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THE GIFT OF
Henrg W, Sage
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Av\53'y^'^
l\\\'h\\^ DV.
TA 350.H82
Theoretical mechanics; an elementary text
The
tine
original of
tiiis
book
is in
restrictions in
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004617829
THEORETICAL MECHANICS
Theoretical Mechanics
BY
L.
M/Hoskins
STANFORD UNIVERSITY,
CAL.
Copyright, igoo, by
L.'
M. HoSKlNS
PREFACE.
In a
first
course in Theoretical Mechanics the primary object to is a thorough grasp of fundamental princi-
ples. In most cases it is impossible to go beyond this object in the time available for the course. In the preparation of this text-book, the aim has been to present the fundamental principles in as clear
to enforce them by a sufficient The examples are for the most part simple applications of the theory presented in the text, many numerical exercises being included. The solution of exercises involving numerical data forms a part of the work of the student of
possible,
and
number
of illustrative examples.
as
which the importance should be emphasized. In the desire to cover much ground as possible, such work is too apt to be neglected. The mathematical training required for using the book is that
The most
(Statics)
may,
As regards arrangement,
This
is
one reason
instead of treating
it
I, if
As
leges.
More
has,
will
usually be
The
precise
due account of the relative importance of the various and of the limitations of time. It is hoped that the arrangement of the book is such as to facilitate whatever abridgteacher, taking
find desirable.
down
to the narrowest
may
be of service.
PREFACE.
Chapters I-V.
resolution of forces
These
as applied to
a rigid body acted upon by coplanar forces. Chapters XII-XVII omitting some of the applications in ChapThese chapters cover ters XIII and XV, and 2 of Chapter XVI.
;
including a general discussion of the laws of motion and an introduction to the theory of energy.
Chapters
gineering,
VI and VII are of practical value and the course should include at
and g
of
Chapter IX.
Chapters
XVIII-XX
Dynamics
the course.
In Chapter
XIX,
is
application in
may be
book
in
in
students of engineering,
hoped
its
that
it
may
preparation for the study of mathematical physics. The opinion is sometimes expressed that the needs of these different classes of students require essentially different methods of treating the subject.
This
course,
For
all
stu-
ability to
apply them.
Stanford University,
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Introductory.
Preliminary Notions
;
PART
II.
I.
STATICS.
.
.
i6
Conception of Force Classes of Forces Numerical Representation of Forces and of Masses Definitions.
; ;
III.
Coxcurrent Forces.
27
;
IMoments
Equilibrium.
AND RESOLUTION OF NoN-CONCURRENT FORCES THE Sa.me Plane. Two Forces; Couples; Any Number of Forces.
49
\'.
Equilibriuji of
Coplanar Forces.
;
65
General Principles
Applications.
92
Determination of InterEquilibrium of Any Part of a Body Equilibrium of a S\'Stem of Bodies Stress. nal Forces
;
VII. Friction.
\TII. Equilibriu.m
106
of Flexible Cords.
IX. Centroids.
...
; ; .
114 124
Centroids of Masses, Volumes, Centroid of Parallel Forces Areas and Lines Determination of Centroids by Integration.
;
X. Forces in
librium.
Three Dimensions.
Couples
;
141
Concurrent Forces
Non-concurrent Forces
Equi-
XI. Gr.witation.
Spherical Shells.
155
; ;
CONTENTS.
PART
CHAPTER
XII.
II.
MOTION OF A PARTICLE.
PAGE
.
Motion
in
167
Velocity-Increment
XIII.
Motion
in
a Straight Line
;
Applications.
;
186
General Method Constant Force Force Varying with Distance from Fixed Point; Miscellaneous Problems.
208
and Velocity Velocity-Increment and Acceleration; Motion and Force Simultaneous Motions.
; ;
236
Motion in a Plane Motion Under Any Resultant Force Constant or Zero Central Force
of Specifying
; ;
277
Motion
in
Any
.
Path.
XVII.
Work and
Work
in
Energy.
Case
of Rectilinear
;
298
Energy
of a Particle
PART
III.
XVIII. Motion of
Particles.
.321
Motions of Individual Particles and of Center of Mass; Angular Motion Effective Forces D' Alembert's Principle.
;
....
;
331
Plane Area.
...
346
360
CONTEXTS.
CHAPTER XXII. Principle of Impulse and Momentum.
IX
PAGE
.
382
Any System
Motion
XXIII.
of
Particles;
;
Translation or of Rotation
of Rigid
Body.
.
.
Theory of Energy.
;
;o5
External and Internal W^ork Energy of Any System of Particles Conservation of Energy Rigid System Principle of
; ; ;
Virtual
Work.
Index
........
433
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
I.
Preliminarv Notions,
I.
Mechanics Defined.
in
Alechanks
is
This state-
ment means that the motions of bodies depend in an invariable way upon certain definite conditions. The fundamental object of the science of Mechanics is to investigate these conditions and to formulate
the laws in accordance with which they determine the motion.
In
its
propositions not deducfrom anything more fundamental. So far as these postulates and the principles deduced from them gi\'e a true account of the
ible
science.
These fundamental laws, however, involve certain conceptions of matter and of motion which are ideal. This is necessarily the case. The motion of a body can be completely specified only by describing the motion of every ultimate portion of which it is composed The bodies yet the ultimate structure of matter is wholly unknown. to which the laws of motion apply are therefore defined in an ideal Moreover, the very conception of motion involves the abstract way. Because of notions of Geometry, with the notion of time added. this ideal character of the lau's, the science based upon them is
;
2
2.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Material Bodies.
attempt need be
A body
made
is
any
No
to define matter or to
enumerate
is
its
properties.
A sufficiently
supplied by
ordinary experience.
The
definite definite
3.
'
'
a study of their
which are of importance in motions are the following (i) Every body has a
:
volume and a
mass ;
(3) bodies
Mass.
The
mass
'
of a
body
is
its
These words, however, convey no definite idea of the meaning of mass as a factor in the determination* of motion. A satisfactory definition of mass cannot be given in advance of a discussion of the fundamental laws of motion. We conceive of mass as the one invariable characteristic of matEvery individual portion of matter is regarded as possessing ter. a definite mass whose value is uninfluenced by changes of position or
quantity of matter.
'
may
mass
it
exerts
regarded
force
4. Force.
is
body acted
upon.
pull, acting upon a Such a push or pull always tends to change the motion of the body but this tendency may be counteracted in whole or in part by the action of other forces.
force
may be
definite portion of a
Mechanics is often called the science of motion and force, because of the importance of force in the development of the laws of the
science.
is
satis-
except by a
of motion.
5. Particle.
to be divided into
particle.
very
Ideally, there
no
mathematical analysis
become vanishingly
INTRODUCTORY.
These particles may be conceived in either of two ways, corresponding to two different conceptions of the structure of matter.
(i) It
may
is
By
this
it
whose
mass
sists
is finite
occupies a
finite
volume.
(2)
It
may
be assumed that any definite portion of matter confinite mass but occupies ho
finite
volume.
The hypothesis of continuity does not necessarily imply that there may not be void spaces between the parts of a body. In mathematical language its meaning may be stated as follows Let J\I be
:
body and V its volume and let Aj^/ be the mass of a small portion whose volume is A V. Then if A F is taken smaller and smaller so that A Vi V approaches zero, the hypothesis of continuity imphes that AJ/ J/ also approaches zero while the
the mass of a
; ;
J/may
be
finite.
it
is
adopted.
it is
regarded as a
linear
body whose
its
dimenis
motion
often
regarded as a
6.
particle.
Rigid Body.
particles
do not change
An
witli
and
if
doubdess be found to be in rapid motion, thus departing very far But disfrom tlie condition specified in the definition of rigidity. regarding the motions of ultimate particles and considering only the motion of a body as a whole, the theory of the motion of an ideal rigid body describes with great accuracy the motion of an actual solid
constant.
In
planations
definitions.
has been assumed that position and motion need no It is, in fact, doubtful whether any definitions can be
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
By the
body
in
position of a particle
is
meant
its
relation in space to
some
A particle is in
motion when
motion when
its
position
it
is
changing.
A body is
are in motion.
What
position
shall
and motion of a particle is a matter of arbitrary choice. The motion Position and motion are thus not absolute but relative. from different of a particle with reference to one body may be very
motion with reference to another.
8.
its
Kinds
of
Quantity. The
In
the development of the principles of the science other quantities are introduced which are derived from these but involve no other
elementary conceptions.*
9.
may
dealt with.
(a)
(1^)
On
Mechanics of a Particle and of systems of particles in general. Mechanics of Solid Bodies, including (i) rigid and (2) non-
rigid solids.
Mechanics of Fluids, including (i) liquids and (2) gases. present work deals mainly with particles and with rigid solids. Second, the basis of subdivision may be the findamental kinds On this basis the whole subject, and each of of quantity involved. the above divisions, may be divided as follows
(<r)
The
producing or influencing
matics,
it.
Under
Pure Kine-
Dynamics, treating of forces and of their influence upon the Dynamics, the science of force, is again subdivided into Statics and Kinetics.
{b)
motions of bodies.
* It is pointed out in a later chapter that these four quantities are not always regarded as being all fundamental. In particular, force is often regarded as a quantity which must be defined in terms of mass, space an time. Ordinary experience, however, supplies a tolerably definite notion of force which is wholly independent of any conception of the meaning of the laws of motion. See " The Six Gateways of Knowledge," by Lord Kelvin.
-J
INTRODUCTORY.
and especially of the conditions under which forces are balanced so that they do not affect the motions of the bodies acted upon. Kinetics treats of the laws in accordance with which the motions of bodies are influenced by the forces acting upon them and by their
masses.
Strictly speaking, Kinetics includes Statics
;
for
from a knowledge
may be
derived
all
and
to the conditions
Statics
and
Dy-
namics
first,
is
a case of
The arrangement
either of the
of subjects in this
strictly follow
above
classifications,
but
is
of beginners
by presenting the
different topics
somewhat
in the order
:
of their difficulty.
as follows
Part
I.
Statics
particle or a
rigid body.
Part
II.
Motion of a
Particle
Motion of Systems of
Particles
a plane.
The remaining
is
devoted to
2.
TJte
Numerical Representation of
Quantities.
The magnitudes of any 10. Comparison of Like Quantities. two quantities of the same kind (as two distances, or two intervals of time, or two forces) may be compared by determining their ratio. Such a ratio is an abstract number.
11.
Numerical Value
of
a Quantity.
6 a quantity
the
is
THEORETICAL MECHAXICS.
the ratio of
its
magnitude
as a standard.
a unit.
number
The
pressed
wholly arbitrary.
common
use several
different units of length, as the foot, the inch, the yard, the mile, the
meter
the year
and several
units
Numerical Value Depends on Unit. Evidently, the numerical value of a quantity gives no idea of its magnitude unless the unit employed is known. Any given quantity may be represented by any number whatever, by properly choosing the unit. Thus, the same distance may be called 10,560 feet, 3,520 yards, or 2 miles. But the ratio of two quantities of the same kind is a definite number, which depends only upon the magnitudes of the quantities, and not upon their numerical values. The ratio of the numerical values of two quantities is the same as the ratio of the quantities
12.
themselves if they
13.
a7'e
expressed in the
same
unit,
Although,
above
terms of which quantities of any particular kind are expressed numerically may be chosen arbitrarily, it is usually
stated, the unit in
advantageous to choose the units for quantitiesof different kinds in such a way that certain of them depend upon others. In Physics, the usual practice is to choose arbitrarily the units of time, length and mass, and to make all other units depend upon these. Those
units
which are chosen arbitrarily are called fundamental, while those which are so defined as to depend upon the fundamental units are called derived units.
For example, the unit of area is usually taken as the area of a square whose side has the unit length. It should, however, be cleariy understood that this dependence is not necessary, but is
merely assumed
14.
for convenience.
Dimensions
of
Derived
commonly employed
to describe the
units.
'
INTRODUCTORY.
Thus,
if
is
may
(unit area)
(unit length) ^
is
Sim-
edge has the unit length, the unit volume involves three dimensions
of length. In the illustrations just given,
quantity (length)
is
employed.
There
ing pages to deal with derived units which depend upon two or
more fundamental
units.
is made to depend upon the fundamental units is to some extent arbitrary, and by changing the manner of dependence the dimensions of any given
kind of quantity
may
be changed.
This subject
will
be further
15.
Dimensional Equations.
is
The dimensional
equation above
written
It is
merely a concise method of expressing the way in which the derived unit (of area) is made to depend upon the fundamental unit
(of length).
It
will
The quantities the use of symbols to denote the various units. whose units are taken as fundamental in the following pages are
usually
some or
all
of the following
In
M, T, F
will
be used to
3.
Vector Quantities.
A directed straight
line
of def-
a vector.
is
A
nitude.
vector quantity
Any vector quantity may be represented by a vector. For this purpose the direction of the vector must agree with that of the quan-
8
tity to
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
be represented, and
its
of the quantity.
In order that the length of a line
may
That
is,
a certain
The length thus chosen is arbitrary, but when to be represented. once chosen, the length representing any definite magnitude of the
kind
in question is
determined.
designated by naming, in proper order, the
ends.
A
letters
vector
may be
its
placed at
Thus,
if
and
AB and BA
rection.
in
the
limited to quan-
two opposite
scalar quantity
Such
quantities
magnitude and
algebraic sign.
17.
Equality of Vectors.
to be equal
if
Thus,
if
MN
and
-TV
and of equal
length,
we may
write
MN = PQ.
were an ordinary algebraic equation, would express only equality of length, and would be equally true if the lines were
If this
it
not parallel
equality of length.
it
i,
MN= QP
is
added but the word addition is used to describe the process of combining two vectors in the followscalars are
in the sense in
which
ing manner
INTRODUCTORY.
Let
is
g
;
sum
and PQ (Fig. 2) represent two vectors then by their meant a vector determined as follows Make AB equal and parallel to MM, and BC equal and par:
MN
PQ
;
allel to
then
AC
quired sum.
In fact, there
may
be writ-
AB + BC = AC
But
this
or
MN+ PQ = AC.
must be understood as a vecand not as applying to the lengths iMN, PQ and A C. If the order of the two vectors is changed their sum remains the same. X For if lines equal and parallel to PQ and ^< j\[N be laid off successively from A, the Fig. 2. result will be AB' and B' C, which, with AB and BC, form a parallelogram of which AC Vs 2, diagonal. Next, let any three vectors be drawn consecutively, as AB, BC,
tor equation,
CD
Fig. 3)
then
AD
is
called their
in
may
be drawn
sum
as thus defined.
also evident
_/^^
'^^^'^
AB ^ BC ^ CD = AC Ar CD = {AB -f BC) + CD
;
that
Fig.
3.
is,
vectors
the
same
to
sum
The same
tors.
construction
may be extended
Parallel vectors
may
be disringuished
and minus as in Algebra. Thus, if A and B are any two points, the two vectors AB and BA may be designated by prefixing signs plus and minus to the same symbol if the symbol /> represents the vector AB, / represents the vector BA. The minus sign may thus be used to denote reversal of the di-
by
signs plus
we may
write
AB
-BA.
lO
It
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
may
following definition
To subtract a vector
is to
add its
:
negative.
With
vectors
between two
the vector
may
it
be found as follows
Let
PQ
(Fig. 4).
Lay
then
off
AB = MN
MN from
]^
and
AC^PQ;
PQ
= AC+BA=BA+AC = BC.
Equations.
MN =AC~AB
/^ ^'^
^ ^
*^o ^
20. Vector
From
may
the
vector equations
be
F'*^- 4-
formed containing any number of terms in each member, and may be transformed
ple rules.
in
Thus,
\{
A, B,
C,
D, E,
are
any
tion
we may
AB^BC^ CD =
AE + EF + FDfor
(i)
each
member of
is
the
equation
vector
equal to the
AD.
equations
In several particulars
vector
may
same
rules as the equations of ordinary Algebra.
be treated by the
of a vector equa-
(i)
to
each
member
if
the equality.
Thus,
a vector
DM be
added
member becomes equal to AM, and therefore the equality still holds. By an extension of this principle, any number of vector equations may be added, member to member.
(2)
member
term
its
may
changing
equation
sign.
be transposed from one member to the other by Thus, from equation (i) we ma>' derix'c the
IXTRODUCTORV.
II
or
CD
at
and changing
its
sign.
The order
member
of a vector equa-
may be changed
their
change
sum.
21. Constant
tity
A vector quan-
may
A
in
magnitude or
If
in direction, or in both.
is
a point
fixed, while
is
another point
If
AB
\'ariable.
which
at a certain
instant passes
\-ector
varies in
magnitude only.
describes
circle
with
and
in direction. 22.
Increment
of
Variable Vector.
If
different values at
the \ector
pro-
duce the
final value.
be determined, when the initial and final values of the vector are known, by the fol-
lowing construction
From any
and OB,
point
OA
final
representing the
and
then
^"^-
AB
For, there
may be
written the
vector equation
OA^AB=OB,
satisfies the definition of increment just given. showing that The increment is evidendy found by subtracting the initial \alue For of the variable vector from the final value.
AB
OBOA=AB.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
In general,
if />,
denotes the
initial
is
equal to/^
Pl^
p.,
its final
To
refsolve
a vector
is
to express
as
the
sum
it
of any
given vector,
which
AB
is
a side
thus,
points whatever.
The
vectors
;
to vectors lying
in,
or parallel
to,
the
same
plane.
The foregoing
Two
to
sum
any two
lines
coplanar with
the given
For, let
AB
(Fig. 7)
,5 and MN, PQ
draw a
line parallel to
From
line parallel to
MN,
;
and from
i? a
PQ.
and
Let
C be
the point of
then
= AB,
An
draw
AC
-\-
CB
and
AC
CB
components.
equally correct construction
is
to
Uy
to
since
MN. The result is the same as before, A C and CB are equal vectors, as
are also
AC and
CB.
Evidently only one pair of components can be found which are equivalent to a given vector and have assigned directions.
25. Resolved Part of a Vector.
AC
1{
and
CB
If
other, each
part oi AB.
is
AB represents any vector quantity, and the angle between AB and a given direc-
A
piG. 8
'
INTRODUCTORY.
tion, the
13
is
resolved part of
AB in
that direction
given
in
magnitude
by the product
(magnitude
AB) X
is
(cos 0).
The
lution.
sum
Thus
the
(Fig.
sum of the vectors AB, BC, CD, DE. The resolved parts
is
AE
9)
to the line
MN are
CD',
the
reis
A'B\ D'E'
solved
B'C,
;
while
part
of
A E
'
AE
sum
' .
Evidently
A E
'
MA
Fig.
9.
is
the algebraic
of
If a
vector
is
it
may be
it is
The
tion ;
localized
\\s,
may be
called
\\.?,
posi-
and the
which
localized
position-line.
27.
Moment
of Localized Vector.
is
T\\ft
niomcnt oi a localized
position-line
The
is
origin of
taken.
moments is the point about \\hich the moment The arm of the vector is the perpendicular distance
of
its
The plane of
the
In comparing
moments having
same
which may be distinguished by signs plus and minus. These cases are illustrated in is the origin of moFig. 10, in which ments and MN, PQ denote the directions and position-lines of two The relations of ^JAV and PQ to the origin localized vectors.
14
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
in opposite directions.
One
of these di-
Which
it
be called plus
that
may
be decided
arbitrarily.
For uniformity,
will usually
positi\-e direction is
counter-clock-
wise
of Triangle.
If a triangle
its
be constructed with
moments and
base
being
This
Moment
of
Sum
of
Two
sum
Vectors.
If/,
and
if
^ and
of
;-
represent
^
is
q^r,
their position-lines
meet
of the
moments
and q with
of r with
equal to the
moment
OB
and
OC
Fig.
II.
CCis
sides.
OA
and
OB
are
Let
Draw AIO.
Then
moment
" "
of
OA
"
OB^-- 2( "
MO A);
JJOJ])';
"
0C=
2i
"
"
A/OC).
INTRODUCTORY.
Draw.-/^',
15
BB\ CC,
each perpendicular to
MO.
The double
MO XAA\ MO X
Now,
for,
BB',
MO X CC
.
.
CC'^AA +
AC"
area
parallel to
BB';
seen that
(i)
drawing
0^^,
it is
BB'
= CC"
AA
'
= C" C
.
.
and
Hence
(2)
This proves the proposition for the case in which the moments of
the two gi\'en vectors ha\'e the
sign.
The
opposite signs
The
lettering
Fig.
12.
as in Fig. 11,
to
be employed
is
is
exactly similar.
The
algebraic
sum
of the
moments
now
CC = AA' BB'
instead of equation (i),
(i')
and therefore
area
J/0A
(2'
The foregoing
brief discussion
is
PART
I.
STATICS.
CHAPTER
II.
31. Motion of a
I.
Conception of Force.
if
Body
Uninfluenced
by Other
Bodies.
body
remains at rest, or
moves
except in so far as its motion is influenced by other bodies. See Art. 259.) ton' s first law of motion.
New-
bodies,
Since no body can be wholly free from the influence of other The indirect it is impossible to verify this law directly.
its
evidence for
truth
is,
When
body
is
observed to depart from a condition of uniform rectilinear motion, it is always found reasonable to attribute this departure to the influence
of other bodies.
air
ways:
its
its
The
first
we
we
When
is
first
said to exert
Force
may
an action exerted by one body upon another, tending to change the state of motion of the body acted upon. When an external body exerts a force upon any portion of the
A force
human body,
senses.
the action
(if sufficiently
intense)
is is
recognized by the
given to the force.
name
pjtsh or pull
It is therefore natural to conceive of every force as a push or a pull. This conception will be found useful in deciding what may properly
be called forces.
FORCE
33.
forces
AXl) STRESS.
of
I7
we form
if
applied to
two pressures are successively the same part of the body, one may be recognized as
Thus,
much
We
;
thus
come
to think of a force as
by means of
their
immediate
definite
upon the
but
senses.
a>
we
compare the
verified
and made
definite
when
upon
both a
magnitude and a
definite
a vector quantity
(Art. 16).
Like other vector quantities, forces may be represented by To accomplish this, some length
;
must be chosen to represent the unit force then any given force will be represented by a vector whose length is the same multiple of the chosen length that the magnitude of the force is of the unit force.
35.
If
second body One of the forces of of equal magnitude in the opposite direction. action and the other a reaction and an called is often such a pair words every action in the to there stated be may the principle
B, the
at the
; '
'
body
36. Stress.
A stress consists of
of matter.
Illustrations.
attract
Such a
Two
l8
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Two
may
certain surface.
cording to the law of gravitation acts upon every part of the mass,
and therefore
other
is
its
is
the body; while the pressure between two bodies which touch each
distributed over their surface of contact.
A
point.
concentrated force
is
a force of
finite
magnitude applied at a
Although
a concentrated force
is
a useful one.
In
many
force
approximately realized.
the study of the
eflTects
By
reached that a
It is
with
whose number
their individual
A force is
and a
(Art. 26).
definite line
thus regarded as having a definite point of application of action. It is thus a localised vector quantity
2.
Classes of Forces.
