foundations Raft foundations are often used on poor subsoils for lightly loaded buildings and are designed to be capable of accommodating small settlements of the subsoil. A raft foundation covers the whole of the oor and wall area of the structure. The reinforced oor slab is generally thickened out substantially under all the walls, and the loads from the walls are subsequently transferred into the whole of the slab.

No thickened toe on edge required for lightweight buildings

Raft foundation with thickened edges used in poor soil conditions

No thickened toe on edge required for lightweight buildings

Reinforced concrete raft

Thick raft foundation

The simplest and cheapest form of raft is the thick reinforced concrete raft. Its rigidity enables it to minimise the effects of differential settlement.

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TRANSFERRING LEVELS

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MODULE 3 SHEET 25

Reasons for Transferring Levels

There are a number or reasons for the transfer of levels in substructure work. These include: To establish the level of the ground for excavation (both oversite and trenches). To ensure materials such as concrete and hardcore are laid to an accurate level. To establish datum for bricklaying, e.g. DPC level. To establish a level for concrete formwork, e.g. when constructing a concrete raft foundation. The following pages deal with the transfer of levels for work involving strip foundations and raft foundations.

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Foundations
TRANSFERRING LEVELS

Transferring Levels from the Datum to the Foundation (Strip)

During the process of setting out, as the proles are erected to mark out the excavation lines and wall lines, a datum peg is positioned to mark a predetermined level, such as DPC or oor level. This is the level from which the bricklayer or ground worker will transfer levels, to control the depth of the foundations and brick footings. To set the level of the top of a strip foundation, a spirit level and straightedge are placed on top of the datum peg and held steady whilst adjusting it to the horizontal (level). A tape measure or gauge lath is held vertically at the side of the straightedge, and a peg is driven into the base of the foundation trench. The aim is to set the peg to be at least the minimum specied thickness of concrete above the base of the trench, whilst working a distance that is gauge from the datum peg. This ensures that the distance is a multiple of brick courses and that any later adjustment for gauge is minimal.
Spirit level and straightedge

Datum peg

Gauge rod Multiple of brick courses Concrete thickness peg

Concrete thickness

Transferring levels from datum to foundation strip

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Having set the rst peg to gauge from the datum, the level must be transferred all around the buildings foundation to provide a guide for the top of the concrete when poured. Optical levels are most commonly used to do this (see the levelling section in the Setting Out section). However, at times the, bricklayer will nd it more convenient to simply transfer the levels around the trench by the use of a straightedge and spirit level. The straightedge and spirit level are used as shown in the gure below. It is essential to REVERSE the level and straightedge at each peg reading. This ensures that any discrepancy in the straightedge or level is not repeated at every peg, but cancelled out at every other reading.
Datum peg Depth to be a multiple of brick courses

Spirit level and straightedge

Transferring levels around the foundation strip

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Foundations
TRANSFERRING LEVELS

Another method of transferring levels around a trench is by the use of boning rods. Boning rods are made from timber and are usually painted so that they are easily seen. Boning rods are typically used in threes, the middle one being known as the traveller. Two known level pegs are required to be placed at either end of the trench. Boning rods are placed on both pegs and held upright. The other pegs can then be determined by sighting in between the two xed boning rods onto the traveller as shown below.
Line of sight Traveller Boning rods Levelling pegs

Use of boning rods within a trench

When all of the level pegs have been positioned, the bottom of the trench can be trimmed to give the required depth of concrete, e.g. 225mm. Soil must not be used to backll any depressions. Extra concrete should be used in this case; so for economy, great care should be taken to trim the trench base as accurately as possible.

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Transferring Levels from the Datum to the Foundation (Raft)

A simple raft foundation covers the whole of the base area of the building, with a substantial thickening of the reinforced concrete slab at the edges, to support the walls. Other design types exist but the principle of transferring levels for these remains the same. A typical excavation for a raft foundation at the edge may look like the drawing below.

A typical excavation for a raft foundation at the edge of the foundation

As the edge of the slab must be supported above the ground, metal or timber formwork must be xed temporarily at the side of the foundation trench to the height of the oor slab which will be at datum level. As the formwork stands proud of the surrounding ground it is generally necessary to support it by strutting. This is to prevent the formwork moving when the concrete is poured. Boning rods or sight rails (permanent horizontal rails often xed above the proles at corners of the building when setting out) are set up, and the traveller is placed on top of the formwork when xing into place to determine the top level.