38. Conditions Under Which Forces Act The conditions under which bodies exert forces upon one another are known only from observation and experiment. It will be useful to enumerate a few cases of forces whose laws have been the subject of scientific
investigation.
Examples of Forces (i) Gravitatio7t. Any two bodies upon each other attractive forces in accordance with the following law, called Newton's law of gravitation
39.
exert
I9
Every particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force which acts in the line joining the two particles, and whose magnitude
is
If
electricity,
The
' '
'
in kind.
Magnetic forces. Two magnets exert upon each otherforces, both attractive and repulsive like poles repelling and unlike attract(3)
;
by two
composition
is
made up
the
is
made up
do not separately
that forces (besides the universal force of gravitation) act between the
ultimate particles.
40. Action at
'
'
a Distance.
' '
classified as
actions
at a distance
and
actions
by
contact.
'
'
Under the
and magnetic forces, since they apparendy are not exerted by means of any material Modern researches have connection between the bodies concerned. rendered it highly probable that electrical and magnetic forces are
former would be classed gravitational,
electrical,
through a
' '
medium
'
'
which
this
fills
all
space.
tation
made
to
show
may be
is
Whether
by contact
practically useful.
The
forces
one another are often divided into two classes, called respectively By an active force is meant active forces and passive resistances. one which acts independently of the state of motion of the body, and
also independentiy of
any other
forces
it
20
Thus,
if
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
a
body
rests
upon a horizontal
is
motion downward, and having the same magnitude and direction and also by a whatever other forces may be applied to the body passive resistance, exerted upward by the table to resist the tendency
;
move downward. This latter force acts only because body has a tendency to move downward through the table. If, by means of the hand, there be applied to the body a supporting force of less magnitude than the downward pull of the earth, the resisting force exerted by the table is diminished, its amount being
of the body to
the
If
downward
becomes
still
upon it upward force applied by the hand becomes exerts no force to resist the tendency of the
a passive resistance can
its
body go
This
but that
value cannot
it
is
same
But
practical
passive resistances
often useful.
In the following Articles are considered two cases of passive resistances which are of importance in the discussion of the problems
of Statics.
42. Pressure Between Bodies in Contact If two bodies touch each other, each exerts a force upon the other at the surface of
These contact forces are passive resistances, and (within any values necessary to resist certain relative motions of the bodies. But the magnitudes and directions of the forces which the bodies can exert upon each other are subject to certain limitations depending upon the nature of the surfaces and the material composing the bodies.
contact.
Let
reason
A andB (Fig. 13) represent the two bodies. If for any A has a tendency to slide upon B, this tendency will be
21
and may be wholly neutralized. The rougher the surfaces of contact, the greater the force that can be exerted to resist the sliding. If the surfaces be very smooth, the possible magnitude of
the force
is
very small.
:
Hence we
is
fol-
lowing definition
oflfer
body upon
Although this 'definition cannot be realized in the case of any actual body, certain surfaces approach
near to the condition of perfect smoothness.
If for
direction
any reason A has a tendency to move toward B in the of the normal to their surface of contact, the latter body is
this
magnitude which
resistance
'
is
limited only
' '
The by the
is
composed.
one.
can be exerted by a smooth surface The pressure exerted between rough surfaces
hinge.
be consid-
Smooth
manner
A
way
hinge joint
as to leave
is
often
bodies, in such a
relatively to
drical pin
of one body, or
rigidly
and a cylindrical hole formed in the other body, into which the pin is inserted. Such a conconnected with
it,
the pin and hole are of equal diameter) prevents any other rela-
tive motion.
the axis, the pin must be slightly smaller than the hole, so that the
common
to the
smooth, the pressure two the direction of their common normal. In the between them has smooth hinge is often introduced a as a means of problems of Statics, In such a case the pressure between the bodies connecting bodies. is to be taken as acting in a line through the center of the hinge.
cylindrical surfaces.
22
43.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Tension in a Flexible Cord
bent.
h. flexible
cord
\s
on& y^\iv^
resist-
may be
ance.
to
may be
bent without
No
bending
Let
may be very
(Fig.
AB
cord,
it
at
and let two equal and opposite forces, P and P' be applied to and B. Let C be any point between A and B. The force
tends to cause
AC
;
Xo
P^
,x^s^^v vv^v
;
^^
^P' move
'^s
to the
left
this
A,
C
Fig. 15.
prevented by a force
P exerted at C by CB
upon AB. Similarly, P' tends to cause CB to move to the right and this is prevented by a force equal and opposite to P' exerted at C by AC upon CB. That is, the two parts of the cord exert upon each other at C equal and opposite forces, constituting a stress (Art. The same is true at any other point between A and B. Such 36).
a
stress (resisting a
pulled tight between two points, any two adjacent portions exert upon each other forces par-
of the
cord.
a later chapter.
It is
introduced
problems to
a
Fif. 16.
be discussed
flexible
cord
often used as a
means of
if
Thus,
is attached to a body (Fig. 16) at a point B, a force of any magnitude applied to the cord at another point A, in the direction BA, will cause the cord to exert an equal force upon the body at B.
cord
3.
Gravit is
System.
of
44. Relation
force
Between Units
in
Force and of
Mass. Although
pos-
sible to
which each
is
expressed independently of
23
The method
now be
force
units.
This
is
is
and established
is
as the standard
by
Weight.
is
earth attracts
this
it,
From
same
differ-
But
may
not be propor-
body has
ticle
often to be included
among
it.
By
the law of gravitation every particle of the earth attracts every par-
These several forces may for many purposes be of the body. regarded as equivalent to a single force applied at a certain point The truth of this statecalled the center of gravity of the body.
ment
is
a force equal
force
is
at
The pound
positions
The pound
force
its
a certain
place at which
to
be determined.
used in two senses, apIt is unfortunate that the word pound is The usage is, howplying both to a unit force and to a unit mass. to become faever, so common that it is important for the student
miliar with
it.
arises
from the
'
24
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
most convenient as well as the most accurate method of comparmg the masses of bodies is by determining the ratio of their weights.
48. Comparison of Forces
The magnitude
force,
will
of a force in terms
pound
it
may be found by
determin-
ing
the earth.
many machines
49.
determined by comparing
The mass of a body may be weight with that of a body or bodies This is the method adopted in "weighing" a body of known mass. on an ordinary balance consisting of a lever or a system of levers.
Measurement
of
Masses.
its
The weight
its
is
a correct indication of
' '
weights
'
are accurately
known;
for if the
in
two
change
in the
same
If the
weight of a body
different
if
result
may be
the weighing
done
in different localities;
weighing
consists, not in
comparing
body with that of another, but in determining directly the pull exerted by the earth * upon the body by ascertaining how much this pull will stretch a spring. If the weight of the body
the weight of one
changes, therefore, as
will
it may if its location is changed, this change be indicated by a corresponding variation in the amount of
System.
In
wholly arbitrary.
Besides the
another important
gram
very nearly equal to the mass of a cubic centimeter of pure water at the temperature of maximum density. This relation is not exact, however, and the gram, like the
is
or the kilogram.
A gram
unit,
whose value
is
to be
What
is
actually
measured
is
upon the
body, which differs from the true attractive force for reasons which cannot be here discussed, the chief of them being the diurnal rotation of the earth. See
Art. 311.
25
determined by reference to a certain standard body. For ordinary purposes the kilogram, equal to 1,000 grams, is often more convenient than the gram.
The
may be
For
may be
called a force of
one kilogram.
To make
the unit definite, the position must be specified, since the weight of the
same body
:
is
The gram
following
kilo-
I
I
kilogram
pound
The gravitation system of units of force and mass, although the most convenient in many practical applications, is not the best for the purposes of pure science. The discussion of other systems must,
however, be deferred.
51. Concurrent
4.
Definitions.
and Non-concurrent Forces. Forces acting upon a body are conmrrent when they have the same point of application.
When
whose
same
plane.
The
53.
Couple
is
and having
The
the
called
arm
of the couple.
54. Equivalent
Systems
of Forces.
equivalent
of effect.
if
From
this definition
it
follows that
is
tem offerees is called the resultant oi that system. It will be shown subsequently that a system of forces may not be equivalent to any
26
single force.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
When
such
is
may be
resultant.
Any forces
components of that
56. Composition
and Resolution
of forces
if if
of
Forces.
Having
is
given
is
any system of
an equivalent system
simpler
is
the reverse
called
The process of finding the resultant of any given forces is the most important case of composition; while the process of finding two or more forces, which together are equivalent to a single given force,
is
the most
common
if
case of resolutioa
57. Equilibrium.
A
is
is
in
equilibrium
their action.
body
is
not changed by
a body
is
said to
be
all
applied forces.
CHAPTER
III.
CONCURRENT FORCES.
I.
Composition
and
58. Forces
Having the Same Line of Action. The resultant of in the same direction is a force in that
of two concurrent forces acting in opposite directions
is
The resultant
is
forces,
is
that of the
No proof need be given of the truth of these statements. They must be regarded as following immediately from our conception of force and from our experience regarding the effects of forces. They
are special cases of the general principle of the parallelogram of
forces (Art. 59).
These principles may be generalized in the following manner (i) The resultant of any number ot concurrent forces having the same direction is a force in that direction whose magnitude is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the given forces. (2) The resultant of any concurrent forces having the same line of action is found by combining those having one direction into a
:
single force
force,
and those having the opposite direction into another and then combining these partial resultants according to the and minus are used
to distinguish the
two opposite
may
be included
the
same
line of
If any two 59. Resultant of Any Two Concurrent Forces. direction by lines and magnitude represented in concurrent forces be
drawn from the same point, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal (drawn from that point) of the parallelogram of which the two lines are adjacent sides.
28
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Thus
(Fig. 17) represent the two given forces, are and parallelogram of which the of the diagonal represents the resultant. then sides
let
OA
and
OB
and
OC
OA
OB
OC
This principle
is
known
as the par-
Many proofs of allelogram of forces. the proposition have been offered, but
none of these has been generally acceptPerhaps the most ed as satisfactory. satisfactory view is that which regards
one of the fundamental for its verificadepending laws of force, in Chapter considered further The matter is
this principle as
tion
upon XIV.
experience.
parallel-
ogram
are equal,
two forces
may
the magnitude and direction of the resultant of be found by constructing a triangle instead of a
parallelogram.
any two forces being given, let them be represented in magnitude and direction by lines OA and A C laid off then OC represents the magnitude and consecutively (Fig. 17) For, if OB be drawn equal and parallel the resultant. direction of diagonal of the parallelogram of which OA and is a to CC
Thus,
;
AC
OB are
adjacent sides.
for
The
lines
OB,
BC
"
the determination of
OC
If
allelogram of forces
following
:
equivalent to the
A, B,
Fig.
18.
that
AB,
BC
represent, in
magnitude and
forces,
direction,
two concurrent
is
their
resultant
is
represented in
A C.
as the triangle
known
of forces.
is
The
the
same
as that of
the components.
61.
Computation
of
Resultant of
Two
Concurrent Forces.
Let
and
Q the angle between their lines of action. [The angle is to be measured between the positive directions of the lines of action. Thus, if A'A" and YY' (Fig. 19) are the lines of action, the directions
CONCURRENT FORCES.
being as indicated by the arrows, 6
is
29
the angle
X'OY'.]
Laying
is
offAB,
BC to
By elementary Trigonometry,
by the formula
R''
To
find
the
angle
ACB^0;
then
sin
sin /S
sin
~~Q
P
9;
sin /3
~R~'
or
Q.
P
R'
r'
Examples.
1.
particle
is
lbs.
and 20
lbs.
whose
Determine the magnitude and direction of a single force which would produce the same effect.
Alls. A force of 29.4 lbs. making an angle of 16 42' with the force of
ID
lbs.
2.
Two men
pull a
body horizon-
One exerts ropes. a force of 28 lbs. directly north, the other a force of 42 lbs. directed N. 42 E. What single force would be
tally
by means of
Fig. 19. persons lifting a body exert forces of 44 lbs. and 60 lbs. in diWhat single rections inclined 28 to the vertical on opposite sides. force would produce the same effect ? force of 92. i lbs. at angle 32 40' with force of 44 lbs. Ans.
Two
Any Number of Concurrent Forces. The any number of concurrent forces may be found by first finding the resultant of two of them, then combining this resultant with a third force, and so on. Thus, if AB and BC (Fig. 20) represent two of the forces in magnitude and direction, their resultant is represented by A C Draw and CD is AB>, C> to represent a third force; the resultant of AC which is therefore the resultant of the three forces represented by
62. Resultant of
resultant of
30
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
AB, BC, and CD. If DE represents a fourth force, the resultant of AD and D is AE, which is therefore the resultant of ^^, BC, CD and DE. This process may be extended
forces.
to
include
AD
are
needed
process
:
the
con-
struction.
The above
If any
may
be de-
scribed as follows
number
lines
of concurrent forces
by
forming sides of a
polygon represents
The
sides of the
lines of
which the
Sum.
result-
evidently the
same
The
same
as that
In combining
it
forces
by and
In most cases
is
desir-
able, in
order to prevent confusion, to draw two separate diagrams, one showing the lines of action of the forces, the other representing
them in magnitude and direction only. These two classes of diagrams may be called space diagrams and vector diagrams respectively.
by Force Polygon.
The
re-
may be computed by
and
Or, the length and
graphical construction,
by drawing the
measuring the
polygon
may be computed
CONCURRENT FORCES.
trigonometrically from the force polygon.
3I
more convenient
of
trig-
onometric method
66. Resolution
will
be given
later.
nents.
of
a Force Into
forces.
Any Number
number
Compo-
force
may be
of components
by a
may
magnitude and direction, forces of which the given force is the resultant.
Thus,
let
by the vector AB (Fig. 21). Choose any number of points (as C, D, E), and draw lines forming the polygon ACDEB. Then AC, CD, DE,
resented
EB
represent, in magnitude
and
direcis
whose
resultant
AB.
of ways.
force
may
obviously be replaced
by other
forces in an infinite
number
Some
special cases
of^the general
problem of resolution
of
will
now be
considered.
67. Resolution
a Force Into
Two Components.
This
is
A C, CB represent
gi\'en force.
if C be any point whatever, the vectors two forces which together are equivalent to the Since an infinite number of triangles may be drawn,
line as
one
side,
it
may be
by two
forces in an infinite
number of ways.
satisfy.
To make
specified
The
following cases
Let AB (Fig. 22) represent the Solution, {a) Geometrical. magnitude and direction, and let the two components and YY. From A draw a line have lines of action parallel to parallel to XX, and from B a line parallel to YY, C being the point of intersection of these two lines; then A C and CB represent
gi\'en force in
XX
32
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The
construc-
may
evidenriy be varied
by drawing from
a Hne
parallel to
YY and
giving
ponents.
before,
from
a line parallel to
XX,
AC
The
since
AC
known
ACB
Hence,
61,
have
Q
from which
in
p
sin /3
R
0'
magnitude only. the other be (3) Let the magnitude of one and the direction of
(4) Let
given.
Examples.
force of 50 lbs. is equivalent to two forces whose directions 1. are inclined to that of the given force at angles of 12 and 86 respecAns. 50.6 lbs. and 10.5 lbs. tively; determine their magnitudes.
2.
A force
is
of which
of 83 lbs. a force of 36
is
lbs. at
one De-
and 98
Resolve a force of 200 lbs. into two components, of 130 lbs. Determine the directions of the two comlbs. respectively.
ponents.
24 34'. Ans. Angle between resultant and greater component 4. A force of 150 lbs. is to be resolved into two components, one acting at an angle of 20 with the given force, the other having a magnitude of 80 lbs. Determine completely the two components.
force of 150 lbs. is to be resolved into two components, one 5. acting at an angle of 20 with the given force. What is the least possible magnitude of the other? Ans. 51.31 lbs.
CONCURRENT FORCES.
68. Resolved Part of a Force
alent to
33
Definition.
If
a force
is is
equivcalled
The
direction of a line
AIN is
AB
AB upon
in a
JllN.
B
part,
of any concurrent
the algebraic
parts of the
rection.
equal to
sum
of the resolved
in that di-
components
is
B'
Fig. 23.
the vector
is
sum
From
the definition
in a direcof magnitude it follows that the resolved part of a force force is equal to cos Q. the with that of Q angle an making tion
between go" and 270 its cosine is Hence if 6 is measured from the negative. positive direction of the line along which the
If
lies
resolution
is
P cos d
gives
the resolved part with proper sign, whatever the value of the angle.
Let
force
X and
in
]^
two directions at right angles to 6 the each other, 6 being the angle between P and X, and 77/2 and Y. Then angle between
A'
pi
cos d
X'
+
sm
.
Y';
.
f}
X
P
Y =
P
when
the
are gi\'en; or we may compute force and the directions of resolution when its resolved parts in force the of direction the magnitude and are known. other each to angles right directions at
From
these equations
we may compute
two
34
theoretical mechanics.
Examples.
1.
Let 20
lbs.
and 40
lbs.
Compute
the resolved part of a force of 235 lbs. in a direction also in a direction inclined 160 to
;
69. Algebraic
Forces.
to
From
Computation
of
Resultant of
Any
Concurrent
possible
it is
resultant of
any
known concurrent
computed by the
may be
solution of a triangle
this resultant
may be com-
manner; and the process may be continued until the resultant of the whole system is determined. This process would, however, be very laborious, and in most cases the following method is to be preferred. Choose a pair of rectangular axes in the plane of the forces, and
let
making angles
;
making angles
^.^
etc.
;
resolved parts parallel to the two axes ponents Pi cos a,, P^ cos /3,; P., by components P^ cos a.,, P., cos ^.,; etc. The given forces are thus replaced by two systems of coUinear
forces.
a^ /3j with the axes P^ Replace each force by its P^ being replaced by com,
;
The
resultants of these
-j-
Pi cos a 1
/"j
cos a 2
and
Pi cos
/3i
P, cos /3,
+
is
^ X, = F.
it
The
Y.
resultant of the
whole system
Let
b the angles
Examples.
I. Find the resultant of the following concurrent forces: 2-; lbs directed N. 40 E. 42 lbs. S. 20 E. 86 lbs. due E. o 56 lbs
;
;
33
W.
CONCUKREXT FORCES.
2.
35
body
=
in
Alls.
O is pulled equally by three men in direcand OC, such t\i7A AOB =^ BOC =bo and AOC What single force would produce the same effect ? If pull exerted by one man, the resultant is a force 2P
at a point
OB
P^
the direction
3.
OB.
lbs.
A body
of 145
63
lbs.
What
single force
force
2.
Moments of Concurrent
Forces.
a point
Force. The moment of a force with respect to the product of the magnitude of the force into the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the given point.
70.
is
Moment of a
This
is
The
sign of the
moment of a moment
adopted.
Moment
about an axis.
line
perpendicular to the plane containing the origin and the line of action of the force, may be called an axis of moments. The moment
of the force with respect to the origin may also be regarded as its moment with respect to this axis. 71. Moment of Resultant of Two Concurrent Forces. The moment of the resultant of two concurrent forces with reference to a point in their plane is equal to the algebraic sum of their separate
moments with
their
this
a force equal to
sum
is
applied at their
common
point of application,
proposition
localized vectors.
that the
not parallel.
If,
the same
72.
Forces.
Moment
of
Resultant
of
Any Number
their plane
of
Concurrent
is
equal to the
algebraic
sum
of their separate
moments with
The
the result-
ant of any two of the given forces be combined with a third; since the proposition is true for these tivo forces and their resultant, it is true
36
for the three forces
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and their resultant. Similarly, it is true for this and a fourth force, and is therefore true for the four forces and their resultant. The same line of reasoning may be extended to include any number of forces.
resultant
Examples.
1. Compute the moments of the four forces described in Ex. i, Art. 6g, the origin of moments being a point 8 ft. directly north from the point of application of the forces.
Determine the line of action of the resultant of two forces of and 12 lbs. whose lines of action include an angle of 60. Compute the moments of the two forces with respect to an origin on the action-line of the resultant, 4 ft. from the point of application of the forces. Test the truth of the above proposition. 3. In Ex. 2, compute the moments of the two forces and their resultant with respect to an origin on the line of action of the force of 1 2 lbs. 5 ft. from the point of application. Ans. 187. 1 ft.-lbs; o; 187.1 ft.-lbs. 4. Prove that the moments of two concurrent forces are equal in magnitude for any origin on the line of action of the resultant.
2.
18
lbs.
3.
From the
it
definitions of
(Art. 55)
follows
immeis
a system of forces
is
zero ; and
conversely,
if the resultant
in
equilibrium.
This
is
From
it
may
be
derived
B_
various
special
conditions,
librium
Force polygon.
The
figure
formed by drawing
tors representing
in
in succession vec-
Fig. 25.
Fig. 25
forces represented
by the vectors
COXCURREXT FORCES.
In general the
initial
37
not coincide.
In case they
and final points (as A and F, Fig. 25) do do coincide the polygon is said to dose.
which the vectors representing the forces are drawn and final points. Condition of equilibrium. If ^ and are the initial and final points of a force polygon drawn for any given forces, represents their resultant in magnitude and direction. Hence the resultant will be zero if i^ coincides with A, but not otherwise. Therefore,
in
The order
does not
AF
in
equi-
And
polygon
75.
closes, the
system
is in
equilibrium.
Moment-Condition
of Equilibrium.
Proposition.
If
any
number of concurrent forces are in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of their moments with respect to any point in their plane is zero. It has been shown that the moment of the resultant, with respect to any origin, is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the
components with respect
librium the resultant
is
to that origin.
its
If
the system
is
is in
equi-
zero, therefore
moment
zero whatever
From
in
number
of equations
may be
written which
forces in equilibrium.
The sum
must be
direction
For, since the force polygon must close for equilibrium, the algebraic
[b)
sum of the projections of its sides upon any line must equal zero. The sum of the moments must be zero for any origin.
Although each of these two general conditions leads to an infinite This equations, only two of these can be independent. will be seen by considering what any one equation implies. (i) If the sum of the resolved parts in any direction is zero, the resultant force, if one exists, must be perpendicular to that direction. (2) If the sum of the moments is zero with respect to any point, the resultant force, if one exists, must act in a line passing through
number of
that point.
It
is
now
if
either of the
following conditions
satisfied:
38
I.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
is
zero in each of
two
directions.
II.
of the
moments
is
The sum
is
of the
moments
is
sum
of the
resolved parts
point of application.
of
77.
Algebraic
Deduction
Conditions
Equilibrium.
With the
we have
2
-f
/3,
/3, -f
R^V
The
X-'
Y\
R
o.
=^
o,
requires that
X^ o
For unless
or
X'''
and
F=
zero, their
Y imaginary.
It
R=
.
ovs,
to the
two conditions
Pj cos a,
P, cos
/3,
+ +
i-*2
cos a^
P, cos ^,
+ +
=0;
(l)
=
it
o.
(2)
may be any
sum of the resolved parts of the forces in any direcmust be zero. This agrees with Art. 76. It might be shown algebraically that if two equations such as (i) and (2) are satisfied, every equation obtained by resolving the forces in any direction or by taking their moments about any origin must
equilibrium the
tion also be satisfied.
78. Solution of
Problems in Equilibrium.
it
In
solving prob-
lems
in equilibrium algebraically,
is
necessary to write as
many
independent equations as there are unknown quantities to be determined. From the above principles of equilibrium for concurrent
forces,
If
the
CONCURRENT FORCES.
number
of
39
unknown
quantities
is
In such
the
if
more than
principles of equilibrium.
From the preceding discussion it is evident that the two independent statical equations can always be written with certainty. If the solution of the problem presents difficulty it lies usually in the
algebraic solution of the equations.
In w riting the
two independent equations of equilibrium in either ways (Art. 76), simplification is usually posprinciples:
is
made
in
a direction perpendicular to a
If
moments
action of a force, that force does not enter the resulting equation.
In
many
the force polygon must close, leads to a short solution without the use of the equations of equilibrium.
It is
may
be analyzed
in
two ways,
fol-
The
geometrical
On
the other hand, the algebraic method has the advantage of affording an exhaustive treatment applicable to any determinate problem.
79. Applications.
ciples will
I.
A
is
which
body of 40 lbs. mass is suspended by a cord from a ring supported by two cords making angles of 30 and 70 with
Determine the tensions
in the cords.*
the vertical.
Two systems of forces in equiKbrium are presented here, (a) two forces acting upon the suspended body (its weight of 40 lbs. directed downward and an upward force exerted by the string), and
ih) three forces acting
cords).
The
arately.
* In all cases in which cords are introduced they are understood to be (Art. 43.)
perfectly flexible.
40
{a)
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
by the cord CD upon the body (Fig. 26) must equal the downward force of 40 lbs. due to gravity. (^) The cord CD must pull down-
The upward
force exerted
ward upon the ring C with a force equal Hence, of its upward pull upon D. the three forces acting upon the ring, one is known completely and the directions of the other two are known.
to
Geometrical solution.
The vectors
Draw Z^(Fig.
Fig
parallel
26) vertically
downward CD,
MN
forces
parallel to ^C; CB, then and NL must represent the exerted upon the ring by the cords BC and respectively.
MN
LN
AC
30, angle
sin
30
sin 70
sin 80
or
LN=LM^^^^^^^ = -^^^y:^o\hs.=
sin 80
20.2,\hs.;
0.9848
= 5:9397 ^ MN = LM '^^^^ 80
sin
^, ib,
= ^s.2
lbs.
0.9848
Algebraic solution. Let and Q denote the tensions and CB, and let the independent equations of equilibrium be formed by resolving forces horizontally and vertically. Then (taking upward and toward the right as positive directions)
m AC
P cos
P cos
Or
70
20
+ Q cos 60 ^ o
30
+ Q cos
0.3420
40
lbs.
o.
0.9397
Z'
Z'^- 0.5000
-\-
0.8660
lbs.
,
Solving,
= 20. 3
= 0; = 40 2 = 38
lbs.
2 lbs.
CONCURRENT FORCES.
II.
41
A body
to the plane.
(
What
Fig.
xV,
forces acting
The
^'VC-;::^^^^^
three, all
known
in direction (the
^,-:>^^^^
^i::^^^^^^^>^
1
its
length,
Fig. 27.
Geometrical solution.
the
unknown
Algebraic solution.
will
in
magnitude.
triangle of forces can be
drawn and
it
be advantageous to resolve forces parallel and perpendicular to This gives an equation not involving the normal pressure. the plane. pressure exerted by plane. tension in cord, and Q Let
P=
P cos
P cos
Solving,
20
60 cos 65 =
Q
60 cos 25
o.
o.
7^=
27.0
lbs., (2
= 45.
lbs.
Examples.
body of 20 lbs. mass resting upon a horizontal surface is 1. The supacted upon by gravity and by a horizontal force of 5 lbs. porting body exerts upon it such a force as to hold it at rest. Determine the magnitude and direction of this force. Ans. 20.6 lbs., inclined 14 2' to the normal.
2. A body of 120 lbs. mass, suspended by a flexible string, is Determine the direction pulled horizontally with a force of 45 lbs. of the suspending cord and the tension sus(Fig. 28.) tained by it.
3.
body
of 70
lbs.
mass
is
suspended by
a flexible cord from a ring which is supported by two cords making angles of 25 and 60 Determine the respectively with the vertical. tensions in the strings.
jTjg
28.
4-
-^
body of P
lbs.
mass
is
suspended by
'
42
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
angles a cord from a ring which is supported by two cords making a and Id with the vertical. Determine the tensions in the cords. ,8). sin ^/sin (a Ans. Psm. a /sin (a /8) and
of 70 lbs. mass is suspended as in Ex. 5. pulled horizontally by means of an atDetached cord with a force of 10 lbs. termine the tension in each cord. (Fig.
29-)
forces,
A body
3,
and
is
also
[This presents two sets of concurrent one set acting on the suspended body, the other acting on the ring. ]
6. If the horizontal force in Ex. 5 be gradually increased, one of the cords For what value will finally cease to act. of the horizontal force will this occur ? In this limiting case, what tensions are sustained by the cords ? 121.24 Ans. Horizontal force
1
lbs.
7.
Tensions
=140 lbs.
and
o.
In Fig. 30 the cords a, b, c and d are inclined to the vertical at angles of 70, 30, 20 and 0 respectively,
The while f, g and h are horizontal. mass of the body P is 60 lbs. and the horizontal force exerted by the cord h Determine the tension in is 20 lbs. each of the cords. [Apply conditions of equilibrium separately to the forces concurrent at
,
L, at M, at with P.]
c,
N and
in
at
P,
beginning
lbs.
;
Ans. Tension
80. Equilibrium of a Particle on a
particle rests against a
= 49.7
in
63.8 lbs.; in g, 20
lbs.
Smooth Surface.
If
a
'
smooth surface of any form, the pressure exerted upon the particle by the surface is a " passive resistance (Art. 41) whose direction is known, being that of the normal to the
surface.
If the surface is a plane, the direction
of the pressure
is
the
To
smooth
may be
written
in the usual
manner
but
among
CONCURRENT FORCES.
system
is
43
the
of this reaction
unknown pressure due to the surface. The direction is known if the position of the particle is known
;
otherwise
it
must be expressed
in
of the surface.
this
The
consideration of
problem will be confined to the case in which the particle and the apcurve lying in the given surface.
the plane
and
O
Fig. 31.
ferred
rectangular axes
If
OA',
be known.
nitude of the
OY
unknown normal
N, we have
;
.r-component of
yV= TV^cos
(/>
j'-component of TV :=
^ iV sin
<^.
But since
=
(^
-^-
dj'jdx
1
ds
+
+
{dyUixf
dx
sin
ds
{dyjdxy
can be found from the equa-
The
x and y
In
many
N can
be expressed more
conveniently in
The method
trated.
I.
now be
illus-
into the
form of a
circle
lbs. mass, to which is applied a diameter vertical carries a bead of of can the bead be in force P lbs. In what position horizontal a
equilibrium
Algebraic solution.
denote the pressure of the wire the vertical an angle 0, and let upon the bead, its direction being radial. (Fig. 32.)
to the
44
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Resolving forces horizontally,
P
Resolving
vertically,
i\^ sin
51
0.
WNcosd^o.
Solving
these
equations for
unknown we have
the
quantities
and
6,
tan e
=Pl\V;
P""
N = P/sin e ^V
ticle is in
+ w\
Geometrical solution.
of three forces, of these
The parTwo
;
W and N.
W)
are
{P and
known
N.
From
the
acts
triangle
it
is
evident
;
that
its
tude
is
P-'
+ W^
;
that
magni-
II.
A particle whose
to
it
mass
is
WVas.
rests
upon a smooth
hori-
zontal plane
AB passing over a smooth peg at B and sustaining a body of mass P lbs. and a
,
string
AC
for equi-
Algebraic solution.
The
:
particle
its
is
weight,
to the
lbs.
a force of
lbs.
;
due
AB
a force of
lbs.
due
and the normal pressure due to the plane. Let 6 denote the angle between A C and the horizontal. Resolving forces horizontally and vertically,
AC;
to the tension
P H- e cos = o N W+ Qsmd =
o.
CONCURRENT FORCES.
Solving for
45
N and
6,
cos e
PiQ;
Q'
N= WV
The geometrical solution by
III.
P\
is
obvious.
To
on the surface of a smooth elliptic cylinder and acted upon by a force of known magnitude directed along the tangent to the ellipse.
Let the mass of the body be
sustains a
lbs., as in
W
P
lbs.,
and
let
be due to the tension in a string which passes over a smooth peg and
The body is
forces
:
its
weight
;
lbs.
acting
vertically
downward
cord,
its
its
magnitude being
P lbs. and
Fig. 34.
the ellipse
magnitude
being unknown.
If ^ denotes the angle between the normal and the axis of x, measured as shown in the figure, the equations obtained by resolving along the tangent and normal are
W cos P^o\ = N IF
(^
(I)
(2)
sin
<^
o.
From
From
(i),
cos
(j)
=P
]V.
(2),
N^
:
P'i
-=
(3)
The
P/
W may be
found as follows
cos
9 =^
=
V
I
dvjdx "
"'*
{dj'ldxf
The equation
of the ellipse
is
x''
+ '^=^.
(4)
.|.6
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
.
.
Differentiating,
dy = ~
ax
which substituted
in the
fx ay
<^
value of cos
gives
cos
=
1
'
>'
b'x'
= = ". W
(5)
The
(4)
and
Solving,
CONCURRENT FORCES.
pulled horizontally by a force of equilibrium.
47
P lbs.
Ans.
nates
x-
(Pyjl'')m.
7.
'
'
is placed upon a smooth circular wire in a vertical pulled by a string which passes over a smooth pulley at the highest point of the circle and carries a body of known weight. Find the position of equilibrium.
A heavy bead
and
is
plane,
8. Two particles whose masses are lbs. and Q lbs. are connected by a fle.xible string of length / \\hich passes over a smooth circular cylinder of diameter d with axis horizontal. Required the position of
equilibrium.
(Fig. 35.)
that the tension in the string is uniform its length, so that it exerts
equal forces on the two particles. Both or only one of them, may be in contact with the cylinder in the position of equilibrium these two cases
;
Fig. 35.
and 3 lbs. the length of the string i ft. and the diameter of the cylinder 18 ins. Determine the position of equilibrium, the tension in the string, and the reactions exerted on the particles by the
cylinder.
ID.
string
attached
to
fixed
WLl
Fig. 36.
is
and passing over a smooth peg B, carries at the free end a body of known weight P, and a body of weight is suspended at a point C by means of another string. The length A C and the positions A and B being known, it
point
required to determine the position of equiUbrium. (Fig.- 36.) [The solution involves an equation of the third degree.]
11. In E.x. 10, let
the weight fF be suspended from a smooth ring on the string A CB. Determine the position of equilibrium. 12. Given three concurrent forces of magnitudes/", Q, R, the angles between P and 0, Q and R, R and P, respectively, being r, Prove that the square of the resultant is equal to p, q. ^' (2' 2PQ cos ;- -I- 2QR cos/ + 2RPCOS q. P'
sliding
48
13.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
AB
plane.
Heavy
the rods,
smooth rods lying in a vertical P lbs. and Q lbs. slide upon Required the being connected by a flexible string MN.
and
(Fig. 37) are
AC
rings of
known masses
inclination of
MN to
Q
in the position
14.
Two
particles
whose masses
lbs. respectively rest lbs. and are against smooth inclined planes whose inclinations to the horizontal are a and ;8. The particles are connected
Fig. 37.
by a flexible cord which passes over a smooth peg placed vertically above
If / is the intersection of the planes. the length of the cord and A the vertical distance of the peg above the intersection of the planes, prove that the angles 6 and (f> made by the cord with the planes in the position of equiHbrium are determined by the equations
_sin a
^sin
cos
j3
(j)
sin
+ sin
cos
/3
cj)
h
Fig. 38.
1 5.
mass
W kilograms
=
on a smooth plane inclined at an angle a with the horizon. 36. pute results if 45 and a
W=
Com-
particle on a smooth plane inclined at angle a to the 16. horizon is acted on by a force directed toward a fixed point and varying inversely as the square of the distance from that point. Determine the position of equilibrium.
17.
ible string 2
ft.
rings of 14 lbs. and 18 lbs., connected by a flexlong, slide on a smooth vertical circular wire of radius Determine the position of equilibrium.
ft.
Two smooth
i" 28'.
CHAPTER
IV.
IN
8i. Rigid
I.
Two Non-Conairrent
Forces.
Body. In the discussions which follow, the systems most cases regarded as applied to a rigid body. A rigid body may be defined as one whose particles do not change their positions relative to one another under any applied forces. No known body satisfies this condition strictly, even for forces of small
of forces are in
most
may,
solid bodies
may, with
slight error,
be regarded as
rigid.
After
it
Statics,
without error.
82.
Change
of Point of Application.
The
effect of
a force upon
its
applied,
if
it
acts
is
rigidly
is
funda-
In applying
we are
at liberty to
the actual body, the latter being ideally extended to any desired
limits.
having the same line of any points of that line, may be combined as if they were concurrent since by Art. 82 both may be treated as if applied at any one point in their common line of
83. CoUinear
Forces.
Two
rigid
forces
at
same
body
action.
As
body balance
each other
collinear.
in
Hence
may be
introduced into a
Two
Non-Parallel Forces.
If
must
intersect,
50
point of intersection
cation.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
may be
treated as their
common
point of appli-
They may
their resultant
proposition
The
resultant of
same plane
its line
on a rigid body
of
action passes through the point of intersection of the lines of action of the given forces.
this line.
Its
point of application
may be any
point of
Thus,
if
two forces are applied to a body at points and of action being and NT, each may be assumed to act at R, the point of inter-
MS
The
resultant
that
is,
its
Fk^. 39.
must pass through R. When the magnitude and direction of the resultant have been found by conof action
structing the vector triangle, the line of
this line
action
may be regarded
number of
2?
,-';
.''
By an
whose
their
forces
common
This
is
point of application; in
if
^
"-.
other words, as
rent.
/
,'
true
,''
'.,
point of intersection
action
falls
body.
Thus,
P.^,
P^
>C>
'
1
Pz
Fig. 40.
'
.
'
AC
C,
(Fig. 40)
points A,
and
their direc-
tions
D, their effect is the same as if all were applied at D, the latter point being regarded as rigidly connected
action intersect at a point
nents. Let
of
a Force Into
Two
Non-Parallel Compo-
MS
its
line
(Fig. 41) be the point of application of a force, and of action. Any point in this line, as R, may
be
51
regarded as the point of application, and the force may be replaced by two components acting at R. The magnitudes and directions of the
their
sum
is
Forces.
of
In
Resultant
Two
Parallel
two
parallel forces,
opposite
Fig. 41.
directions.
having the same direcand Q denote the magnitudes of two forces having the same direction, A and B (Fig. 42) being any points in their lines of action. Let two forces, each of magnitude F, be applied
tion.
Let
Fig. 42.
to
call
the body,
acting
in
AB;
these forces
F',
since
of four forces {P, Q, equivalent to the given system of two forces {P, Q),
other.
The system
bined with
F"
with
The
line of action oi
R'
passes through
\\'ith
A, and
sides
line
its
direction
is
and F.
The
R"
and F.
The
forces R'
and R"
may
be regarded as
is
therefore
52
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
D, and R'
is
F"
applied at
D;
and Q.
magnitudes
P and
Q, or to a single force
-\-
Q, acting at
D parallel
is
Let
be the point
angles,
which
AB;
then by similar
tri-
F/P
CBjCD.
Q/P;
that
is,
AB into
in
;
segments
inversely proportional to
(2) Forces
Pand
is
Q.
having
opposite directions.
The case
which
P and
represented in Fig. 43
the reasoning
R
^
F'
....
A-
D R
Fig. 43.
employed
in the preceding case applies equally to this, the two figures being lettered in a corresponding manner. The magnitude of the resultant is found to be the difference (or algebraic sum) of and Q. Also, the point > and therefore the line CZ> will fall outside the space included between the lines of action of and and on the side of the greater of these forces. In this case the point C divides
to
P and
Q.
'
S3
The examples which follow are designed to illustrate the method of finding the resultant of two parallel forces, or of finding two parforces that are equivalent to a single force. The reader who is already acquainted with the principles of equilibrium (to be developed
allel
of these principles.
It is,
analyzed by the principles of composition and resolution of forces already developed; the resultant of two forces being regarded as a
single force
which
may
replace
them without
the
body
Thus, in example 3 of the following list, the bar AB may be acted upon by any number of forces not specified; these, together with the two upward forces exerted by the strings, maintain the bar in its Now suppose the action of these two forces ceases; condition of rest. what single force may be applied with the same result ?
Examples.
1. Parallel forces of 40 lbs. and 65 lbs. acting in the same direcFind the magnitude, tion are applied at the ends of a bar 1 2 ft. long. direction and line of action of a single force which would produce the
same
efifect.
2. Assuming the two forces in the preceding example to act in opposite directions, determine their resultant completely.
(Fig. 44), 8 ft. long, heavy har 3. and B, uiiich cords attached at pass over smooth pegs at C and and Q of masses and sustain bodies
AB
is
supported by vertical
If lbs. and 60 lbs. respectively. replaced are cords supporting two the by a single cord, at what point must must it it' be attached, and what force
100
B
'
exert
-*
^^
'
'
4. A heavy bar AB, 12 ft. found to balance on a smooth suppressure exerted by the port at C 7.5 ft. from one end, the upward two smooth supports support being 48 lbs. If the same bar rests on ? forces supporting at the ends, what will be the by equal A heavy bar iS ft. long is supported at the ends If the supports are moved to points 4 ft. vertical forces of 40 lbs. respectively, \\hat are the supfrom one end and 6 ft. from the other
long,
Fig. 44-
is
=;
porting forces
54
6.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The bar
AB
I
by a
end A, and
of 20 lbs. hanging supported by a string attached at C, 4 ft. from A, the tension of the supporting string being found by a
is
If the spring balance to be 40 lbs. load is removed, at what point must the string be attached in order to support the bar ? What tension will
B
I
it
sustain?
p p ^-^
,
I
Ans. 8 ft. from ^; 20 lbs. found that a hs.r AB, 12 ft. long, may be supported by a force of 18 lbs. applied at the middle point.
7.
It is
^'- 45-
ft.
If it rests in a horizontal position and C, against smooth supports at being above and that at C below the
bar,
what
will
lbs.
downward
at
A.
87.
If
their resultant
fails,
(Fig. 43)
become
parallel.
above given (Art. 86) for finding two lines and is attempted to apply the general
AD
BD
that the
for
P Q is zero
two opposite
;
forces,
it is
found
determining
AC/CB=--Q/P=i,
which can be true only
tude zero, acting in a
of the given forces.
i{
Mathematically
a force of magnilines of action
mean
from the
Evidently
Pand Q
in this case
fur-
The
algebraic
respect
Moment of Resultant of Two Forces. Proposition. sum of the moments of any two coplanar forces with to a point in their plane is equal to the moment of their
parallel.
forces, the
prop-
55
a special case of that proved in Art. 29 for any resultant of two non-paraUel forces is a force equal to their vector sum, acting in a line through the intersection of
localized vectors.
For the
their
Hnes of action.*
Parallel forces.
j^P
and g represent the magnitudes of any two parallel forces and that of their re-
{b)
Let
O
\R
\Q,
/>
C
Fig. 46.
sultant.
Take any
point
(Fig. 46)
as origin of moments,
at
a line perpendicular to the forces, intersecting their lines of acdon A, and respecdvely. Let r. /, q,
OA
OB
OC =
From
Art. 86
we have
P^BC_ r~q
Q
Reducing,
AC'~p~r
Q)r
Pp^ Qq=(^p A,
If the forces
= Rr.
The equadon
is
P and Q
P
Q'
BC _ rq AC r ~- p'
Pp-Qq=(P~Q)r=Rr.
In both cases, the reasoning
the origin of
moments
falls
is easily adapted to the case in which between the lines of acdon of the two forces P and Q. In all cases, the re-
sult
is
'R
P^'
Q.
that the
moment
is
B
Fig. 47-
o sum
parallel forces
The proof
parallel forces
proposition for
may be
:
put in another
form, as follows
let
any point (Figs. 42 and 43) be taken as origin of moments. Having proved that the moment of the resultant of two non-parallel
* as
if
Any two
fact,
"
56
forces
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
equal to the algebraic
sum
of their separate
moments, we
may
mom. mom.
mom.
^ mom. of/' -f mom. of/''; of /?" = mom. of Q + mom. oi F"; oi R ^ mom oi R' mom. of R
of i?'
-\-
--
-f-
of
F"
= mom.
(since the
-\-
mom.
in
of
moments
of
site in sign).
89.
ingless
Moment
when
of a Couple.
is
mean-
since
two such
The moment
a matter of defini-
tion, as follows
The moment
its
of a couple
is
the algebraic
sum
of the
moments
of
two
forces.
With this definition it may readily be shown that t/ie moment of a couple has the same value for every origin in its plane, and is equal to ike product of the magnitude of either force into the perpendiadar distance between the lines of action.
2.
Couples.
Same
Plane.
their
mag-
To
prove
this,
consider
first
whose
moments
Let
P
;
de-
note the magnitude of the forces of one couple and / the length of the arm or perpendicular distance between the lines of action and let Q, q denote the like quantities for the second couple, these quantities
PP
Let the
lines of action
Qq-
57
It
signs.
may
be
shown
zero.
Notice
Fig. 48.
ABCD formed
0.
by the four
For
area
ABCD =
(AB)
=
P.
{AD) p
and since Pp
Oq,
ABiAD
The
resultant of the force
acting along
AD and
the force
acting along
AB must
AC of
the
parallelogram
CB
onal
ABCD; and the resultant of the force P acting along force Q acting along CD must also act along the diagresultants are equal, opposite,
is
and
collinear;
is
zero.
The
resultant of the
two couples
Next, starting with the given couple (P, p), let two pairs of equal be assumed to act in the lines
CD
(Fig. 49), so
;
taken that
^ Pp.
These four
forces
form two couples one of these counterbalances the gi\'en couple as shown above, hence the other must be equivalent to the given couple.
That is, the given couple [P. p) is equivalent to the couple {Q, q) whose moment is equal to its own in magnitude and sign. may be any two parallel lines interSince the lines AB and of the gi\'en couple, it follows that any two secting the lines of action
DC
58
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
if
their
moments
Fig. 49.
may be proved
Couples
in
equivalent
if their
magnitude and
Let
AB
A
and
and B.
Let
CD
be
any
line equal
parallel to
AB,
not
^P
A
hP
A2P
Introduce at
forces,
C two
y-.
pt
each equal and parallel to P, the force of the given couple also
;
C Yp
2P
2P
Fig. 50.
two similar forces at D. The force at A and the upward force at may be replaced by an upward force iP acting at the middle point of ^Z). The force at B and the downward force at C
may be
acting at the middle point of CB.
forces,
replaced by a
downward
force
ward
force at
D, each equal
to
These two forces 2P balance an upward force at Cand a downP. These form a couple equivalent
Cand
is
CD
might be
59
it
taken
that
follows
their
mo-
General
in
Result.