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MODULE 4 SHEET 30

Types of Concrete Used for Foundations

Conventional concrete used in building projects such as foundations requires a certain amount of compaction to achieve strength and durability by turning it into a homogeneous mass. The typical method of compaction for reinforced concrete is to use a mechanical poker to vibrate it, whilst a simple strip foundation can compacted by method of hand tamping. This method can prove to be a costly process and can lead to delays in placing the concrete. The concrete should be placed into the prepared foundation with care. The main objective when placing the concrete is to place it as near as possible to its nal position, quickly and efciently, to avoid segregation or separation of the materials. The size of the foundation and the amount of concrete required will often dictate whether the concrete is mixed on site or purchased from a company who produce ready-mix concrete and imported to the site. On sites where the amount of concrete is small, the concrete is mixed using a small concrete mixer and placed using wheelbarrows.

Placing by means of a wheelbarrow

In shallow foundations two battens are often used as a chute to slide the concrete into place and the concrete is compacted by use of a shovel or hand tamp (heavy weight on a rod), before tamping it to level. Mechanical compaction such as a vibrating poker may alternatively be used.

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PLACING CONCRETE IN FOUNDATIONS

Placement of Concrete in Strip Foundations

If the foundation is a strip or trench then the sides of the trench are usually supported by means of wooden or metal formwork to keep the concrete in place. The insides of the formwork are kept apart and supported using trench struts.

Trench struts

Trench bottom being compacted

Before placing concrete into the formwork, it is important to ensure that the inside of the formwork has been treated with a releasing agent, e.g. mould oil. This will allow the formwork to be removed after the concrete has set, without damaging the concrete. It is also very important that the bottom of the trench be compacted to give a sound, rm base. If the base is soft it may be necessary to lay a hardcore foundation to the base. In deep foundations it is necessary to use a chute to allow the concrete to slide down from the ready-mix lorry, dumper or barrow into the foundation as near as possible to its nal position.

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Placing, Compacting and Levelling Concrete in a Raft Foundation

If the foundation is a raft foundation without any edges being supported by earth on the sides, then the concrete is usually placed within simple formwork to prevent the concrete from spilling. If the raft has an edge beam then the edge of the beam will be supported to prevent any earth spilling into the trench or slab.

Raft foundation edge supports

Unlike strip foundations, which may often be deep within a trench, most raft foundations are at ground level or just below. There should not be a danger of falling concrete being segregated, but chutes will still be required to place the concrete into the centre of the concreted area.

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Levelling the Concrete when Placed

If the width of the concrete slab is not too great, the concrete can be levelled using tamping boards across the formwork and either moved by hand or machine. A mechanical beam vibrator/compactor can be used to tamp a larger slab. This reduces the manual work involved in the levelling of concrete.

A further benet of using a mechanical beam vibrator/compactor is that it helps to ensure that the concrete is free of excess air, thereby making the concrete stronger and more durable.

Beam compactor

Mechanical beam vibrator

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Ready-mix Concrete
To ease the burden of mixing and placing and levelling concrete for foundations, most builders use ready-mix concrete. Ready-mix concrete is durable, versatile and highly economical. Ready-mix concrete is a mixture of ne and coarse aggregate, along with water and cement and various additives. Once the ingredients are combined, a chemical reaction occurs between the cement and the water and this paste hardens around and between the aggregates to form the hard mass known as concrete. Different additives can be included in the mix to make the wet concrete more workable by making it more uid and increasing the setting time of the concrete without it losing any strength when it is set. This allows this type of concrete to be placed easily, usually by means of a chute or, in some cases, by pumping it into place. New innovations in mix design have led to a series of new types of ready-mix concrete. These new types of concrete have been designed to make the placement and compaction of foundation concrete easier and simpler by making them more uid, and in some cases, self-levelling. Some of these new types include such names as Self-compacting concrete, Foundation ow and Supao. The advantages of these types of concrete over traditional concrete are: Speed of application. Accuracy of placement. Reduction in overall cost. Reduction in levelling and compaction time. Good surface nish. Care must be taken when placing this type of concrete into foundation formwork as it is a heavy uid mixture that weighs approximately 2.3 tonnes per cubic metre.

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A full load of 6 cubic metres can weigh 14 tonnes, and a fully loaded mixer truck can weigh over 20 tonnes. Therefore care must be taken when bringing this type of truck onto the site as it may get bogged down if the site is wet, or it might cause the sides of trenches to collapse and dislodge the formwork if it is allowed to get too close to the trench. This type of concrete needs to be laid on well compacted ground that has been covered with a sheet of plastic or polythene. This will prevent moisture loss into absorbent ground, thus preventing the concrete from drying out too quickly prior to levelling and nishing. It also allows the hardened concrete to slide over the ground without undue restraint as it expands and contracts due to climatic temperature changes. Unless the topsoil can be compacted to give a sound base, it should always be removed and replaced with a foundation of hardcore covered with a layer of sand which should be compacted until rm.