The
results of
may
be stated
in
whose moment
is
equal to the
sum
of the
moments
Choose any two parallel lines in the plane of the M'N' (Fig. 51), and let each of the given couples be replaced by an equivalent
couple with forces acting in these
lines.
Let the common arm of these substituted couples be /, and let their forces be P^
P.,
P.^, etc., their
that
algebraically equal
The
is
MN
force equal to their algebraic sum P, while the resultant of the forces acting p _|- p^ -j. . ,
in
has the same magnitude but the opposite direction. system is equivalent to a couple of moment whole the
j\r N'
Hence
}P,
equal to
P,J>
P.P
^3/
that
is,
to the algebraic
sum
of the
moments
The
planes.
force and a couple 94. Resultant of Force and Couple. equi\'a]ent to a sinare planes parallel in or plane same the in acting
gle force.
Let
P be
the
moment
of
6o
the given couple.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Replace the couple by an equivalent couple in a The magniown, containing the given force P.
plane parallel to
tude, direction
lent
its
and line of action of one of the forces of this equivacouple may be chosen arbitrarily; let them be so chosen that
counterbalances the given force P.
this force
The
couple must be equal in magnitude and direction to P, and its line of action must be such that the moment of the couple is algebraically
equal to G\
its
line of action is
therefore at a distance
GjP irom
This
last force is
and couple.
Examples.
I.
A force
of 50 lbs. acting in
it
coplanar w\t\y
A
any assumed line, and a couple whose arm is 29 ft. and whose forces have the magnitude 10 lbs., have what resultant
D
pi
f*^"^-''-
2.
bar
AB,
resting horizontally
upon a smooth support at B, is held in equilibrium by two opposite horizontal forces applied at the end A in lines 6
ins. apart.
The supporting force at is 5 lbs. and the horizontal forces are each If the horizontal forces cease to act and the support is 50 lbs. removed, what single force will support the bar in equilibrium ?
(Fig. 52.)
3.
95. Resultant of
Any Number
of
Forces.
It
may now be
is
shown
forces
a single
sum
is
zero; in which
is
a couple.
forces, there
Of
is
three or
more
a couple.
ing the
Any
such pair
of forces
may
by
sum
until the
forces.
may be repeated system has been reduced to an equivalent system of two If these two are not equal and opposite, they are equivalent
one.
number
This process
sum
all
couple which
sum and therefore to the vector they are equal and opposite, they form a the resultant of the given system the \'ector sum of
If
;
Any Number of Forces. In a moments, already proved for two forces, may be extended to any number of coplanar forces. That is, it may be shown that the sutit of the moments of any number of coplanar forces about any origin in their plane is equal to the moment
of
Moment
Resultant
of
similar
manner the
principle of
of their
Combining two of the forces which are not equal and opposite, the sum of their moments is (by Art. 88) equal to the moment of their resultant. Combining this resultant with another force not equal and opposite to it, the sum of their moments is equal to the
moment
number
of their resultant.
of forces
is
This process
may
reduced to two.
If these
opposite, the
sum
of their
moments
(equal to the
sum
of the
mo-
ments of the given forces) is equal to the moment of the single force which is their resultant and the resultant of the given system. If
the two forces are equal and opposite, they form a couple which the resultant of the gi\-en system, and
is
whose moment is equal to the sum of the moments of the given forces. Hence the proposition is
proved.
97. Computation of Resultant.
principles,
be computed,
whether
this resultant
a single force,
may
be found as
its line
is
if
position of
assumed point
force,
equal to the
sum
of the
moments
Thus,
if
P denotes
and
the
sum
of the
moments
G'P
moment
the
same
as that of the
sum
moments
sum
is
the corresponding concurrent system will be zero. the given S3^stem is then a couple, whose moment
The
resultant of
may
be found by
forces about
any
The
value of this
moment
will
be chosen as origin.
, ;
62
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Let the following examples be solved by the direct application of
chese principles.
Examples.
[Let the magnitude, direction and point of application of a force be specified by the following notation x, y denote the rectangular coordinates of its point of application; a the angle its direction makes with the positive direction of the.jr-axis; Pits magnitude.]
:
1.
/-\^ 20
lbs.,
x^^=
ft.,
P,=
jR,
50 " 80 "
jj
.r.
j^3
Find the resultant of a system of parallel lbs., lbs., tudes and directions are 10 lbs., 24 lbs., the successive distances between their lines of action being
2.
ft.
ft.
ft.,
ft.
3.
forces:
^1
= 40
63
is
two systems:
(i)
allel
A system
,
to P^
P,
....
(2)
P-^p.^
The
may be found
as
in Art. 69,
may be combined
is
as in Art. 93.
Hence
Any system
to their vector
of coplanar forces
sum, apphed
is
at
couple whose
moment
the algebraic
sum
of the
moments
of the
Computation
of the Force
and Couple.
at
which the concurrent forces are assumed to act be taken as origin of coordinates, and let the angles made with the x- and _)/-axes by any force be denoted by a, /3, with proper suffi.x. Let the force and couple to which the system is reduced be speci-
fied
R
a
A"",
= magnitude of force; = angle between R and d = angle between R and V = axial components of R G = moment of couple.
a^
/3,
-\r
;ir-axis
j'-axis;
;
Then
X = R cos a =: P, cos
V=Rcosl>=^P,
cos
P.^
cos a^
(i)
P,cos/3,+
R=
cos a
Also,
A"^
;
F-';
(2)
= A'/R
cos
<5
V/R
(3)
by
Art. 98,
G
The
= P^p^ + P.,p, +
G
(4)
values of R, a and b completely determine the required determines the moment of the couple. force; and the value of are the direction of the force It is seen that the magnitude and value of G the general in while be taken; wherever the point
same
at
64
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Let the following examples be solved by
this process.
Examples.
1.
= 70 = 40 P3 = 25
P^
f',
lbs.,
"
Xi x,
Jf3
"
60; 45;
J/3
" "
a,=
a3=I20.
2.
3,
Resultant Couple.
The
force and
may be reduced by
Since in parbe combined into a simpler resultant. and G determined by the one or both the quantities above process may reduce to zero, the following four cases must be
in general
ticular cases
may
considered:
Suppose neither R nor G is equal to zero. In this case the and couple may be combined into a single force (Art. 94) having the same magnitude and direction as i?; its line of action being distant GjR from O. In this case the whole system reduces to o. (2) Suppose G the single force R, its line of action passing through the assumed [This case always results if the given system is equivalent point O. to a single resultant force, and if the point happens to be chosen upon its line of action.
(i)
force
(3) Let
is
R R
^ ^
J.
o.
a couple whose
(4) Let
moment
Oj
G.
In this case the given system
is
o.
equiv-
alent to
no
force.
In other
is
words the
in equilibrium.*
Examples.
In each of the examples of Art. 99, determine completely the resultant force or resultant couple.
* In the last three Articles the
same
results
it
will find
we have reached by means of algebraic analysis deduced previously by geometrical reasoning. The student profitable to become familiar with both methods of treaUnent.
CHAPTER
V.
loi.
I.
Meaning
is
used
(See Art. 57.) Any number of forces form a system in equilibrium if their combined action produces no effect upon the motion of the body to
rigid body
is
in equilibrium
if all
upon
it
form a system
in equilibrium.
It
and sufficient
condition of
is
is
zero.
now
be considered.
These subordinate conditions may be deduced in two ways by the direct application of the principles regarding the reor second, by applying the resultant deduced in Arts. 95 and 96
First,
;
98-100.
It will
be useful to
Equations of Equilibrium.
is
It
has been
If
shown
(Art. 95)
it is
a force,
equal
sum
resultant in
If the rethe resolved parts of the given forces in that direction. forces is zero, and the of the sultant is a couple, the \'ector sum
algebraic
sum
is
of their
resolved
of
parts
in
any direction
is
zero.
sum
the moments
any origin
if
equal to the
is
moment
the resultant
(i)
The sum
is
direction
(2)
is
zero.
The sum
5
of the
moments
zero.
66
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
From
be written
may
may
be shown,
In
order to determine
how many
is
one
sum
of the
moments
there
is
is
moment
of a couple
is
if
a resultant force,
its line
of action
must pass through the origin. These principles lead immediately to the following propositions: (i) There will be equilibrium if the sum of the resolved parts is zero for each of two directions of resolution, and the sum of the moments is zero for one origin.
For,
by
no resultant
force, since
such
(b) there
moment
(2)
for in
be equilibrium
if
sum
of the
moments
is
zero zero
sum
is
any one
two
origins.
For, by principle
resultant force
origins of
(if
{b),
one
;
exists)
must
act in a line
there
is
while by principle {a), the resultant force (if one) must be perpendicular to the direction of resolution.
will
moments
(3)
There
be equilibrium
if
the
sum
of the
moments
exists)
is
zero
same
straight line.
(if
For,
in
by
one
must
act
a line containing the three origins; and there can be no resultant couple, since the moment of a couple cannot be zero.
Since, therefore, three equations can be written, which,
if satisfied,
.
is
zero,
it
follows that
all
possible equatiom
EOl'ILIBRir?,!
if
OF NON-CONCURRENT FORCES.
67
tions of
Deduced Algebraically. It was 98 that any system of coplanar forces can be reduced to a force and a couple; the force. being applied at any chosen point and being equal to the vector sum of the given forces, while the mo-
shown
ment
of the couple
is
sum
of the
moments
of
computing the
/^j
/3j
G
The
= P,p,^
P.^p.^^-
shows
i?
and
otherwise.
Now
But
\i
the condition 7?
less either
X^
P.^,
or
}'^ is
.
negative, that
P^,
^ o requires that X ^ o and Y ^ ununless X or Y imaginary. are real forces, X and Y must be
o,
is,
is
real.
For equilibrium,
tions
therefore,
it
is
Pj cos aj
/'i
-)-
P.^
/^,,
cos a^ cos
/3j
+...=:
.
o,
o,
(0
(2)
cos ^1 H-
/'iA
shall
fied,
+ + ^.A+
if
==
=0,
(3)
be
satisfied.
is
And
conversely,
the system
in equilibrium.
may
be chosen at pleasure, an
infinite
number
ten.
If
may
be writ-
one of these
Parallel
sets
is satisfied, all
106.
Forces. The
to
any system of coplanar forces. In case all the forces are parallel, however, only two independent equations of For, from principles {a) and {b), Art. equilibrijtm can be written.
104,
it
is
6g
(i) If the
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
sum sum
of the
moments
is
lying on
(2) If the
moments is zero for one origin, and the sum zero for any direction not perpendicular to
of
the forces.*
107. Special
Condition
of these forces in equilibrium be divided into two sets, the resultants action. line of same the have and opposite and sets must be equal
If
in a point, or be parallel.
three forces are in equilibrium, their lines of action must meet For the resultant of any two must be
same
line of action.
This principle
equilibrium.
is
2.
Solving Problems in Equilibrium. The solution of problems in equilibrium is the most important of the The problems to practical appHcations of the prmciples of Statics.
108. General
Method
of
be solved are of the following kind A body is in equilibrium under the action of any number of
forces,
some
unknown
it
is
required
to determine these
unknown
forces completely.
is
The
general
to write three
independent equations of equilibrium, introducing as many unknown quantities as necessary to represent completely all the forces acting
on the body.
If the
The unknown
quantities
number of unknown
quantities
non-parallel
allel
The problem
is
then indetermi-
* Placing the
sum
direction of resolution;
of forces
such equations
sum
o.''
same
rigid
(Art. 82.)
69
of equilibrium may often be simplified by a judicious selection of the directions of resolution and of the origins of
The equations
moments.
tained
by resolving
by taking moments
may be oba direction perpendicular to that force, or about an origin lying on its line of action. If
moments are taken about the point of intersection of the lines of action of two forces, neither of these forces will enter the resulting equation.
dent
In solving problems in the equilibrium of rigid bodies, the stumay be aided by the following outline of the method of pro:
cedure
body
to
be applied.
(2) Enumerate all forces acting upon this body, specifying the magnitude and direction of each so far as known. (3) Write three independent equations of equilibrium (two, if the
forces are
known
to
be concurrent or
parallel), introducing as
many
unknown
quantities as necessary.
resolution, or
what directions of
simplest equations.
(4) Notice
as great as the
number
of
unknown
(5) Notice whether any geometrical equations can be written. Write as many of these as possible. (6) Notice whether the number of statical and geometrical equations
together
is
determination of the
unknown
quantities.
(7) If the
problem
is
unknown
quantities.
After
some experience
best
will often
Hbrium, and
methods of writing the equations of equibe able to solve problems by short methods. For example, the principle stated in Art. 107 will often be found
useful.
The beginner
all
will,
it
useful to analyze
manner
even
if
found to be
difficult
or impossible.
is
When
70
concerned.
manipulation.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The remainder
will
of the process
is
a matter of algebraic
now be
illustrated.
I.
rigid
bar
(Fig. 54) rests with the end a vertical wall, the other end being supported by a string BC, and a weight of 20 lbs. being suspended by a string from the point B. each make an angle and Let
AB
AB
BC
lbs., its
Determine
bar.
forces acting
upon the
Solution.
outlined above,
20 lbs.
5 lis.
Fig. 54.
will
(i)
The
bar
AB
is
the
body
to
The
forces acting
on the bar
lbs.
downward
at
a down;
ward
force of 5 lbs. at
a force
5 in the direction i?C, due to the supporting string; a pressure at A exerted by the floor and a pressure at A due to the
applied at
;
wall.
is
The
last
two forces
may be
and
a force in some
unknown
A.
Let
H and
components of
this force;
and
let
BC.
(3)
We will choose as
A;
by
2a,
moment
(p)
moment
of the bar
ABC
is
equilateral,
ia sin 60
lo- 2a cos 30
a cos 30
=o
.
{a)
iP)
cos 30
o.
.
^o
. .
{c)
71
three
unknown
No
in fact the
lbs.
From equation {a), 2 From {b), 22.5 lbs. From (c), 13.75 lbs. The resultant of the forces exerted by the floor and
(7)
F=
H ^ 19.48
wall at
23.85 lbs. its direction is inclined to the horizontal at an angle 35 13'. VjH 0.706, hence 6 such that tan 6 The components of P which are exerted by the floor and wall
;
H and
=
is
Its
magnitude
is
V H''
V''
If
the floor
and wall are supposed perfectly smooth, the pressure exerted by each hence in this case V is the force exerted by the is normal to itself the force exerted by the wall. floor and Geometrical soliition. The problem
;
may be
Let the two vertical forces of 5 lbs. and 20 lbs. be replaced by their resultant,
R, a downward force of 25
of action divides
lbs.
\\hose line
BD
5
lengths
line
a, 5
and \a
of action intersect
BC
at
(Fig. 55);
at
P
P,
acting
(Art. 107),
of action
is
therefore
AE. The
in
three forces
and
are
equi-
librium, hence their vector sum is zero. by the vector FG, and Representing
drawing
GH parallel to EC and EH parallel to EA, the vectors GH and HE must represent Q and P in magnitude and direction.
:
P and Q may be found from the geometrical relatriangle ABC being equilateral, we have (Fig. 55) CA = BC = 2a BE = BD ^ = a'^; EC =^ 2a ais = gals.
;
72
Since
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
similar triangles,
we have
or
Also
p-'
= EQCA, = q]io; QjR = {gal z) ^ 2 = 0.9 i? ^ 22.5 = J^ R' 2QR cos 60 = (22.5)' + (25)^ - 2 X 22.5 = 568.75; P= 23.85
(,2d)
lbs.
Q-'
25
0.5
lbs.
To
we have
between
sin
P and
6
the horizontal)
= cos {HFC) e - 35
13'-
(P
i?
(2
0/2Pi?
= 0.5767;
II.
is
A ha.r AB
at
any
mass Wlhs., whose center of gravity end ^ on a smooth horizontal plane against a smooth vertical plane. At A is attached a string which passes over a smooth peg at C and sustains a body of lbs. Find the position of equilibrium and the pressures
(Fig. 56) of
bar being at
(known
quantities),
and
let
angle
=6
BAG
(unknown).
outline
pa
Fig. 56.
(i)
to
four
weight
W
lbs.
lbs.
downward
at
;
at
A the pressure of the plane at A, directed vertically upward, its unknown magnitude being called R the pressure of the plane at B, directed horizontally, its unknown magnitude being called 5'. (3) For the equations of equilibrium, let three moment equations
;
be written as follows:
73
With
origin at
A,
(a
S
With
b) sin
Wa cos =
6*
o.
(i)
origin at B,
P{a-\- b)sine
Ria ^ R{a
b) cos
+ Wb cos
=--=o.
(2)
With
origin at C,
S
(4)
{a
b)sme
^r b) cos 6
+ Wb cos 6 ^
and
6,
o.
(3)
The unknown
quantities are R,
sufficient.
three in number;
By
it is
seen that
S=
From
equation (i),
tan e
P.
WalS{a
-\-
b)
]ValP{a
+
W.
b).
From
equation (2),
R = Pt^nO ^
[If
lVb/{a
b)
by
and
R=
IV
P would
have appeared
at once.
chosen to
by Q the resultant of P must pass through (Fig. 56). Again, the line of action of the resultant of i? and S must pass through D. These resultants must be equal and opposite and act We have therefore in the same line DE.
Geometrical solution.
Representing
of
and W, the
line of action
or since
<^)
sin 6,
and
is
and since 5 is parallel to P and R parallel to JF, the triangle of TF and S =^ P. The triangle of forces is not forces shows that R shown, but should be drawn by the student.
III.
its
straight bar
rests
AB
(Fig. 57),
middle point,
74
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and the other end upon a smooth horizontal floor. A string is A and is fastened to the wall at C. The lengths AB, and being given, dis-
AC
AD
Solution. Let
=b
angk
in Art.
io8
we
to
proceed as follows
(i)
equilibrium
is
be considered
(2)
the bar
AB.
upon the bar
;
The
its
forces acting
four
Fig. 57.
weight
W
is
are
lbs.
acting vertically
downward at its middle point the pressure (/* lbs. unknown) exerted by the wall at B,
,
its
unknown) exerted by the floor at A^ its direction being {Q the force (R lbs. unknown) exerted by the vertically upward string at A, its line of action being AC. (3) Resolving forces horizontally and vertically, and taking moments about yl, we obtain the following three equations:
; ,
(0
(2)
(3)
in
(4) The unknown quantities are only three, P, Q and R, equal number to the equations, aside from the angles a and yS, whose
/,
a and
b.
(5) The geometrical relations are merely They cos /3 in terms of the known lengths.
are
bja.
cos a
(7)
bjl;
cos
/3
(3),
yi ff'
CO tan a
Wb
2V r
From
equation (i),
P
cos
/3
Pa
b
2\-
Wa
l'~
b~'
75
From
equation (2),
= W 7?
sin
a'
'
\]
2I
P~b
the force
The unknown
A closer
tion
fails.
The
force
and
but
librium
impossible.
The
if
a-"
Q will
is if
be negative
that
b'-),
Xuuierical
case.
AD ^ b = 6it. P=
R
Q
]]'
Suppose AB =
Then
]Vb
ft.
AC = a=
10
ft.;
y6
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
above
A C.
AC
passes through F,
we
= ^P
2lf.
Hence
if
a'
>
^P
'
3i5^
equilibrium
is
impossible.
This agrees
Examples.
lbs. and length / rests with one end upon a 1. A bar of mass smooth horizontal floor and the other against a smooth vertical wall, being held in equilibrium by a horizontal string attached at a point The center of gravity is at a distance distant b from the upper end. a from the upper end, and the inclination to the horizontal is 6. Determine completely all forces acting upon the bar. (/ Ans. Tension in string --= a)lb tan 6. 40, 0.6/, b 20 lbs., 6 0.3/; de2. In Ex. I, let
W=
W
=
termine-
all
forces completely.
at lower
Ans. Reaction
tension
3.
= 31 .79
end
= 20
lbs.
at
lbs.
lbs.
A bar
of mass 15 lbs.,
its
whose center of gravity ie at its middle ends upon two smooth planes inclined to the
Determine the inhorizontal at angles of 36 and 45 respectively. clination of the bar to the horizontal when in equilibrium; also the pressures exerted upon it by the supporting planes.
Ans. 10
4.
39';
lbs.
A bar
of
as in the
preceding example, let its center of gravity be at any point of its length, and let a and /3 be the angles made by the planes with the Determine the position of equilibrium and the supporthorizontal.
ing pressures.
A person weighing 160 lbs., standing upon a scale platform, upon a suspended rope in a direction inclined 10 to the verThe scale beam shows his apparent weight to be 140 lbs. tical. Ans. 20. 3 lbs. With what force does he pull the rope ? 6. A bar AB, 16 ft. long, is supported in a horizontal position by a smooth hinge at A and a smooth plane at B, the inclination of the Weights of 20 lbs., 18 lbs. and plane to the horizontal being 20. 28 lbs. are suspended from the body by cords attached at points whose distances from A are 6 ft., 10 ft. and 15 ft. Determine the supporting forces exerted by the plane and hinge. ( The pressure exerted by the hinge may have any direction, but always acts through
5.
pulls
pressure at
2-6.63 lbs.
77
7. A bar whose mass, center of gravity and length are known, is In order that the bar supported by strings attached to the ends. may rest in a horizontal position, what condition must be satisfied by Solve geometrically. the directions of the strings ?
whose center of gravity is at a distance from the equal to one-third the length, is supported as in the preceding example. If the string at A is inclined 30 to the vertical, what must be the inchnation of the string at i? ? Determine the tensions lbs. in the strings, the mass of the bar being Ans. 49 7'; 0.77 W; 0.509 IV.
8.
A bar AB
end
whose mass
center of gravity is at its middle point, and 12 lbs., is supported in a horizontal position by strings attached to the ends, and sustains loads of 1 6 lbs. and 20 lbs. at is inclined 45 to the horiIf the string at respectively and What tensions are zontal, what is the direction of the string at B? sustained by the strings ? Ans. 49 47' from horizontal; 31.12 lbs.; 34.05 lbs.
9.
bar
AB, whose
is
10.
bar
is
supported
at
Show geometrically the relations that strings attached at the ends. must be satisfied by the directions of the strings. Deduce also an
algebraic expression for the relation between the angles made by the strings and the bar with the horizontal. segments into which the length of the bar /IS. Let a and d angles made with hor0, a, /8 is divided by the center of gravity
izontal
point,
is at its middle preceding example, its inclination to the The cord attached at the lower end being in60 determine the inclination of the other horizontal, the to clined
11.
by the bar and strings. Then (a -{- b) tan d. d tan /3 a ta.n a A bar of mass 20 lbs., whose center of gravity
in the
cord, and the tensions in the two cords. 70 54'; tensions Alts. 6
=
is
13.23
2
12.
A bar
ins. long,
whose mass
lbs.
gravity is 4 ins. from one end, rests inside bowl of radius 4 ins. What is its inclination to the horizontal ends ? in equilibrium, and what are the pressures upon its
when
in
no. Equilibrium
of Connected Bodies.
If
equilibrium are connected in any way, as by a smooth hinge or by each simple contact, the conditions of equilibrium may be applied to will other each upon exert bodies the which The forces separately. each related to and are quantities unknown the equations as
enter
;
That is, other in accordance with Newton's third law (Art. 35). upon exerts which force bodies, the two being any and
is
yS
equal, opposite
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and coUinear with the force which B exerts upon A. by the following problems.
This
will
be
illustrated
I. Two heavy bars AC and BC (Fig. 58), connected by a smooth hinge at C, are attached to a fixed body by smooth hinges Determine the presat A and B. ^QiL sures exerted upon the bars by the \q( hinges A and B, and the pressure of ^^^^xN. ///B each upon the other at C. ^^'^<^^^^^/Cy
\<
Pjq
,3_
Solution.
In the
triangle
^^C,
by
a, b, c
and
let c
and the corresponding opposite sides Let the center of gravity of each
bar be at
Let
W=
H'
its
middle point.
weight of
W"
^C
at
C;
C;)
of P.
(The positive direction is toward the right for horizontal forces and upward for vertical forces. Three independent equations of equilibrium for A C may be obtained as follows:
Resolving horizontally,
H'
Resolving
vertically,
+ ff^o
V
A
(i)
V+
Taking moments about A,
W=
yi,
0.
(2)
Vb
cos
-\-
Hb
:
sin
W'b
cos
A
for
o.
(3)
BC may be
ob-
79
.
.
//"//=
V"
V(i COS
/)'
O.
(4)
(5) (6)
V/>
]V"
0.
Na sin
yi
U'"a cos
o.
These
,
The
(6),
solution
may proceed
as follows:
;
H and
can be found
The
//
8o
der, r
ft.
;
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the distance
;
AC,
ft.
The angle
6,
BA C
is
fixed
by the
known
data
in fact,
if
BA C =
tan {6 1 2)
= rl(b
r).
The unknown
in
on the bar
at
A, unknown
its
point of
contact with the cylinder (and the equal and opposite pressure upon
the cylinder),
pressures
known
in direction
and the
at
its
and
wall,
known
in direction
Let
upon the bar zX. E P the magnitude of the force exerted upon the and V the horizontal and vertical compobar by the hinge at A nents of P. Three independent equations of equilibrium for the bar
;
H
:
may be
b
written as follows
AE ^ AF ^
, .
(i)
Resolving horizontally,
//
Resolving
vertically,
(2 sin
o.
(2)
C3j
V ^ Qco^e
These three equations
Thus, from
(i),
W ==0.
determination of Q,
H and
V.
Q
TT //
=
n ^
From
From
(2),
^ sm
^f^'*
sin
cos d
.
(3),
r= W Qco^e=^W
to the cylinder, let
Turning now
floor.
by the Since the lines of action of the four forces acting upon the cylinder intersect in a point, only two independent equations can be These may be the following written. Resolving horizontally,
:
Q^xwB
Resoh'ing
vertically,
R=o
o.
. .
(4)
Qco^d-^SW' =
(5)
81
From From
(4),
/e
(J sin
J J
'a sin
COS
^
(5),
r
]Va cos^ ^
b
ir'
+ G
cos
=:.
i;^
Geometrical sohitmi.
acting
The
Q
lines
and W) must meet in a point this point is found by prolonging the known lines of action of JV and Q. Since ]V is known, the force-triangle for the three forces can be drawn, and is shown in Fig. 60. The forces P and Q are thus
{P,
determined.
The number
forces acting
:
are four in
a force of magnitude Q, opposite to the force acting upon the bar; a force W' completely known;
forces
R and
S,
whose
known.
The
must
their force-polygon
and can be completely drawn from the data now known. It is the quadrilateral whose sides are marked W\ Q, S and R in Fig. 60. In any numerical case, the figure may be drawn to scale and the magnitudes of the required forces found by measurement from the figure. Or, the angles may all be determined from the given data, and the lengths
of the required forces
trigonometrically.
Pig
may be computed
Examples.
In Fig. 59, let^^C= 20 ins., ra1. 8 ins., dius of cylinder 7 ins., Deterlbs. 12 lbs., mine all the forces acting upon the bar and cylinder (cz) algebraically and ((^) geometrically.
IV=
W =20AD =
2.
cylinder in Fig. 61, the bar being hinged at A, and the surLet faces of contact all being smooth.
82
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
;
the weight of the bar be lo lbs. the weight of the cylinder 15 lbs.; CA (vertical) 24 ins. distance of the radius of the cylinder 12 ins. center of gravity of bar from A, 8 ins. 1-924 lbs. Ans. Pressure between bar and cylinder
; ;
diameter, each weighing 10 3. Two smooth cyHnders of equal lbs. are supported on two planes inclined 60 and 30 to the horDetermine completely the forces acting upon them. izontal. Ans. The lower cylinder is supported by forces of 10 lbs. and
,
8.66
lbs.
unequal 4. Two uniform homogeneous bars of equal length, but mass, connected by a smooth hinge, rest upon a smooth cyhnder whose axis is horizontal. Determine the position of equilibrium, and the magnitude and direction of every force acting upon each bar. [If ^ denotes the angle between one bar and the horizontal, the value of cos 6 is found by the solution of a cubic equation. ]
III. Simple Machines.
It is
body a
directly.
to accomplish the desired object by system of connected bodies by which such an object
is
indirect means.
accomplished
called a
machine*
constituting a machine are usually either actually
The bodies
plied forces
Statics.
or nearly in equilibrium.
The
relations subsisting
among
the ap-
may
is
therefore be determined
A
this
machine
is
made
it
to accomplish
its
by applying
it
to
it
motion
called
an
ance.
A force which
to accelerate or to retard
is
The
is
designed to exert
a resistance
this resistance is
is
called a
useful resistance.
The
useful resistance
may be
To
effort
the funda-
mental
statical
Besides the useful resistance there are other forces which act in
opposition to the effort and diminish the effectiveness of the machine
* Machines considered as devices for the transmission of energy are
treated in Chapters
83
resistances.
overcoming the useful resistance. These may be called ivastcfnl The most important wasteful resistances are the fric-
of
the machine
is
cussion friction
effect will
be disregarded.
in
The method
be considered
is
Chapter VII.
if
machine
the load
is
is
load
is less
illustrated
The method of applying the principles of equilibrium to machines by the following simple examples. Other examples are
Lever.
A lever
is
The
in
effort
any
The
is
called
the fnla'itjn.
The
points of application of the effort and the load are called the arms.
The
to
it
lever
may
or
The
simple,
is
so
when
problem
be omitted.
sists
freely
together with
The
axis about
which the
wheel revolves
classed
may
stationary; so that
2iS
the effort and load being applied to the same cord, passing around a portion of the circumference of the wheel. The relation between the effort {P) and the load
(
JF)
may be found by
84
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
system of bodies * consisting of the wheel and the adjacent portion At A there is a tension in the cord equal to P, and of the cord.
at .5
a tension equal to
is
W.
system considered
revolves;
this force
that exerted
The only other force acting upon the by the axle about which the wheel
and if there is no friction between the wheel and the axle, must act in aline through the center of the wheel. Taking moments about this center, we have (calling a the radius of the
wheel
Pa=
R
IVa; or
P=
W.
Let R be the pressure exerted by the axle upon the wheel; then must be equal and opposite to the resultant of P and IV. Its line of action therefore bisects the angle between the two straight portions of the cord or, calling this angle d, we have
;
R
Evidently there
cation of a force.
is
= 2W cos
(6I/2).
no mechanical advantage in this case the fixed means of changing the direction of appli;
Movable
Fig. 63.
Pulley.
The
relation
simple movable pulley is represented in between the effort (/") and the load {W) is determined by considering the system consisting of the
tions of the
A,
B and
C.
weight of the pulley, the principles of equilibrium lead to the following results:
is
in
the cord at
and
equal to P.
Resolving forces
equal to
vertically,
it
is
seen
is
C
;
(which
W)
P=
* Although
rigid bodies,
WI2.
we have
it is
thus far applied the principles of equilibrium only to allowable to treat as rigid any body or connected system of
is in
equilibrium,
85
various
of Pulleys. ^y combining fixed and movable pulleys in the mechanical advantage may be made very great, being limited only by the prejudicial resistances due to fi-iction and
vs^ays,
A
set
64 shows a system very commonly employed in raisTwo sets of wheels are employed (shown at and i?), each set consisting of several pulleys mounted on a
Fig.
axis
is is
common
{A
)
One
.set,
attached
which
movable,
the
load
is
appHed.*
is
and JV
easily
same value in all parts of the cord, as may be seen by applying the principle of moments to each wheel separately, taking origin at the center. If is the number of plies, or portions of rope supporting the lower set of pulleys, we have (neglecting the weight of the pulleys and of the cord, and assuming that the straight porobtained.
The
'
'
'
'
fiP=lV;
P=Wjn.
Examples.
I.
The
oar
AB
(Fig. 65)
is
free to rotate
effort
The
P and
(p
JV act
at angles
9 and
with
^
e
Fig. 65.
* In the system of pulleys as actually constructed, the wheels of each set are usually of equal diameter and mounted side by side upon the same axle. The different portions of the cord are therefore not all coplanar. Each of
the separate bodies (each pulley and the blocl^ carrying the pulleys) ever acted upon by forces which are practically coplanar.
is
how-
86
the bar.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and W, and compute the Determine the relation between magnitude and direction of the force exerted upon the bar by the pin. 60, ^ 30, ft, CB 2 ft., 6 In Ex. I, let 2. !^ 85 lbs. betermine P and the magnitude and direction of the
AC=z
Ans.
3.
(Fig. 62) act in directions inclined 90 to each other, what is the pressure on the axle ?
If
4. In case of a movable pulley, let the effort act at an angle a with the horizontal. What must be the direction of the cord between the pulley and the fixed point of attachment of the cord ?
/"and
P= 32.7
lbs.
What
5.
is
Ans.
P=
Pand Wl W/2sma.
and
W (Fig.
and
shown
number
of
mov-
Fig. 66.
In Fig. 64, what must be the 7. strength of the cord if a weight of 5, 000 lbs. is to be raised?
8.
1,000
g.
lbs.
In Fig. 66, let the weight IV be in each cord and the value of P.
Solve Ex.
5 lbs. each.
112. Balance.
body may be
deteris
The
tical
The beam L can turn freely in a verpoint C. At A and B are suspended the
"scale-pans" Af and N, upon which are placed the. bodies whose The center of gravity of the whole weights are to be compared. apparatus * is at some point D. When the scale-pans are vacant,
*In determining
this center ot gravity, the scale-pans are to
be regarded
and B.
87
D will be vertically
let
In this position
tal,
CA
and
let
the lengths
below C in the position of equilibrium. CB make equal angles with the horizonA C and CB be each equal to a. If bodies of
and
equal mass (and weight) are placed in the two scale-pans, the position
of equilibrium will be unchanged.
P be
placed at
let
7)/,
N,
P being
the
at
of
CD
vertical in this
CA
and
CB make
new
position
Ftg. 67.
of equilibrium are a
let
= weight of balance.
Pa
cos (a
6,
^ and a
^ respectively.
Let
CD h,
Q
and
C,
0)
Qa
cos {a
6)
cos a
sin
Gh
sin
o.
Solvine for
tan 6
=
{P
{P
Q)a
Q)a
In order that a small difference between g should cause a relatively great with certainty, a small value oi P upon the values of a, h and a. depends sensitiveness This value of 6. increases as h desensitiveness the a, and of a values given
For
creases.
of
a and
li,
as
decreases.
88
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
expense of
That
6,
is,
if
P Q pro-
the
beam cannot
determined
(bodies of
is
known mass)
the
same
when both
scale-
may
AC a.nd BC (Fig.
may be
If
called the
arms
of the balance.
may be
let
by interchanging
is
Thus,
X lbs.
are
a and
be /"lbs. when
it
acts
with the
arm
and
lbs.
when
it
arm
b.
Then
xa
= Pb;
xb
Qa.
From
these equations,
x=v'PQ;
alb=r
PIQ.
Examples.
In Fig. 67, let the distances and CB be each 15 ins., and 6 ins., the angles each 80, and the weight of the balance 4 lbs. What is the position of equilibrium if weights of 10 lbs. and 10 lbs. }i oz. are placed in the two scale-pans?
I.
CD
ACD
BCD
AC
Alls.
9
in
= 0
5'-|-.
body appears to weigh 18 oz. when placed 2. and i8J^ oz. when placed in the other. What is its what is the ratio between the lengths of the arms ?
one scale-pan
true weight,
oz.
and
Ans. 18.248
0.973.
Miscellaneous Examples.
bar AB rests with the end A upon a smooth horizontal and leans against a smooth cylindrical peg at a given distance above the plane. It is held from slipping by a horizontal string A C attached to a fixed point C. Determine all forces acting upon the
I.
plane,
bar.
89
ins.,
In Ex. I, let the height of the peg above the plane be i8 the distance of the center of gravity of the bar from A 12 ins., the inclination of the bar to the plane 25, its weight 35 lbs. Determine all forces acting upon the bar. Ans. Vertical pressure at ^i 26.90 lbs.; pressure of peg 3.78 lbs. 8.94 lbs.; tension
Let the data be as in Ex. i, except that the horizontal string over a smooth pulley at C and sustains a body of known weight. Determine the position of equilibrium and all forces acting
3.
A C passes
upon the
bar.
Weight of bar, 4. Solve Ex. 3 with the following numerical data 10 kilogr. weight of suspended body, 2 kilogr. height of peg above distance of center of gravity of bar from A, 50 cm. plane, 50 cm. 77 56'. Ans. Angle of bar with horizontal
;
;
length is supported in a horizontal position by a smooth hinge at A and a cord i)C inclined Two bodies of known to the bar at a known angle and fixed at C. mass are suspended from the bar at points midway between the Determine all and respectively. center of gravity and the ends forces acting on the bar.
5.
uniform bar
AB of
Weight of bar, 6. Solve Ex. 5 with the following numerical data 18 lbs.; suspended weights, 3 kilogr. and 5 kilogr.; inclination of string to bar, 37 (measured from prolongation of AB). 13.67 kilogr. 14.26 kilogr.; hinge reaction Ans. Tension
:
AB.
is supported by a smooth hinge at A 7. A bar AB of weight and a string attached at B. The string passes over a smooth peg at C and supports a body of weight P. A C is horizontal and equal to AB, and the center of gravity of the bar is at its middle point. Determine the position of equilibrium, and all forces acting on the bar.
Ans. cos
8.
P CAB =
2
_^ \
I
A// 1 _L
'
2 Ji
lbs., /"
2^^' + - r
Solve Ex.
lbs.
Ajis.
cab =21
7,
taking
W = 28
J^
Hinge reaction
= 6 kilogr. =
still
15.25
lbs.
or 36.53
9.
be unequal, In Ex. 7, let yi Cand Deduce a cubic equation for determining cos between the bar and the horizontal.
10.
^ C being
6,
horizontal.
where 6
is
the angle
Solve Ex.
9,
taking
yJC=
Ans. 6
11.
= 14 AC = AB,
2 {,AB),
fF ==
P=
2 kilogr.
42'.
55',
or 215
smooth cylinder of radius a is placed with its a.xis hori12. A uniat distance h. zontal and parallel to a smooth vertical wall ?[-" and length 2/ rests against the cylmder and weight of form bar
go
with
its
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
lower end against the wall.
If
librium.
Ans:
/i.
= angle between
Ex.
12,
let
ins.
-{-
a cos 6
13.
In
/i
the radius
2 ins.
=6
/.
and
all
forces acting
on the
bar.
rests in a hemispherical bowl of radius a. Assuming the length to be so great that the upper end projects beyond the edge of the bowl, determine the position of equilibrium and all forces acting on the bar. Ans. The angle 6 between the bar and the horizontal is given by
14.
(/
Vl'
T,2a'')/Sa.
14 with the following numerical data: IV kilogr. / o. 45 met. a ^^ 0.4.0 met. 30 28'; pressure at lower end Ans. 7.05 kilogr.
Solve
E-x.
12
supported by a string attached at any two points and passing over a smooth peg. Determine the position of
16.
heavy bar
is
equilibrium and the tension in the string. A7ts. The peg divides the string into segments whose lengths are directly proportional to the distances of the center of gravity of the bar from the points of attachment of the string.
lbs.,
In the preceding example let the weight of the bar be 12 the distances of the center of gravity from the points of attachment of the strings 2 ft. and 3 ft. the length of the string 7. 5 ft. Determine the tension in the string in the position of equilibrium.
17.
,
Aju. 7.89
18.
lbs.
horizontal force is necessary to pull a carriage wheel over a smooth obstacle, the radius of the wheel being a, its weight W, and the height of the obstacle /i ?
19. A heavy uniform beam, movable in a vertical plane about a smooth hinge at one end, is sustained by a cord attached to the other end. The angle between the bar and the vertical being fixed, determine what direction of the cord will cause the least pressure on the hinge. Determine the corresponding values of the unknown forces acting on the bar. angle of bar with vertical, Ans. Let a angle of string with
What
= ^
yi tan a.
20. heavy beam rests with one end against a smooth inclined plane to the other end is attached a cord which passes over a smooth pulley and sustains a fixed weight. Determine the position of equi;
librium.
21.
The
roof-truss
shown
in skeleton in Fig.
91
quired to sustain tlie wind pressure on a portion of tlie roof of widtli 1 2 ft. and length A C or CB. Assume the pressure to be normal to the roof and uniformly equal to ^ 20 lbs. per sq. ft. ^-^A^^ Compute the supx^T"^ porting forces at ^>5^ "io ^/<C^^ /
.^\/
'
^<^/\
/ \/
'^
\/\V^ \/ X/^''^.-^ ^
'
also
[]J
*^
when
the
22.
is
from
^^
'
left.
Fig. 68.
Take data
assume the peg rough, so that the tensions in the two portions of the string may be unequal. If the bar is in equilibrium when the peg divides the string into segments r. 9 ft. and 5.6 ft. in length, what are the tensions in the two portions of the cord ? Ans. 10.46 lbs. and 4. 18 lbs.
as in Ex. 17, but
23.
The
A, B,
and
Prove that, if their resultant C. tional to the vectors AB, BC, CA.
24.
a and
/3,
that
weight is suspended from a point distant of the bar being 6. Required the value one-third the length of the bar from one end. of for equilibrium.
CHAPTER
VI.
I.
Equilibrium of
Any Part of a
Body.
IJ3. External
The
body regarded as a whole. In case two or more considered, each was regarded as presenting a separate were bodies problem in equilibrium. For certain purposes, however, it is desirticle
or to a rigid
other purposes
it
is
As
By
is
body upon
Again, by a fundamental law (Art. 35), forces so that when any one body exerts a force upon
the
first.
body exerts an equal and opposite force upon Thus every force concerns two bodies ; although in the pre-
ceding chapters the attention has in every case been directed espethat upon which the force acts, cially to a single body, and the
body
The word body, in the definition of force, must be understood to mean any portion of tnatter. The two portions may be separate
from each other (as in most of the cases hitherto discussed), or they may be parts of a single body. This leads to the following classification of the forces applied to a body An external force is one exerted upon the body in question by
An
internal force
is
The
the same rigid body, internal forces not appearing in the equations or conditions of equilibrium.
93
is
adjacent portions of a
body exert forces upon each other, these forces do not come into consideration when the problem relates solely to the equilibrium of the body as a whole. It may, however, be desired to gain some information regarding these internal forces. It will then be necessary to direct the attention to a portion of the body, and to consider the relations among all the forces which act upon this portion.
115. Conditions of Equilibrium for a Portion of a Body. Since the body to which the conditions of equilibrium apply may be any portion of matter whose particles are rigidly connected, it may be a)iy connected portion of a rigid body. But in writing the equations of equilibrium for a portion of a body, certain forces
must be
is
if
These are the forces exerted upon the portion in question by other portions of the same body. Such forces are internal when the whole body is considered, but external when one part is
considered.
(Fig. 69) represent a bar acted upon by two magnitude applied at the ends in opposite directions parallel to the length of the bar. These forces are exerted upon AB by some other bodies not specified. If the whole bar be considered, the external forces are the two forces named. But suppose the body
illustrate, let
To
AB
forces of equal
under consideration
ing
is
^ C, a
portion oi
AB
"^
upon
this
body are
plied at
Cj
B
^
C (exerted upon
external to
AC by
AC.
CB).
This
Fig. 69.
AB but
but
if
AB,
the only
and
already mentioned
force exerted upon
B as A C are
and the
AC
hy
CB
at C.
2.
Little Determining Internal Forces. portions contigucjus is in general known regarding the forces which But when the external forces are of a body exert upon each other.
116. General
Method
94
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
internal forces can
known, the
simplest and most important case, suppose the whole body, but every portion of
it,
known
is
in equilibrium.*
For
may be
stated:
is in
equilibrium, be conceived as
X and V, then the internal forces exerted by X upon V, together with the externalforces
acting on Y, form a system in equilibrium.
by applying the conditions of body Y, the resultant of all the forces exerted by upon Y may be determined it being equal and
Thus,
equilibrium to the
Fig. 70.
particles of
X upon those of
Y cannot,
unknown
directions.
Examples.
beam 8 ft. long, weighing 40 lbs. per linear foot, rests horiI. zontally upon supports at the ends. Dividing the beam by a transverse plane 3 ft. from one end, determine
the resultant of the forces exerted by each portion upon the other. CJ \^ The forces acting upon the left porfh tion of the beam (Fig. 71) are (i) the supporting force of 1 60 lbs. Fig. 71. the ( 2) weight of three linear feet of the beam, equivalent to a force of 120 lbs. applied 1.5 ft. from the left end and (3) the forces exerted by the other portion of the beam. The resultant of the first two is an upward force of 40 lbs. acting in a line 4. 5 ft. to the left of the left support. Hence the forces exerted by
;
;
to be carefully noted that the equilibrium of a body does not necesimply the equilibrium of every portion of it. Thus, if the external forces applied to the whole body are balanced, it may still have a motion of rotation, in which case the forces acting upon a portion of the body will in general be unbalanced. This will be apparent when the rotation of a rigid body has been studied. In very many cases, especially such as arise in enIt is
sarily
gineering practice, the bodies are not only in equilibrium, but at such cases all parts of the body are also in equilibrium.
rest.
In
95
downward
Abeam
weighmg
support. long, of uniform density and cross-section, 20 lbs. per linear foot, rests horizontally upon supports at
left
12
ft.
the ends. Conceiving the beam divided by a transverse plane through the middle of the length, determine the resultant of the forces exerted by each portion upon the other.
_
3.
In E.\.
2, let
the dividing plane be 3 ft. from one end. Deterforces exerted by each pordon upon the
4. Let the same beam rest upon a single support at the middle. Determine the resultant of the forces exerted upon each other by the two portions described in Ex. 2 also by the two portions described
;
in
Ex.
3.
5. Let the same beam rest upon supports, one of which is 2 ft. from one end and the other 4 ft. from the other end. Answer the questions asked in examples 2 and 3.
17 ft. long, weighing 120 lbs., rests horizonthe ends and sustains two loads a load of 40 lbs. 3 ft. from the left end, and a load of 80 lbs. 6 ft. from the right end. Taking a transverse section 4 ft. from the left end, compute the resultant of the forces exerted by one of the two portions of the beam upon the other.