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MODULE 4 SHEET 36

The Need to Cure Concrete

Concrete should be allowed sufcient time to set. The time needed for this depends upon the type of concrete, its thickness and its position. The atmospheric conditions when the concrete is poured, in particular, will affect the setting time. When concreting in hot weather or windy conditions, there is a great risk of concrete not reaching its maximum potential strength, owing to early drying. Concrete should be allowed to set and harden at its natural rate to create maximum strength and impermeability. To ensure that this happens, the concrete should be cured, i.e. prevented from losing excess water too quickly which effectively stops the chemical process of hydration. This is essential for the concrete to gain maximum strength and durability. Curing the concrete Water can be retained in concrete a number of ways, including: Covering concrete with damp hessian and spraying to maintain its damp state. Covering it with polythene sheeting. Spraying proprietary curing compounds onto the concrete to seal the surface. Curing time, as a general rule, should be approximately seven days for horizontal surfaces and four days for vertical surfaces. Protection from frost In inclement weather, it is necessary to cover the concrete to protect it from frost. Hessian sheets are also used for this purpose. However, in this case, the sheets should be as dry as possible, rather than damp.

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Foundations
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MODULE 5 SHEET 37

Brickwork up to DPC Level on Strip Foundations

After the foundations have been concreted, the bricklayer has to set out the position of the main corners of the building. When a site is set out (refer to the section on setting out), corner proles are erected to show where the excavation should take place, as indicated below. Then at this stage, with the concrete foundations placed, set and ready to be built on, the corner proles are used again to support ranging lines. The proles will have been marked with nails or saw cuts to indicate the positions of trenches and walls. The rst step in establishing the wall positions is to attach the ranging lines to the appropriate marks on the corner proles. These ranging lines will cross at the corners of the building to indicate the position of each brickwork/blockwork quoin. At this stage the lines must be checked for accuracy. This is essential as the proles may have been disturbed during the excavation/concreting stages. A spirit level is now used to plumb down from these lines to transfer their position to the concrete foundation. A mortar screed should be spread along the foundation, and thin lines cut into this with the trowel to indicate the position of the lines.

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MODULE 5 SHEET 38

Foundations
BRICKWORK BELOW GROUND LEVEL

Building Corner Brickwork

The distance from the concrete to the datum should be a multiple of brick courses. The datum is usually set at DPC level. If this distance is not a multiple of brick courses, you may have to either: Grind down the bed joints. Build up the bed joints. Split courses should be avoided as these would produce a waste of materials and take a lot of time to build. Careful planning at the outset will prevent the need for using split courses. The bricks are laid as for normal brickwork, and the corner is erected by raking back each course until the correct height is reached. It is important to dry bond the walls fully before building corners, to prevent any broken bond occurring.

Corners are laid and raked back

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MODULE 5 SHEET 39

Problems with Working below Ground Level

After the corners have been erected, the walls can be run in. Working below ground level is very different to working above ground. The materials have to be set out above ground on the banks of the excavation taking care not to place too much pressure on the trench sides. The space in the trench may be very tight. The space available may be limited to only 150mm in some cases. If cavity walls are being built, then the facing wall will be easier to build because there is more room when building the rst leaf of the wall. The inner wall may be very tight to construct. It is wise to wear waterproof trousers if the trench sides are wet and muddy. These may also offer some protection if the trench sides have stones in them, which can scratch the legs badly. Sometimes the bricklayer might decide to work from the ground level and bend down into the trench.

Cavity wall below ground level

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MODULE 5 SHEET 40

Foundations
BRICKWORK BELOW GROUND LEVEL

Foundation Blocks
The use of foundation blocks is now very common. The blocks used are a very dense strong block that can support the brickwork and blockwork built above ground level. The use of these, rather than bricks or concrete blocks in two separate walls, speeds up the work considerably. This method also eliminates the need to ll the cavity with weak concrete ll. When building in this way it will be necessary to change to brickwork on the outer or face wall. This usually occurs two or three brick courses below ground level.