6.
uniform
beam
at
tally
upon supports
94 lbs. ; 3.3 ft. from left end and 20.3 ft. from right end. In Ex. 6, let the transverse section be taken 4 ft. from the right end. Answer the same question.
7.
Alls. 52.
Fig. 72.
117. Jointed
structures
joints.
Frame.
Engineering
thus
practice
made up
A structure
made
is
called
a.
jointed
frame
frame
The determination
an important problem
at the ends.
in engineering.
upon supports
forces
Such a
truss
o\\
is
acted upon
b)' external
its
96
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
snow and the pressure of Each of the bars
it;
composing the
this
truss
is
tendency
is
resisted
by
the internal forces called into action beIf these internal forces
exceed certain values, the material is injured and the bar may be broken; it is therefore important to be able to determine their magnitudes before designing the members.
To
ployed.
method of
are
Art. 116
is
it
But
in
make
emcom-
made which
are only
approximately true.
assumed that the hinges are without friction. The seen by referring to Fig. 14 (p. 2 1), which represents a portion of one bar. The connection with other bars is made by means of a pin A which passes through holes in the ends of the bars. The pin being assumed smooth, the pressure of the pin upon the bar is normal to the cylindrical surfaces of both pin and bar, and there(a) It is
effect
of this
may be
fore acts
(Jf)
It is
assumed that
to the
is the case, the only forces acting on any bar are those exerted by the two pins at its ends. These two forces being in equilibrium, must be equal and opposite and must have the same line of action, which is therefore the line joining the
are applied
pins.
If this
If a transverse section
bar into two parts, the principle of Art. 116 shows that
force exerted by each part upon the other
action as
tlie
resultant
line
*
must have
the
same
of
118. Determination of
The method
now
be explained by reference to a numerical problem. Fig. 73 shows the dimensions of a roof truss supporting three vertical loads at
upper
It
is
No
joints, and supported upon horizontal surfaces at the ends. required to determine the internal forces in each of the bars. loads will be considered except those shown. The first step in
is
.
the solution
{a)
to
The determination of the supporting forces Assuming these be vertical, each must be equal to half the total load supported,
375
lbs.
i.e., to
97
Determination of internal forces. Let a section be taken, dividing the truss into two parts, A' and F, and let the conditions of equilibrium be applied to either part, as X. This body
as
MN,
is acted upon by an upward force of 375 lbs. at the support; a downward load of 250 lbs.; and the forces exerted by Y. In accordance with the assumptions made in Art. 117, these forces exerted by Y are three, acting along the lines of the three members cut by The magnitudes of these forces are, however, unthe section JMN.
A'
known.
for the
If three
body X, the only unknown quantities which will enter them are these three unknown force-magnitudes, which may therefore be determined by solving the equations. Let P, P^ and P^ denote the magnitudes of the three unknown (Fig. 74), and let them be assumed to act forces acting upon
,
% C
KB
Fig. 74.
away from
the
body X.
:
will
then be
known
98
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Taking
origin of
moments
,
a.tA, P^
and
is
P.,,
are eliminated.
The
arm
of
P., is
51/ 2
ft.
P,
X
ft.
51/2
250
10
= =
o.
P.^
(i)
Next taking
the
origin of m'oments at B,
is
P.,
and
arm of P^
i\/ 5
Hence
21/5
375
P^
Pi X
arm
of P^
is
X
and
10
P.,
o.
(2)
(T,
Hence
10
P3
+
;
250
10
375
X
;
20
o.
(3)
P^=
838. 5 lbs
P,
=+ X
353-6 lbs
P3
=+
500.0
lbs.
The signs of these results show that P, and P^ act away from body X, while P^ acts toward X. upon Y are equal in magnitude to The forces exerted by
P.,
the
P^,
and P3, but opposite in direction. Since the independent equations of equilibrium
different ways, the details of the solution
It is often
many
initely.
going
principles.
Examples.
I.
shown
in Fig. 73.
2.
shown
lbs.
sustain loads of
sure,
norat the
and applied
joints
as
shown.
truss
Suppose the
* In the above discussion the aim has been merely to exhibit clearly the
genera! principles upon which the determination of internal forces in framed
structures
is
based.
For a
full
99
supported at one end by a smooth horizontal surface and at the other end by a hinge. Compute the internal forces in all the bars of the truss, neglecting all loads except those specified. [First determine the supporting forces at the ends by considering the equilibrium of the truss as a whole. Then apply the above method to the computation of the internal forces. ]
119.
3.
Bodies.
For
External and Internal Forces Acting on a System of certain purposes it is found convenient to group a
number of bodies or
Statics,
particles together in applying the principles of such a group being called a system.
When a system of bodies is considered, a force acting upon any body of the system is called internal or external according as the body exerting the force is or is not a member of the system. For example, every terrestrial body is attracted by the earth in
accordance with the law of gravitation.
the
This attraction
is
external
if
body
is
considered by
itself.
If,
in-
is
upon
System
is
of Bodies.
It
now be shown
if
that
if
every body
in
a system
in equilibrium,
the externa! forces acting on the system as a whole satisfy the same
conditions as
body
in equilibrium.
The equations
of equilibrium
may be
body of the
for
system separately.
each
let
and
moment
Adding
all
The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of all forces acting upon
the bodies is eqiial to
ze7-o,
moments of all the forces acting upon whatever the origin of moments. Now, these equations include both external and internal forces. But since the forces exerted by any two of the bodies upon each
the
: ,
lOO
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Other are equal and opposite and have the same line of action, the
sum
is
zero,
origin
is
zero.
Hence the
sum
zero,
internal forces in
all
origin
If
zero.
The
following proposition
is
may
therefore be stated
The sum of tlieir resolved parts in any direction is zero. The sum of their tnoments is zero for any origin. (J>) That is, the external forces satisfy the same conditions as if the
system were a
It
rigid
body.
is,
The converse
of this proposition
true.
cannot be stated that when the external forces for the system satisfy
body
also
just
deduced
is
employment of some
rest, with
axes horizontal, against each other and against two inclined planes
Required to determine
The
;
pressures exerted
by the
cylinders
Two
'
and
"
Geometrical solution.
Applying
the
conditions
of equi-
and
W"
is
upon the system, notice that the a vertical force of magnitude + W"
lOI
in equilibrium
with
known,
their
magnitudes
may be
determined by means of a
Fig. 77.
Draw
sents
NH and HL
R"
and
in
LN
and
parallel to IF'
\-
W"
and make
parallel respectively to
magnitude and
direction,
and and
"
then
NH repre-
HL
represents
a,
HNL =
R"
'.
HLN
Hence
R'
sin /S
R'
R"
I02
the
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
magnitude and direction of the resultant of W" and R". must be parallel to HM. In Hence, for equilibrium, the line 90 a angle at //' we have angle at Z the triangle
AB
LMH
(a
= 90 +
hence
sin (90
R'
^)
sin (90
^)
or
W
cos (a
R'
^)
cos
Solving for
Q,
cos (g cos
.
+
6*
^)
^'
^'
_ ^
W'
IF'
sin (a
+
.
/8)
H^"
'
sin /3
/3
'
or, finally,
tan a
W"
cotan a
cotan
Applying
W,
IV",
inde-
R'
Resolving
vertically,
sin
R" sin ^ =
^
o.
(i)
R'
cos a
+
6),
R"
cos
W+
r'")
W")
o.
(2)
is
r") cos (a
-\-
{r'
r")
cose
R'
{r'
cos (a
6)
o.
(3)
These three equations contain three unknown quantities, R', R" and 6. From equations (i) and (2), R' and R" maybe found and The results will agree with then 6 can be determined from (3).
;
must be applied
to
one of the
cylinders alone.
122. External
4.
Stress.
stress
has already-
been defined as consisting of two equal and opposite forces exerted by two portions of matter upon each other (Art. 36). The two
forces of a stress always constitute an
"action" and
its
"reaction."
STRESS.
103
stresses with
any body or system of bodies is under consideration, the which the system is concerned may be either external An external stress is one exerted between two portions or internal. of matter, one of which belongs to the body or system while the other does not. An internal stress is one exerted between two portions of matter both of which belong to the body or system. This classification expresses no distinction as to the nature of the It is merely a distinction made for convenience in dealing stresses. with the problems of Mechanics.
any two adjacent portions of a body, separated by a plane surface, the resultant stress between these two portions may ha\'e any direction.
123. Kinds of Internal Stress in a Body.
When
Considering
Whatever
this direction
may be,
let
resolved into two components, one normal to the surface of separaThe normal components of the tion and the other parallel to it. and the other components a tana normal stress, forces constitute
gential stress.
The normal
former
other.
resists a
the latter
The stress may be either tensile or compressive. tendency of the two portions of the body to separate; resists a tendency of the two portions to move toward each
is
The
tangential stress
It resists
a tend-
body
the surface separating them. To illustrate the two kinds of normal stress, reference
may
be
problem discussed in Art. 118. The roof truss being and F, it was found that Y regarded as consisting of two parts, three forces whose magnitudes and directions are exerts upon exerts upon F forces equal and opposite shown in Fig. 75 while It is thus seen that normal stresses act in every transto these.
made
to the
X
;
the stress \n
those in
stress in
by de-
termining the direction of the internal force exerted by one part of the structure upon the other.
Examples.
I.
in
shown
I04
2.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
In Ex.
2, Art. of the truss.
member
124.
Between Bodies. If two bodies are in contact, the forces which they exert upon each other at the surface of contact constitute stresses which may be classified in the same manner as the internal stresses in a body. The names tension, comof Stress
Kinds
The normal
sure ; that
is,
stress
in contact
is
usually /r^j-
of the bodies to
other.
If the
The
tact rests
two bodies
limit. Thus, if a body upon a horizontal surface, and if a horizontal force is applied to it, the supporting body exerts a force in the opposite direction. If the applied force does not become too great, the opposing force will always just equal it and the body will remain in equilibrium. A tangential stress \kms acts between the two bodies. The forces compos-
name
friction
is
ap-
The
subject of friction
is
Besides the stresses acting between bodies at their surfaces of conthere are other stresses which act between bodies not in contact and without any apparent material connection. These are the sotact,
called
Such
anal-
ogous to
tensile
and compressive
stresses respectively.
125. Strain.
move
relatively to each
This tendency
is
opposed by the
No
plied forces, but the parts move, at least slightly, relatively to one
another.
Strain is the name given to the deformation which a body undergoes under the action of applied forces.
In this
work we
shall
not usually be concerned with strain, the Any ordinary solid body
(if
they
STRESS.
are not such as to cause rupture) and
strictly rigid
105
may
then be regarded as a
body.
Examples.
cross-section and density, 14 ft. long a horizontal position upon smooth supports at the ends. Conceive the bar to be divided by a plane perpendicular to the length, 4 ft. from one end. Determine {a) the resultant tangential stress and ib) the resultant normal stress between the two portions at the surface of separation.
1.
in
2. With the data of Ex. i, take a transverse section through the middle of the bar, and determine the resultant tangential stress and resultant normal stress between the two portions.
body weighing 50 lbs. is at rest upon a rough horizontal 3. surface while acted upon by a force of 10 lbs. directed at an angle of 30 upward from the horizontal. Describe completely the resultant
stress acting
uniform bar AB, 4. 2.x. by a smooth hinge vertical. Conceiving the plane, determine {a) the
between the given body and the supporting body. 12 ft. long, weighing 18 lbs., is supported and at 5 by a string inclined 30 to the A bar divided in the middle by a transverse resultant normal stress, {b) the resultant tangential stress, and (<:) the resultant stress, acting between the two portions of the body.
CHAPTER
VII.
FRICTION.
fectly
Smooth and Rough Surfaces. The conception of a persmooth surface has frequently been employed in the foregoing Such a surface was defined in Art. 42. The surfaces of discussions. actual bodies are, however, always more or less rough. If any two bodies are in contact, each exerts upon the other a Let force, the direction of which depends upon various conditions. the surface of one of the bodies be a plane, and consider the force which this body exerts upon the other. Whatever be the direction and T, the of this force, let it be resolved into two components former perpendicular to the plane surface and the latter parallel to it. and T in magnitude and direction. The lines (Fig. 79 shows P, are also shown but T will of action of P and
126.
N
;
of
T may be
if
N;
but
the surface be
made smoother,
the magni-
becomes
Fig. 79.
smaller.
We
smooth surface as one which can exert no force parallel to itself upon any body placed in contact with it. In other words, the resultant pressure exerted by a smooth surface upon any body in contact with it must have the direction of the normal to the surface. Although the surface of a body can never be made to satisfy this
42, to define a perfectly
definition of perfect smoothness, there are cases
to
it.
The
is
difficulty of
is
due
by the
upon a body
The
forces exerted
at their surface
of contact are of the kind called ^ajjzW resistances (Art. 41). They are called into action to resist a tendency of the two bodies, due to
any
cause, to
move
RICTIOX.
to rest
107
upon a horizontal surface and to be acted upon by the attract. e., by a downward force equal to the weight of the body. The pressure exerted upon it by the table is called into action to resist this downward force and is exactly equal and opposite
tion of the earth
;
to
it.
now
If this
hold
it
body will remain at rest, and in order to supporting body exerts upon it, in addition to the
mentioned, a force equal and opposite to the
If the
any value (up to a certain limit), or resisting force changes in a corchanged, the be if its direction as always to be equal and opposite to it. The manner so responding body is made up of the the supporting exerted by resultant force the supported body, and the the weight of resisting upward force
gradually changed from zero
to
If additional forces
be applied to
the body, equal and opposite forces will be exerted by the supporting body but the magnitude and direction of the force that can be
;
The
n&me
friction
is
by one body upon another at their component frictional forces exerted by the two bodies The contact. surface of and constitute a stress. opposite and equal are other upon each Experiments show that friction acts according to certain laws.
of the force exerted
In stating these laws, the term nate all forces acting upon the
'
' '
applied forces
' '
will
be used to desig-
resistance
'
128.
Laws
The
following
maybe
stated as the
laws or principles to be
employed
exerted upon a body by another in contact with it. friction is equal and oppo(i) If the body is in equilibrium the
site to
(2)
the tangential component of the apphed forces. resultant of the applied If the tangential component of the
becomes greater than a certain limiting value, the friction canThe value of the friction not become great enough to balance it.
forces
when
sliding
is
is
The magnitude
normal pressure
two bodies.
is
independent
I08
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
if
body
is
independent of the velocity and proportional to the normal presIn this case, the ratio of the friction to the normal pressure
less
is
sure.
found to be
than
when
sliding
is
about to occur.
Of
enough
most
practical
The
That
ratio of the
magnitude of
the limiting friction to that of the normal pressure between the bodies
is
offriction.
y.
is, if
is
the coefficient of
friction,
= FIN,
in
which
Law
N. If the pressure between the two bodies becomes nearly great enough to crush the material of which either is composed, it is found that /i is considerably greater than for small Within certain limits of normal pressure, however, its pressures. value is nearly constant, and it will be regarded as constant in the applications which follow. It is to be noted that the value of /x depends upon the nature of
the magnitude of
The total pressure exerted by either 130. Angle of Friction. body upon the other is the resultant of the normal pressure and the If this resultant be determined by the triangle of forces it friotion. is seen that its direction makes with the normal an angle whose tangent
has
is
This angle
its
when
the friction
is
as great as possible.
The angle offriction is the angle between the resultant pressure and the normal when sliding is about to take place. If this angle is denoted by <^, it follows from the definition that
tan
(^
= Fj N =
/x.
That
is,
the tangent
is
equal
to the coefficient
offriction.
FRICTION.
109
The
and
may
simply.
let
is
Thus,
let
enough so
that the
body
on the point of
slichng.
This force
is
Its
The normal
pressure
weight of
balance.
The
two forces is the coefficient of friction. Another method of determining the coefficient of friction is as Let a body be placed upon an inclined plane, and let no follows forces act upon it except its weight and the pressure of the supporting plane. This supporting pressure is exactly equal and opposite to the weight so long as the body is in equilibrium the angle it makes with the normal is therefore equal to the inclination of the plane to
:
the horizontal.
until the
body
is
on the point of
The
by
the plane
friction.
now makes
Hence,
if
from the
= tan
(f).
been made to determine the value of the different materials both with and without
is
lubricants.
The range
/a:
of the results
indicated
by the following
values* of
"
soaped
Metals on oak, dry " " " wet " " " soaped Metals on metals, dry
wet
...
Examples.
is
0.15 to 0.2
0.3
Smooth
thoroughly
I.
body
of [fibs,
mass
at rest
A cord attached to this body runs parallel to 6 with the horizontal. the plane, passes over a smooth pulley and sustains a weight of P
*See EncycIopEEdia
Britannica, Vol.
XV,
p. 765.
no
lbs.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the friction, the normal pressure, and the total pressure, exerted by the plane upon
the body.
40 lbs., 6 2. In Ex. I, let so lbs., pose the body is just about to slide up the plane. Ans. 0.318 coefficient of friction.
/jl
W=
P=
3. In Ex. I, if the coefficient of friction is 0.4 and 6 is 30, what must be the value of P (in terms of W) in order that the body may What value of P will just allow sliding just slide up the plane? Ans. 0.846 down the plane ? 0.154 JV. 4. A body of 30 lbs. mass, resting upon a plane inclined 45 to If the coefficient the horizontal, is pulled horizontally by a force F. of friction is 0.2, between what limits may the value of /'vary and Ans. 20 lbs. and 45 lbs. still permit the body to remain at rest? whose center of gravity is distant a A straight bar of length /, 5. from the lower end, rests upon a horizontal surface and leans against If the coefficient of friction between the floor and a vertical wall. and the wall is perfectly smooth, what angle with the vertibar is Ans. tan^' (fil/a). cal may the bar make without sliding?
fj,,
is
6. If the conditions are as in Ex. 5, except that the vertical wall rough, the coefficient of friction between the wall and the bar being fj,', what is the position of incipient sliding?
7.
What
bead on a circular wire ring whose plane is result in terms of the coefficient of friction.
are the limiting positions of equilibrium for a heavy vertical ? ( Express the
8. What are the limiting positions of equilibrium of a uniform bar placed' wholly within a spherical bowl? (Express in terms of the angle of friction. angle subtended at center by bar, Ans. Let 2a its angle with the horizontal in the limiting position then tan 6 tan (a y^ [tan (a ^) ^)].
A B whose mass is 6 lbs. and whose center of gravity is A is supported in a horizontal position by a string attached at A and a peg 7 from A. The coefficient of fric9.
bar
ft.
ft.
between the bar and the peg is o. 3. If the bar is about to slide in the direction AB, determine the direction of the string, the tension it sustains, and the supporting pressure exerted by the peg. Ans. Tension 2.77 lbs. resistance of peg 3.58 lbs. angle 68 12'. between string and bar
tion
10. In the preceding case, between what limits must the direction of the string lie in order that there may be equilibrium ? Determine the corresponding limiting values of the supporting forces.
11.
Let
W = weight of
=
A, b
Solve the preceding problem in the following general case: bar, a distance of its center of gravity from distance of peg from A, fj. coefficient of friction.
FRICTION.
132. Friction in Machines.
In
This
may produce
is,
its
desired
effect, its
guided in a
definite
manner.
accomplished by means of
bodies which touch the machine parts at certain points and exert
constraining forces upon them.
the desired constraint, there are usually frictional forces which resist
In general friction
will
be seen,
it
may
in
The
method
case.
effect of friction
estimated
by means
of
the laws
is
of applying
them
the
following simple
If a pulley is mounted Fixed Pulley with Friction. upon a cylindrical a.xle, the frictional force exerted by the axle upon the wheel always acts in such a way as to oppose what-
133.
freely
other forces.
a de-
P the
effort
W
;
the load
the resultant
pressure
N the
of
(j)
normal component oi
R F
;
;
component
fi
The
the axle
axle,
which
Fig. 80.
but they
may be regarded
size.
as
pracdcally equal in
witk the
of wheel,
effort,
is
wheel is on the point of moving the equation of moments, taking origin at center
If the
Pa
Wa IVa
/<r Fr
=
:
o,
P=
]V
Frja,
(1)
112
If
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the wheel
is
direction of
is
reversed,
effort,
the
P=
The
follows:
WFrja
may
(2)
F in case
of incipient motion
be determined as
F=
Nian
But
4>,
acting at an angle
<f)
must
act
CAB
sin
Fig. 80)
(f>
then
r
.
.
a cosec a
^
sin
^ - sin ^ sin
a
a.
(3)
Since R,
P and
W are
R
2a
in equilibrium,
we have
P
sin {a
-\-
W
6')
sin
sin (a
6')
^)
. ; .
.
K=
/"sin 2a
-)-
^Fsin 2a
sin (a
(4)
sin (a
r.
^)
0)
<i
. .
F=R^xr,<^
From
6
is
(5)
F in
(3).
terms of
W can be found
determined.
is
after
F in
Pand W\i
The above
incipi-
opposite motion
is
similar,
but
P and
W must be
about to
inter-
changed.
Examples.
I.
Let /"and
of 90; radius of pulley 6 ins.; radius of axle in. coefficient of friction Determine Q and the relation between o. 2. and in case of incipient motion in each direction.
^^
Alls.
6=1
24';
P/JV
= 0.952 or
1.050.
FRICTION.
2.
113
relation
</>)
Prove
is
that,
if
and
^^ j^
them
or
p^iy
is
W
-,.
are
parallel, the
j (^a
/
between
sj^ ^^^
-\-
r sin r sin
P I IV =^
first
{a
/'
sin (p)
(a
e^j,
according as there
that the
incipient
motion
is
zvith
P or
against P.
Show
of these equations
W^
CHAPTER
VIII.
perfectly rigid
body could not be deformed in any degree by the action of external Actual bodies, however, undergo changes of form and size forces. In some cases the changes are so forces are applied to them. when
slight as to
Thus, a steel beam, resting upon be of little importance. For two supports, may bend only slighdy under very heavy loads. certain purposes this bending is unimportant, while for others it must
The
statics of non-rigid
bodies
is
less
simple
general principle.
135. Non-Rigid
Body
in Equilibrium.
to
equilibrium.
Suppose a body, acted upon by any external forces, to be deformed in any manner, reaching finally a condition of equilibrium. This condition being attained, the rigidity of the body is of no further
consequence so
forces
far as its equilibrium
is
concerned.
must therefore
satisfy the
same conditions
as if the
actually rigid.
136. Flexible
and Inextensible Cord. A flexible cord has may be bent by the application of exterperfectly flexible cord would offer no resistance to
bending.
The
this ideal
property of perfect
flexibility.
The
value, since
many
be assumed further that the cords are inextensible. The fojces acting upon a cord may be concentrated or distributed. (Art. 37). These two cases will be considered separately.
137- Geometrical
Conditions
of
Upon
115
81) be the fixed
any concentrated
forces.
Thus,
let
let
A' and
/',
,
F (Fig.
forces
P^ be applied at points Z,
J/, ^V. Suppose the cord to have assumed a form of equilibrium, the segments XL, LM, MN, 7\AF being straight. Let T,,T,,T T, denote the tensions in the successive segments of the string, taken in
order from A" to }'. Then there is a definite relation between any applied force, as P^, and the tensions in the adjacent portions of the
string, as T^
and T,
be applied to
string near
1 1 5 any portion of the string may be and the conditions of equilibrium may the forces acting upon it. For the portion of the
.
By
Art.
the tensions in
XL
T.,
and
Z J/, that
is,
LX, and
a force
in the direction
LAL.
FlG. 81.
M we
in equilibrium
the
the
P^,
force
P.^,
a force
T..
in
the direction
T.
in If
direction
P.,
JZV.
and
P.^
may
cally or
of forces named.
The geometrical
is
construction
Z'j
shown
in Fig. 81.
The
tion
;
line
then
AB drawn to represent in magnitude and direcBO and OA drawn parallel to ZJ/and ZA' represent the
T^.
forces T.
tion
;
and
Draw i^C to
represent
P., in
M,
The
Similarly,
if
CD
represents
T^.
Z", in
DO
Il6
figure
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
* thus shows
at a glance the relations of
tion that
-'i)
-'a)
must
-'3>
subsist
among
P.,, P.^
-'i*
may be
ex-
M and N.
Problem
of
is acted upon by concentrated numerous problems may arise, depending upon what quantiThus, in the case represented ties are given and what are required. in Fig. 81, the quantities involved are the applied forces Pi, P.^ and P.^; the tensions 7",, T.^, 7!,, T^, and the coordinates which give (Instead of these coordithe positions of the points X, L, M, N, Y. nates, we may use the lengths and directions of the segments XL, LM, etc.) If enough of these quantities are known the others may Many of the problems which may arise do not admit be determined. If the problem is determinate, as many equaof simple treatment.
Forces.
If
forces,
tions
may be
is
unknown
quantities.
Part of these
The
Examples.
Let a single vertical load of P lbs. be suspended from a cord and ; from its ends and let the ends and Y be fixed in such positions that the distance is and the line A' makes with the horizontal an angle 6. Determine the tensions in
1.
at distances /
XF
10
the cord.
8 ins., a and 0.988 P. 3. Let the ends of the cord be fixed at points in the same horizontal line at a distance apart equal to a, and let vertical loads P and Q be suspended at points dividing the length of the cord into segments /, m and n. Determine the relation between and Q so that
2.
12 ins., 6
= 30.
ins., tn
Ans. 0.0744
*The construction here described is of importance in Graphical Statics. The polygon formed by the successive segments of the cord is called a funicular polygon.
polygon.)
117
the middle
satisfied
C^
4.
be
If,
6 assuming (?
ins.,
in the
ins.,
preceding example, 12 ins., / 4 ins., m =^ 6 prove that /-" Determine the tensions, 3.50lbs., /^
10
35
lbs.
Ans. Tension
in
horizontal cord
= 8.079
l^s.
Any
Load. Let
it
be required to determine
the form of the curve assumed by a cord suspended from two fixed points and sustaining a vertical load distributed along the cord in
any manner.
Let the coordinates of any point of the curve
the axis of
(
Fig. 82) be
x and/,
being horizontal and that of y vertical, and the origin Let (/> denote the angle being any point in the plane of the curve.
to the curve at
T
the
that point.
Also
let
lu
be
by the cord per unit length (made up of its own weight and any
load
sustained
In gen-
w
Let
varies
continuously
and
be any two
y'^,/
'^\
O
Fig. S2
Jj
c^i
while at
;ir,
the val-
ues are
,/,,
T.,,
(f)..
total
load apphed to
the portion
FQ.
FQ, and
(i)
r, cos (/>!:= o
resolving
\'ertically,
T.,
sin
(j),
T, sin
(j)^
W-
o.
(2)
is
A moment
(
not needed
the present discussion. Equation i) expresses the fact that the horizontal component of
Il8
the tension has the
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
same value
at all points of the cord.
Let this
value be represented by
T^i
H,
so that
</)^
cos
(^1
^
in
T.^
cos
=--
T cos
the
<f)
Substituting
T.^
equation
(2)
(3)
(f)^,
= ///cos
4>,,
that equation
becomes
(fj^
tan
(f),
tan
are
= W
H.
(a)
may
</>
(2).
the values of
T and
H becomes known.
point.
If also
known at any one point of the cord, IV is known for every portion of the
at
any
is
differential
more
useful.
140. Differential Equation of Curve of Loaded Cord. Let s denote the length of the curve measured from some fixed point up and Q. to the point {x, y), and let s^ and s.^ be the values of j at From equation (4) we have
(tan ^2
tan
(^, ) / (j.^
jJ =
IV I
(s.,
j,).
member
P and Q
approach coincidence.
<p,
Evidently,
/ {s,
limit [(tan
limit [
tan
(^J
Jj)]
= af(tan
<p)
Ids
l{s.^
j-j]
= w.
(j))/ds
d (ta.n
To apply
this equation to
~ w/H.
(i^)
any particular
Two
The Common Catenary. The curve assumed by a cord is uniform, is called the common cat-
is
constant
let
Hjw
=
is
c,
Writing/
for tan
<^,
dpids
i/c
(5)
119
</>,
and cos
</>
=
(7)
-\-
may be
I
written
dp'"i
+p''
I
dxi:
Integrating,
log
(/
+ p'')
let
K.
To determine
some
zero.
when x
equals zero,
Then
p equals
/' ^=
(S)
Solving for /,
p
Integrating,
dy dx
}4(i'^'' -
(9)
K'
do)
lowest point of the
If
is
taken
at the
curve, so that
y
is
= o when x
c.
=
If
I-
o,
A"
is
equal to
the origin
at a distance
latter
supposition,
-;r
(<'>''"
t'-'''.).
(11)
made
:
of certain rela-
tions
quantities
cord
point
at
any
the tension at any the tension at the lowest point the inclination of the tangent The following equapoint the coordinates of any point.
;
; :
tions
(6),
s
by
integration,
(p;
.
= (p = ctan
(i^)
reckoned from the point the constant of integration being zero if s is of the curve. point lowest the from is, o, that at which </>
I20
{b)
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Eliminating
results
.
y
(<:)
^ cV +
1
p''
= cs&cj).
.
(13)
y'-s'=c'.
The use
of these equations will
(14)
now be
illustrated.
Examples.
apart in the
at a given distance the load per unit length (w) being known, and the tension at the lowest point {H) being assigned. Required (i) the length of the curve, (2) the position of the lowest point, (3) the slope at points of suspension, (4) the tension at points of suspension. are given, c is known, its value being Hjw. Since and Also, the value of ;ir at a point of suspension is known (being half the distance between the two given points); hence from (11) the value Subtracting c from oi y at a point of suspension can be computed. this value of j/ gives the depth of the lowest point below the points of suspension; which answers question (2). The length of half the curve may be found by substituting in equation (14) the value of c and the value oiy at the point of suspension. This answers question (i). From (13) may be found the value of <|> at the point of suspension, which answers question (3). From equation (3), sec 4>, T
1.
same horizontal
line,
=H
from which may be determined the value of pension, thus answering question (4).
T at
In solving a numerical case of this example, the value of the exponential terms in equation (11) must be found by logarithms. The value of e, the base of the system of hyperbolic logarithms, is 2.7182818 and its common logarithm is 0.4342945.
2. Let the points of suspension be 100 ft. apart in the same horizontal plane, let the load per foot be 50 lbs. and let it be required that the tension at the lowest point shall be 1000 lbs. From the given data,
,
c ^=
Hjw
y
1000/50
20
ft.
The The
= 50
ft,
10 (^" -f
is
e"''-')
122.6
ft.
ft.
therefore 102.6
121
For the
=/ + = (i22.6y +
r'
(20/;
124.3
ft.
(/>
at the point of
suspension
o.
= c'y =
we have
== 80
37'.
20/122.6 :=
is
1631
(^
The
3.
T:= //sec ^
= 6,130
lbs.
suspended from two given points in the same horizontal plane determine the position of the lowest point of the curve, and the tension at any point. In this case the value of x at the end of the cord is known, but the corresponding value of j/ is unknown, as is also the value of c. To solve the problem, y and c must be determined so as to satisfy equations (11) and (14). This is best accomplished by trial when
is
;
Let
w ds ^ w 'dx,
or
w'
<^.
(15)
Consider
now
constant.
for
Writing/ for
(Art. 140)
w, equation (5)
may be
written
dpjds
in
= {cos 4>)!d
[dp dx) cos
(16)
which
c' is
written for
Hjw' and
,
is
zontal distance
is
H.
Again,
since dpjds
equation becomes
the
(17)
horizontal, so that
when x
there results
.
(18)
when X
^=
o,
y =..rV2c'.
(19)
122
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the origin to any point,
Since cos
i>
i/l'i
+/\
equation (i6)
may be
written
ds
r'T^i c'V
is
+f
dj>,
y^c'lpV
+p-'
log {p
if
T^i +/^)],
o.
(20)
If it is
= o when^ =
p may
be eliminated by means
of equation (18).
Examples.
cord carrying a known load with uniform horizontal distriI. bution is suspended from two points on the same level at a given distance apart. The lowest point of the cord is at a known distance below the points of suspension. To determine {a) any number of (c) the length of points of the curve (Jf) the tension at any point the cord. {a) Since the values of x and y at the points of suspension are known, c' can be determined from equation (ly); after which the same equation serves to determine the coordinates of any number of points of the curve. (1^) The value of w' being known, 77 can be computed from the c'w' The slope at any point may be found from the relation equation ^an </> dy,dx xlc /
;
H=
= =
=
I
at
relation
T= Hsec<^ =..//!
(c)
+/.
The
point
may
length of the cord from the lowest point up to any given be found from equation (20), using the above value of p.
cord carrying 40 lbs. per horizontal foot is suspended at (2) two points on the same level 40 ft. apart, so that the lowest point of the cord is 10 ft. below the point of suspension. Required the tension at the lowest point the length of the cord. 143.
If
;
and
a cord
Approximate Solution of Problem of Loaded Cord. is suspended from two points on the same level whose dis-
little from the length of the. cord, the relation between the load, the sag,* the distance between points of sus-
By
the sag
is
meant the
below the
123
and
the
length
may
be
determined approximately as
and that w' ^= zv. On these assumptions the curve is a parabola and equations (19) and (20) of Art. 142 are applicable. An approximate value of s may be obtained in simple form. If the value of s given by equation (20) be developed in powers
oi /, the first
two terms
= c'{p + p^l6).
x, is
This
result,
expressed
s =
in
terms of
c'ixic'
+ x^'lbc") = X (i + ,r^/6^").
Examples.
1. A wire weighing o. i lb. per yard of length is suspended between two points 100 ft. apart so that the sag at the middle is 2 ft. Determine the length and the greatest tension. The equation of the curve being _y a'^'2(r', the value of r', found by substituting in this equation the coordinates of any point of
the curve,
is
c'
^= x''l2y =- 2500/4.
is
= 625
ft.
The
The
lbs.
= xjc' =
-" 50/625
at
= 0.08,
is
therefore
T=
The
s
//sec
20.81'^
is
(f)
+ 0.0064 = +
20.9
lbs.
= c'ip -f p^l6) =
Solve Ex.
I,
625 (0.08
0.000512/6)
i
=
ft.
50.053
ft.
2.
and
(b) 3
ft.
The
hang
in parabolic curves.
a cable has a uniform horizontal distribution, there is no tendency of If, however, this disthe cables to depart from the parabolic form.
tribution of loading is departed from, there is a tendency to change the form of the curve assumed by the cable. To counteract this stiffening truss. tendency to distortion is the office of the
'
'
For a complete discussion of the theory of suspension works on the theory of bridges must be consulted.
bridges,
CHAPTER
IX.
CENTROIDS.
I.
In the discus-
may be applied at any point in its line of action, since its upon the motion (or tendency to motionj of the body is the
such points of application.
In certain cases, however,
in
same
for all
the body,
whatever displacement
acting
it
may
undergo.
of the
upon a body is the resultant of forces applied to e\'erv particle body and these points of application remain fixed in the body,
it
however
may be
turned from
its
original position.
remains
fixed.
146. Resultant of
Application.
Let two
Two
is
parallel forces
and B.
Their resultant
line
AB into segments
Let
inversely proportional to
C (Fig.
AB.
If
remain
any manner, and B, the line of action of continue to pass through the same point C hence
in
changes
being
C may
147. Resultant of
Any Number
If,
of Parallel
Points of Application.
applied at
in addition to the
two
parallel forces
and B, there
is
CENTROIDS.
a point
T25
the
D, the
two has a fixed point of applicawhich the forces may act, and since a point may also be found which may be regarded
tion for all directions in as the fixed point of application of
^ .
75
Xj
~
Af
i
/p
'
j
~yE
/
y-
the
follows
-r
,
that the line of action of the resultant of the three given forces will always
Fig. 84.
which
may
be taken as
of forces,
its
may
be continued to
include any
number
is
number of
parallel forces
a line which always passes through a certain fixed point, whatever the direction of the forces.
148. Centroid.
system of parallel forces with fixed points of application is called the Methods of determining the centroid will centroid oi the system.
now be
considered.
/"j,
let
the coordinates of
he (x^,j\)A-i'',
coordinates of
y,),
the
its
Assume
the
and
is
The magnitude
it
of the
the
same
in
in
each case
acts in a line
equal to the
of the resultant of
of the
moments
of
we may
Rx
and
for the case in
= P,x, + = P^y^ +
P,x,
+ +
. .
Ry
Pj.^
126
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
these, since
From
is
the algebraic
sum
= (P,x, + V = {P.y. +
sign
P.,x.,
)/(P,+P..+
)I{P.
Pj'.+
+ P.+
= ^Pxll.P; = S/>/2P.
Here the
ilar
form.
150.
It will
be well to extend
the discussion to cases in which the forces, though parallel, are not
restricted to a plane
in space.
The reasoning
of parallel forces with fixed points of application has a centroid, applies to this general case.
To
the following
{a)
If
unrestricted, the
centroid
Let
s^,
z.,,
etc.,
denote
in
plane
application applies to
hence the formula deduced for the case of coplanar points of any two forces. Or, \i z' is the ordinate of the centroid of P^ and
;
-|-
P.'^)
and
P.^;
if
j"
By extending this reasoning, any number offerees with the result that the ordinate of the centroid is
i
may be
included,
(P.^i
P,^, -r
W\ +P.+
SPr/S/'.
CENTROIDS.
Since the plane of reference
nite
127
number
equations, however, suffice for the determination of the centroid. If three rectangular coordinate planes are selected, and the points of
application of the forces are fx,,/,
dinates of the centroid are given
,
the coor-
2.
Centroids of Masses,
General
151. Center of
to act in the
Mass
Defined.
If parallel
forces be conceived
the resultant
same direction upon all portions of a body, such that forces acting upon any two portions, however small, of mass of the body. upon all portions of a body form a
The
system which
body.
The
of gravity of the
The terms
to
The determination
bodies
is
of the mass-center of a
body
is,
or of a system of
The word
centroid
in fact, often
used
152. General
the given
Method of Determining Center of Mass. Let body be divided into any number of parts whose masses
. ,
arew,,;.^,
of mass be
{x.^,
and
let
.,
..".J,
Assuming
forces such
Art. 15 1) to act
upon
all
is
y, z
may
128
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
be written three equations similar to those which give the cooordinates of the centroid of any system of parallel forces (Art. 150);
the force-magnitudes being replaced by the masses
/,
,
m.^
The
'Lmx I'Lm
j" ;
'^uiyi^in
is
= 1.ma
know
1.1)1.
To apply
divided into
these formulas,
it
necessary to
If
the center of
the given
simple.
If
such subdivision
if
integral calculus,
an exact
determination
is
required.
if it is
desired to de-
Examples.
1. Find the center of mass of a system of four bodies whose masses are 10 lbs., 50 lbs., 12 lbs., 40 lbs their several mass-centers being at the points whose rectangular coordinates are (10, 4, 3),
;
(12,
that the mass-center of three particles of equal mass placed at the vertices of a triangle lies at the intersection of the medians.
3. Show that the mass-center of four particles of equal mass placed at the vertices of a triangular pyramid is at a distance from the base equal to one-fourth the altitude.
(4,
3, 6).
153. Density.
A body
is
said to be
homogeneous
if
the masses
homogeneous body is a quantity proportional mass and inversely to the volume. If the unit density is that of a body of which unit volume contains unit mass, the density of any homogeneous body is equal to the mass of t/nit volume
The
density of a
directly to the
of the body.
If
mass,
for a
is
homogeneous body. Dimensions of unit density. The unit density above described a derived unit (Art. 13), depending upon the units of mass and
CENTROIDS.
length.
(Art. 15)
(unit density)
If
129
This dependence
is
(unit mass)/(unit
volume)
= M/Ll
the
pound
is
taken as the unit mass and the foot as the unit length,
is that of a body of which each cubic foot of volume pound mass. The density of any body is then expressed as a certain number of pounds per cubic foot. Other units of mass and length give other units of density, for example a gram per cubic centimeter, or a kilogram per cubic meter. The methods
of density.
Average
density
total
density.
is
If
a body
is
not homogeneous,
its
average
may be
mass and
The average
density
In
The concep:
may be
reached as follows
Let S.M be the mass and A V the volume of any portion conits average density p' is then taining the given point
;
If
A J^ become
Ai/ also
p.
the denis
That
is,
given
by the equation
154.
^
of
^ dMjdV.
Homogeneous Body
or
Bodies.
For a homogeneous
Mass-Center
System
of
of equal densities, volumes may be substituted for masses in the formulas for the coordinates of the mass-center. For if p is the denare the volumes correspondsity of each body, and v^, v^, we have ing to masses m^, m-i,
.
;i
=^ pi\,
72
pv-z,
z,
the factor
'S.vxj^ii
"Lvyj'E.v
= l.vzilv.
130
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and Lines.
all
Volumes.
be conceived to be applied to
portions of a body,
the resultant forces acting upon any two portions, however small,
The
may
the
all
is
centroid of a system of parallel forces conceived to be applied to portions of the surface, the resultant forces acting
tions,
however
tion applies to
in the
lie in
plane
the surface.
centroid of a
The formulas for the coordinates of the body or of a volume may be applied in
area,
{.X2
homogeneous
{^x-^, jj/j,
\i Vi,
Vi,
.
,yi,z^
Lines.
the cen-
portion of the
portions,
however
If the line is divided into parts whose lengths and centroids are known, the centroid of the whole line is found by formulas identical in form with those used for finding the coordinates of the centroid of a volume or area but Wi z'^ must represent lengths.
;
,
156.
The moment
of a mass
defined as the product of the mass into mass-center from the plane.
volume
The moment of a
is
the product of
its
surface (or of a line) with respect to a plane area (or length) into the distance of its centroid
The formula
(Art. 152)
any mass
maybe
written
.
.
{m,^m.^+.
)x
= m^ x^
-^ ;, x,
CENTROIDS.
Since the plane from which
131
is
The moment of any mass with respect to a plane is equal to the sum of the moments of any parts into which it viay be divided. The same proposition obviously holds for a volume, a surface or
a
line.
As
a special case,
line,
if
body, surface or
^57-
the
sum
of the
moments
of the parts
line
is
zero.
Symmetry.
If a
volume, a surface or a
plane.
has a plane
sur-
lies in this
face or line can be divided into pairs of equal elements such that the
lies in
is
there
and
if
there
is
a center of
symmetry
it
A
Thus:
similar proposition
is
homogeneous.
of
From
the principles of
cal figures
may be
is
at its
middle point.
the line bisecting the
lies
upon
lies
upon
is
at its center.
Parallelo-
area to
site
AB
is
Since the relation of the and its relation to the oppoare exactly similar, the
side
CD
centroid
equally distant
from these
it is
two
lines.
ly distant
equalthere-
1 1 is
LM, HK.
is,
symmetry of the
parallelogram,
132
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Triangle. In the triangle ABC (Fig. 86) draw parallel to the side BC, and draw lines such as B' bisected by and A C. These lines are all ited by
AX bisecting
BC and limAX.
Draw 5' C'c^.
AB
B'baxA C^ parallel to ^X, The centroid of every such paralelogram lies on AX, hence the cenIf the numtroid of the figure made up of all of them lies on AX.
thus constructing a parallelogram
approaching zero,
this figure
;
approaches
hence the
upon
it lies
AX.
drawn from
C
it is
A C.
Let
Hence
common
point
BC,
By comparison
of the similar
triangles
and NMC, it is seen that NM'-\s, equal to half of AB. Comparing the similar triangles GAB and Hence GAIN, it is seen that half oi BG. is half oi and GM'vs. one- third of AM, and (?7\^ one-third oiBN.
ABC
GM
AG
GN
Any
triangles
may be
subdivided into
;
whose areas and centroids may be computed so that the centroid of the whole area can be determined by the general formulas
of Art. 154.
Right prism.
will
A right prism
may
itself.
The
and
if
moments be taken with respect to any plane conby the centroid of the generating area,
volumes
will be proportional to But the moment of the hence the moment of the
the
the
moments moments
of the elementary
whole area is zero for such a plane whole volume is also zero, and its centroid therefore lies in the The centroid is obviously equidistant from the two bases plane.
of the prism.
CENTROIDS.
Oblique prism. An oblique prism
rectilinear
itself.
133
in
volume of a triangular
pyramid hes
base.
To prove
to
be the vertex,
difficulty that
its
B"C"D"
be
a prism be
B'C'D'
it
parallel to
AM
B
"
until
"
falls
C" D
The
in
lies
AM.
BCD
be taken, and
the
let
each be the
same way
as the
one de-
scribed.
each prism
upon
AM,
so
Fig. 87.
combined volume.
indefinitely,
If the
number
volume of each elementary prism approaches zero, but their combined volume approaches that of the pyramid hence the centroid of the pyramid lies upon AM.
;
To
lie
A CD
let (Fig. 87) be the then the centroid of the pyramid must
on
and
BN, and must therefore be the point BN. If E is the middle point of CD,
also,
lies
EM = EBJT,;
triangles
EAB
and
of intersecdon oi
lies
AM
* The sections B'C'D' and B"C"D" are not shown in Fig. 87 but it is be understood that like letters denote corresponding vertices of the three triangles BCD, B'C'D', B" C" D"
to
134
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Again, comparing the similar triangles
AB/2is
GAB, GMN,
it
seen that
onefourth the
lies
drawn from the vertex to the centroid of the base Moreover, if the applies to a pyramid whose base is any polygon. pyramid can be divided into tribase be divided into triangles, the lie in plane parallel to the centroids all a angular pyramids whose one-fourth the altitude from it equal to distance hence base and at a the centroid of the given pyramid also lies in that plane. If the base is bounded by any curve, this may be regarded as the limit of an inscribed polygon the number of whose sides is increased Hence the following proposition may be stated indefinitely. The centroid of any pyramid or cone lies in the line joining the vertex with the centroid of the base, and at a distance from the base
upon the
;
:
equal
to
Examples.
Find the centroid of the area of half of a regular hexagon. Determine the centroid of an area composed of a square, and an equilateral triangle one of whose sides coincides with a side of the
1
2.
square.