Blockwork below ground level

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MODULE 5 SHEET 41

Stepped Foundations
When building foundation brickwork on stepped foundations extra care should be taken. Work must always start at the lowest level. The rst course is set out as for ordinary strip foundations but care should be taken when ranging in the rst course due to the differences in level. The concrete foundation should be marked out as stated previously for level foundations. It is wise to check that each step in the foundation is in multiple brick courses at this stage. Before commencing to lay bricks it is important to set out the bond dry to avoid broken bond or reverse bond (starting with a header rather than a stretcher or vice versa, possibly resulting in a half bat in the wall). This is less likely to be a problem when you are building block footings as the blocks are generally used up to the point where the walls are levelled around. The bonding of brickwork is then done on top of the levelled blockwork. Once the corner bricks, have been established and laid, a line can be stretched diagonally between the corners, and this will help to mark the positions of the wall at each step and will help to maintain the true line of the wall.
Height of step = two courses 150mm

Height of step = three courses 225mm

Steps should be constructed to gauge of brickwork or blockwork to avoid unnecessary cutting

Brickwork below ground level laid on to stepped foundations

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MODULE 5 SHEET 42

Foundations
BRICKWORK BELOW GROUND LEVEL

Stepped Foundations
When the wall positions have been determined, the corner can be built and the wall completed as shown below. When all the brickwork or blockwork on the steps has been built up to level, the remainder of the footings are built as for normal masonry foundations.

Brickwork levelled off to rst course

Brickwork to Raft Foundations

Depending on the design of the raft foundation, there is very little work up to DPC. With the simplest raft foundations, which are used for lightweight structures, only two courses are required.

Simple raft foundation

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MODULE 5 SHEET 43

Brickwork to Raft Foundations

Some raft foundations are deeper into the ground and would therefore require more foundation brickwork or blockwork. The number of courses would depend upon how deep the foundation is in the ground but care must be taken when positioning the DPC so that it conforms to the building regulations as to its height above ground level.
If foundation is deeper, more courses of brickwork will be required to reach DPC level

Deeper raft foundation

NOTE: It is generally simpler to build walls from a raft foundation than from a foundation within a trench. Once all the work has been nished up to DPC level, and the mortar has set and achieved strength, then the excavation will require backlling and any surplus subsoil to be removed from the site.

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Foundations
SOLID GROUND FLOORS

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MODULE 6 SHEET 44

Solid Ground Floors

Following the completion of the foundation brickwork, the ground oors of the building can be constructed. There are two main types of ground oors: Solid oors. Hollow oors. Some buildings can be designed to incorporate both hollow and solid ground oors. Concrete ground oors consist of the following components, in order: Hardcore. Blinding. DPC membrane. Site concrete. Insulation. A oor nish.

Typical solid ground oor

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MODULE 6 SHEET 45

Foundations
SOLID GROUND FLOORS

Components and Sequence of Building a Solid Ground Floor

Hardcore and blinding Hardcore is used to provide a rm and solid base on which to place the concrete slab. Blinding is usually building sand spread on top of the hardcore to provide an even bed and to prevent any puncturing of the DPC membrane by sharp pieces of hardcore. Hardcore should be laid in 100mm layers maximum, and each layer should be well compacted and consolidated. Hardcore can include such materials as stone, old masonry etc which has been accepted by the architect, and is either tipped direct into the excavation or tipped on site and carted into the excavation. The hardcore should not contain any water-soluble sulphates or other harmful matter which could cause damage to any part of the oor. This rule prevents the use of any material which will expand on becoming damp, causing pressure to form under the oor.

DPC membrane, blinding and hardcore in place

The damp-proof membrane sheeting should be laid on top of the blinding and should be lapped onto the horizontal DPC of the brickwork to form a continuous membrane.

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MODULE 6 SHEET 46

Compaction of hardcore Hardcore must be compacted in 100mm layers maximum thickness. This should prevent any unacceptable settlement beneath the nished solid oor. The main item of small plant which is used to compact hardcore is a plate compactor. The whole area of the foundation base has to be completely compacted and consolidated, and care must be taken not to damage or disturb the brickwork when using the compactor. For small areas a hand tamp can be used.

Plate compactor or wacker

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MODULE 6 SHEET 47

Foundations
SOLID GROUND FLOORS

Insulation The Building Regulations require ground oors to be insulated to prevent heat loss. There are several types of insulation available such as expanded polystyrene and rigid foam insulation. Insulation should always be laid above the DPC membrane preferably under the oor slab, or alternatively under the oor nish. If it is not it could cause the insulation to become damp which will impair its performance.

Insulation positioned below oor nish

Insulation positioned below oor slab

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SOLID GROUND FLOORS

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MODULE 6 SHEET 48

Oversite concrete The concrete placed inbetween the ground oor walls is known as oversite concrete. The brickwork or blockwork on the internal walls acts as shuttering for the concrete. Oversite concrete should be at least 100mm thick. (If placed on insulation it is usual to have a minimum of 150mm thickness.) The thickness of hardcore should be at least equal to the concrete thickness. There is no need to trowel nish the concrete unless it is the nished oor of the building such as in a garage or store. A tamped nish is preferable to allow a oor screed to properly adhere to the oversite concrete. Sometimes, a solid oor has a oating oor or battened oor constructed on top of it. In this case it is necessary to nish the oor with a smooth wood oat nish.