3. Determine the centroid of a volume composed of a cube, and a right pyramid whose base coincides with a face of the cube and whose altitude is equal to the length of an edge of the cube.
4. Find the centroid of a volume made up of a right circular cylinder of given base and altitude, and a cone pf any altitude whose base coincides with a base of the cylinder.
5. Prove that the centroid of the area of a triangle coincides with the mass-center of a system of three particles of equal mass situated at the vertices of the triangle.
6.
or pyramid.
7. Prove that the centroid of the volume of a tetrahedron coincides with the mass-center of a system of four particles of equal mass situated at the vertices of the tetrahedron.
'EXTROIDS.
135
3.
Determination
'of
Centroids by Integration.
In
many
cases
it
is
not possible to
is
required into
portions
is
result
whose centroids are known. In such desired, resort must be had to integration.
cases, if
an exact
[in^x^
m,x.^
)(;,
+
is
-2
),
let
the
number
of parts into
divided be increased,
become
Each term
in the
sum
in general
approaches a
finite limit,
2-1^2
^Jx dM,
body.
the limits of the integration being so taken as to include the whole fthe The denominator in the expression for x is equal to
whole mass of the body), and may be written in the form/ dM. values of .r, y and 2 may therefore be written
The
(0
If p denotes the density at the point ^x, y, s) (being in the most general case a variable), we have (Art. 153)
dM^ pdV,
and the equations may be written
=J X p
fp
dV;
.
(2)
is
Homogeneous
body.
If
the
body
is
homogeneous, p
constant,
to (3)
X =.fx dVlfdV;
These are
vojume.
Any area. Starting with the formulas for the coordinates of the partial centroid of an area already given (Art. 155), let the number of zero as a areas be increased while their size decreases, approaching
136
limit.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The
be used
an area
element of area.
are needed, the plane of the area being taken as the plane of two of the coordinate axes.
Any
curved,
line.
The values of
'vs,
.r,
(3)
may
or
line, straight
dV
For a
is
plane curve only two of the equations are needed, and for a straight
line
is
The
evidently at
160.
middle point.
of
Methods
Solution.
In
and center
of
may be double, single, or triple, depending not only upon the number of dimensions of the body considered, but also upon the way in which the differential element is taken. Again, it
Thus, the integration
is
often convenient to
to
otherwise
change the variable with respect to which the integration is to be performed. These various devices are best explained in connection with the problems in which they are employed. Several such problems will now be solved.
161. Applications
-I.
To determine
Let
arc,
AB
(Fig. 88
be the given
the radius being r. By symmetry it is seen that the centroid lies upon OX, drawn through the center
A OB.
OX
drawn from
If s
any
represents the
length
of the
arc,
measured from
some
dV
is,
vx
x X =fxdslfds.
;
that
Introducing
as the variable,
6,
= r cos
ds
= r dO.
Fig. 88,
CEXTROIDS.
If
137
2
the angle
AOB
is a,
and
an.
Hence
-
a'2
r' cos d
dO
Xa/2 rde
-a 2
But
<z
COS 6
2
dO
2 sin
and
dO
'2]
a-
hence
'-a'2
-
2/-
sin Ca/2)
r sin (a
II.
To
Let
ABC (Fig.
let
.r
BC, and
distance
Draw 89) be the triangle. perpendicular to a denote the length oi B'C, drawn parallel to slX a
AX
BC
from A.
"Let
A
k.
to
BC;
159)
;/
is
ax
In the
formula
there
.r
^fxdV:J'dV{An.
substituted
71
may be
dV
and
---^
dx
{a
li)
xdx
therefore
dx
'-/i.
f
shows
X dx
may
Fig. 89.
of a trianguside.
lar area is at a distance from either side equal to one-third the alti-
a line
is
may be proved
geo(See
Art. 158.)
III.
To
and
let
OX
and
OY
double integration
may be employed,
as will be shown.
138
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Single integration.
In
may be any
element,
all
same value of
x.
dV ^ y dx,
in
which y
is
at the point
whose
in
abscissa
is
or,
expressing
terms of x by means
dV=^
Hence the
x''f'xdx
^ n
Fig. 90.
f(a'
Reducing numerator and denominator,
x'y^'dx
nd' - x-y^xdx =
Cuv
[-
K^'
- ^'rx = < 3
--=
x' y
'
dx
From symmetry
it is
irdij,
Double integration.
Then
X
(
dx dy Iff dx
dy.
Notice that
dx dy,
gration
for
The
two variables
If
;
will
performed
1
first. a''
the ;t:-integral
since for
are o and
y''
x
any value
a.
these are
The
integration
with respect
Thus,
^^^^^
dy dx
CENTROIDS.
Performing the
;ir-integration,
135
'y'
Taking the jf-integral,
dy
^
The
value of jy
(V3)/('^V4)
in
= 4/3'^is
may
be found
evidently
equal to x.
The above
method
best
is
by
integration.
The
The matter
of funda-
is
memory.
Examples.
Determine by integration the centroid of the volume of any 1. pyramid or cone. 2. Determine the centroid of the area bounded by the parabola y"^ 7.px, the axis of .r, and any ordinate. 3. Find the centroid of the area bounded by the parabola, the and any two ordinates. axis of 4. Find the centroid of the volume bounded by the surface of a sphere of radius a and two parallel planes distant x^ and x-,, from the
;ir,
center.
x,){2a' x,''x,'')]/[^(2>^'~x;' XiX.,x./)]. Ans. [2,(^1 area of any zone of sphere. centroid of the a Find the 5. 6. Determine the centroid of the area bounded by a circle and any two parallel lines.
x=
a circular area of radius r, a second circular area of The distance between the centers being c, determine the centroid of the area remaining. 8. Determine the centroid of the area common to two circles of radii r and r', the center of the latter lying on the circumference of
7.
From
is
radius r'
removed.
the former.
9.
Alls.
radius.
Determine the centroid of the volume of a hemisphere. At a distance from the center equal to three-eighths the
140
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
10. Determine the center of mass of a hemisphere in which the density varies directly as the distance from the center. Ans. At a distance from the center equal to two-fifths the radius.
11. Determine the center of mass of a sphere made up of two hemispheres, each homogeneous, but one twice as dense as the other.
12.
right cone.
CHAPTER
X.
162. Resultant of
resultant of
not,
I.
Concurrent Forces.
of Concurrent Forces.
Any Number
The
is
any number of concurrent forces, whether coplanar or may be found by the repeated application of the principle of the
The
resultant of
any two
with a third force, gives as the resultant of the three a single force
sum
and so on.
That
is
is,
forces
sum and
acting at their
common
point of application.
Any three
A,-'
V,
'f /
non-coplanar con-
may be
represented in magnitude
C
A
',
D
^"T,
^^'
/
/'
Thus,
rection,
let
OA,
OB and CC (Fig.
forces.
is
non-coplanar
.^'^JB
The
resultant of
OA
and
OB
The
rep-
\,'i^^^^^^'^
-''
resented
by
OC,
^^C
Fig. 91.
parallelogram
ant of
OA C'B.
is
OC and OC
represented by
OD,
force
may
line of action.
For
if
magnitude and direction by a vector, the given force be represented be determined of which this vector is a a parallelopiped may always three chosen lines. edges are parallel to the diagonal, and whose components acting in force into three of a given The resolution
three chosen non-coplanar lines can be
parallelopiped
is
made
if
in
for a
completely determined
a diagonal
given in
142
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
if
components are mutually perpendicular, their magnitudes may be simply computed from the angles they make with the Thus, if the parallelopiped in Fig. 91 is rectangular, and resultant.
If the three
if a, /3,
OB, 7 are the angles between OD and the three edges OA, have OC, we OA OD cos a OB OD cos j3; OC OD cos 7. 165. Computation of Resultant of Concurrent Forces. The
simplest
direction of the
of
non-coplanar
concurrent
forces
is
by three rectangular components, and then combine these components. Thus, having given any concurrent
forces, of
OX,
the
OY
Fig. 92.
and
OZ
(Fig.
92),
and
let
angles
made by Pi
respectively be a^,
j^,
with similar
The
axial
/3j,
and
similar expressions
may be
compo-
The whole system is thus reduced to three which combine into three forces as follows
:
a force P^ cos Uj
+
-\-
/"^
cos a^
" "
" "
Pi cos
fii
P, cos ^,
P, cos 7,
Pi cos 7i
+ + ... +
.
. . .
parallel to
OX
OY;
OZ.
with
" "
its
"
"
Let
OX,
R denote the magnitude of the resultant a,b,c angles Then axial components. Y, OZ and X, Y, Z X ^= P cos a ^ Pi cos ai -f cos Y= Rcosb == Pi cos + P, cos + cos Z = R cos c ^ Pi cos 7j R' = X' + F^ + Z^
;
;
its
P.^
a.^
-\-
fii
^8,
-j- P.j^
7.^
-|-
cos a
*
is If
==^
X jR
cos b
Y/R
cos c
= ZjR.
the three components are coplanar with the given force, the problem
If only two of the components are coplanar with the given component is zero.
indeterminate.
I43
The
is
From
the equation
R
may be
= V'X'' + V ^ Z' = o
X=o, V=o, Z = o.
For
if
Z imaginary.
any
real
these three equations are not satisfied, J? cannot equal zero Y' or Z' is negative, which' would make A', For
for
system of forces.
may be assumed
at pleasure,
it
the
sum of
number of equations Only three such equations can be independent as the following analysis shows
may
be written.
If the
sum
is
sultant,
if
of resolution.
sum
if
is
sum
is
zero for a third direction not coplanar with the other two, the resultant must be zero.
It
follows that
if
may
Examples.
1.
particle of
45
lbs.
mass
is
suspended by three
strings,
each
ft.
Cm
the
ft.
same
CA
Ans. 16.37 lbs. in each string. 2. A particle of 60 lbs. mass is suspended by three strings, each 12 ft. long, attached at points A, B, C, in the same horizontal plane, being 6 ft. and BC and CA each 8 ft. Determine the distance
in
AB
particle of
75
lbs.
10
ft.
144
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
ft.
the distances AB, BC, CA being 4 ft., 5 ft. and 6 Required the tensions in the supporting strings.
respectively.
Ans. 33.62
4.
lbs.,
9.04
lbs.,
35.84
lbs.
of 5 kilogr. mass is suspended by a string which is knotted at to two strings CA, CB, these being attached to fixed supports at and in & horizontal plane. At is knotted a fourth string which passes over a smooth peg at and sustains a mass of In the position of equilibrium is horizontal and at 4 kilogr. right angles to AB. The distances yiC, BC, are 180 cm., Determine the position of 150 cm., and 120 cm. respectively. equilibrium and the tensions in the strings C, BC. Ans. Inclination of plane to vertical, 38 40'. Tension in AC,
body
CD
AB
1.
21 kilogr.; tension in
BC, 5.44
kilogr.
2.
Composition
and
Resolution of Couples.
167. Representation of Couple by Vector. It has been shown Chapter IV that two couples applied to the same rigid body are equivalent if (i) they act in parallel planes, (2) their moments are
in
equal in magnitude, and (3) their rotation-directions coincide. So long as the discussion was limited to coplanar forces, a couple could
specified
consider
couple
:
may be
{a)
ing manner
The
of the
{b) its length must repsome chosen scale, the magnitude moment of the couple (c) its direction
; ;
must correspond to the rotation-direction of the couple in its plane. These requirements
may
Let the plane of the paper be parallel to the plane of the couple; let P denote the magnitude of each force and p the length of
the
FiG. 93.
arm
and
let
in Fig. 93. Then {a) the vector which represents the couple must be perpendicular to the plane of the paper {b) its length must be Pp
;
tions be as
shown
145
(c) it
-nust be decided
shown
in the figure
It will
to be represented
rule thus
The
by a vector pointing upward from the paper. assumed may be stated generally as follows
;
If
its
when
its
168. Resultant of
Any Two
and
Couples.
Tke
resiilta?it
it is
two couples
is
coitple,
sum of tJie
vectors representing the two given couples. This has already been proved for the case in which the planes of the couples are parallel, the vector sum in this case reducing to the
algebraic
If
sum
(Art. 93).
let
the plane of
the paper be perpendicular to their line of intersecdon, this line being (Fig. 94), and BM, being the traces of the two projected at
BN
planes.
Let
G^ deof
the
in
note the
the
moment
couple
plane
BM and C, the
of the couple
moment
in the plane
BN, their
directions of rotation
vectors
^'^', B' by
C
for-
Replace the
mer couple
an
Fig. 94.
equivalent couple of
G^IP. Similariy, the and the other at ^, if of forces P, one actcouple by a replaced be may couple second to act at B, and assumed already force the to opposite ing at B, applied at B forces two the Since '\i G,IP. at C, the other
acting at
^^ =
BC =
1^6
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
balance each other, the two couples are equivalent to a couple of and C, its moment being applied at equal and opposite forces
PX
is
completely repre-
In the triangles A'B'C, sented by the vector and equal to /" X s\dG A'B' is perpendicular to
side fore
^'C
ABC,
;
the
B'C
is
perpendicular to
the
AB BC to AC
AB
and the
PX PX
couple.
A'C
Thus
proved.
Any Number
Couples; Resolution of a
Couple.
ber of non-coplanar couples may be combined it is seen that the resultant will always be a couple, and that the vector representing This couples. it is the sum of the vectors representing the several
may be briefly expressed by saying that the resultant couple is the vector sum of the given couples. By reversing this process, a given couple may be replaced by
several
component
couples.
into three
may be resolved, in one way only,* components whose directions are given, a couple may be resolved (in one way only) into three component couples whose
Since in general a vector
planes are given.
any number components parallel to three rectangnlar planes. The whole system is thus reduced to three sets of coplanar couples, each of which reduces to a single couple by are the moIf L, M, algebraic addition of the several moments.
The
simplest
is
method
of couples
by
its
ments of these
moment
If
/,
m, n are the angles between the vector representing the resultant its three components,
= LjG
made
in
cos
m = MjG
cos n
= NjG.
is
If
impossible un-
less the
given vector
lies in
components
of ways.
in
resolution can be
an
number
i_^j
3.
Ajijf
System of Forces.
170.
and a
cottple.
Let
P represent
At any point O, introduce a force equal and parallel to P and an equal and opposite force. One of these, with the given force, forms
a couple
;
applied at
and a couple.
given forces
couple.
may be
and a
The former
combine into a single force equal to the vector sum of the given forces and the latter into a single couple, equal to the vector sum
;
Computation
of
the
Force
and Couple.
The
single
may be
computed as if the forces were concurrent (Art. 165); its magnitude and direction are the same, whatever point is chosen as its point of application. The couple may be computed most readily by a different method of resolution. Choosing a set of rectangular axes, OX, C Fand OZ, let x, y, s be the coordinates of the point of application of any force P, and let P (Fig. 95). be replaced by its axial components X, Y and Each of these components may be replaced by an equal force at and two couples, as follows Consider the force ^applied at y4 ( Fig. 95). and an equal and oppoIntroduce, in the line CB, a force equal to and in the line also a pair of equal and opposite site force at A and the equal and oppoThe force forces of magnitude X. site force in the line CB form a couple whose plane is parallel to Xy. The remaining force the plane xy and whose moment * is in the line CB and the equal and opposite force in the line OX
OX
*The moments
yz plane
are called
plus or minus, according as the vectors representing them point toward the similar convention is adopted plus or the minus direction of the .ar-axis.
148
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
form a couple lying in the plane zx, of moment Xz. These two equivalent to couples, with the remaining force in the line OX, are appHed at A. the given force
(Fig. 95) that the force parallel to the couple a applied at C; is equivalent to an equal force plane xy, of the to parallel couple and a Yz plane j;/5, of moment
In a similar manner
it
may be shown
;
moment
plied at
Yx.
(9;
(Fig. 95) is equivalent to an equal force apand parallel to the plane zx, of moment couple a
Also,
Zx
moment Zy.*
into a single force, and the si.x forces at seen that the given force P, applied at A,
is
In the
^;ir-plane,
a couple of
These three couples may be represented by vectors having the OX, Y and OZ, respectively, and of lengths representing the values of the moments.
directions
XVZ.
149
;
(-fi J'l ^1 ), P-i applied at the point {x-, j, s,), etc. and let each be replaced by a force and three couples in the manner described. Let L, Z,y^ Y^z^; M^ A',.-, Z^x, N, Y,x, X\y,
,
,
forces
lows
In the
.:rx- plane,
a couple of
+
-(-
Z,^
il/,
.^
+ N
+ +
-{-
^ = =
L.
yl/.
yV.
The moment
its
plane
may be
found as
of
in Art. 169.
Resultant
to a
of
any System
Forces.
Having
if it is
reduced
attempted
it
still
simpler system,
it
appears that
in certain cases
;
may be reduced
but that in
consists of
and in other cases to a single force general the simplest system to which it can be reduced
to a couple
forces.
is o,
two non-coplanar
sum
the resultant
is
evidently a couple, determined as above. (/;) If the plane of the couple found by the above process
allel to the single force
is
parto a
R,
this force
is
is
sum
can be determined as in Art. 94. and of the couple is not parallel to the force R, let it plane If the (c) couple of which one force acts in a line an equivalent by replaced be
its line of action
R.
This force
may
be combined
with R, thus reducing the system to two non-coplanar forces. This reduction to two forces may be made in an infinite number of ways,
is
possible.
4.
Equilibriutn.
Let a system of forces apreduced to a force and couple as in plied to the same rigid body be of the force, a, b, c the magnitude the denote Let Art. 171.
150
angles
it
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
makes with the coordinate axes, and X, F, Z its axial and let G denote the moment of the couple, /, ;, the angles made with the axes by the vector representing the couple, and L, M, the moments of the three component couples parallel
components
;
may be
in equilibrium,
both
R and G
two non-
must reduce
to zero
may be reduced
coplanar forces.
The
condition
R=
o requires that
.
. .
(i)
(2)
severally equal to zero, either X'\ or and X, F or /? therefore imaginary. But from the manner of computing these quantities it is evident that they must and N. be real. Similar reasoning applies to L, Equations (i) and (2) are therefore six independent equations of Since the position of the origin may be chosen at equilibrium.
X,
V and Z are
may be
written in an infinite
number of ways.
arbitrarily,
may be
chosen
equa-
may be
it is
written in an infinite
number
of ways.
may be
stated in a
moment
of a
Moment
of a Force
About an Axis.
is
The
moment
force with respect to an axis has been defined, for the case in which
the axis
the hne of action of the force (Art. 70), as the product of the magnitude of the force into
its line
of action
from the
Fig. 96.
axis.
Thus,
lies
if
the force
paper
perpendicular to
moment of the force is equal to Pp. not perpendicular to the force (that is, to any plane containing the hne of action of the force), the moment is to be com-
I51
parallel
and
moment
of the
175. Conditions of
which a system
it
is
Equilibrium. Referring to the process by reduced to a single force and a couple (Art. 171), seen that Z^y^ Y^s^ is equal to the moment of the force P^
is
its moment with remoment with respect to OZ. The quantity L is therefore equal to the sum of the moments of the given forces about the axis OX to the sum of their moments about O Y; and to the sum of their moments about OZ. The meaning of the two sets of equations of equilibrium (Art. 173) may therefore be stated in words as follows (i) The sum of the resolved parts of the given forces parallel to
OX;
X^z^
Z^x^ to
spect to
OY; and
Y^x^
X^j^to
;
its
is
zero.
The sum
is
of the
zero.
moments
may
it
fol-
The sum
zero.
(d)
The sum
of their
six
to an infinite
but only
1. A three-legged stool rests upon a smooth horizontal termine the pressures at the three points of support.
floor.
De-
three points of support of a three-legged stool being at apart, what must be the position of its center of gravity in order that the pressures at the points of support may be equal?
2.
The
any distances
3.
much
A four-legged table rests upon a smooth horizontal can be determined about the supporting forces ?
A
floor.
How
windlass consists of a circular cylinder supported at two 4. points in bearings which permit free revolution about its axis, a crank attached to one end of the cylinder, and a cord wound upon the To the free end of the cord is cylinder and having one end free. attached a heavy body which is to be lifted by the application of a The axis of revolution of the cylinder is force to the crank-handle. Assuming that the force applied to the crank is perpenhorizontal.
dicular both to the axis of revolution and to the crank-arm, and that
152
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
all
is
the bearings are frictionless, it is required to determine acting on the windlass when the weight of the lifted body
forces
known.
force applied to crankof crank-arm (z. e. radius of circle described by point of application of P) / distance between centers of bearings d distance from center of circle described by point of application of to nearest bearing /; and distances from centers of bearings to suspended cord. The /j bearings being assumed smooth, the supporting forces exerted by them may have any directions perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder let them be replaced by horizontal and vertical components, and let i/, Vj denote the components of the force at the bearing near the crank and H, V., the components of the force at the other bearing. The direction of the force P, if always perpendicular to the
;
Let handle
W = weight
r
= radius
of body
lifted
;
of cyHnder
= length
P
P ^=
=
;
Fig. 99.
crank-arm, will vary as the cylinder revolves. between crank-arm and the vertical.
;
Let 6
angle
All forces acting upon the windlass act in planes perpendicular to the axis of revolution hence, if forces are resolved parallel to this axis, no equation results. Five independent statical equations may, however, be written as follows
:
Resolving horizontally,
H.+H. + Pcose^o.
Resolving
vertically,
(i)
V,
V,
/'sin ~ W=o.
(2)
axis of revolution,
IVr o Taking moments about a vertical line through described by point of application of P,
Pa
(3)
center of
circle
H,b
+ Hlb +
/)
o.
(4)
53
of
same
circle,
'
V^b^Vlb^l)-W{,b^l,)==o.
equations contain
five
(5)
unknown
P
and
V.^.
5.
and
//lo
Their solution is simple. Thus, (4) then determine H^ and H.,; (2) and (5) determine V,
take numerical data as follows l^= b = = 6r. Solve for ^ ^ 90, 180, 270, 45. Ans. P = Wje for any value of = For H = -(11/60) H/ H, = (1/60) PF, V, = (2/3) JF, ={iIj,)W. For e = 90, H,=H,= V, = (51/60) fF, V, =
In Ex.
fl
4,
Ijt,-
o,
6.
61
o,
v.,
o,
(19/60) ;f.
6. In Ex. 4, substitute for the force a weight (2 suspended from the crank-handle. If is known, determine the position of equilibrium and all unknown forces.
7. Assume dimensions as in Ex. 5, and let the weight Q, applied as in Ex. 6, be equal to IV. Determine position of equilibrium and all forces.
Ans.
V,
= (19/60)
A
e^<f
= //,:= o
V,
= (17/20)
I]';
W.
8. circular cylinder is placed with axis horizontal, one end resting in a smooth cylindrical bearing and the other on an inclined timber. The longitudinal axis of the timber hes in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cyUnder and is inclined to the horizontal at a known angle. If its surface is so rough as to prevent sliding, can the cyHnder be in equilibrium ?
9. In Ex. 8, can equilibrium be produced by hanging a weight from a string wound on the surface of the cylinder, assuming sliding to be impossible? If equilibrium is thus possible, specify the required weight, and all forces acting on the cylinder.
ID. Two timbers are placed with longitudinal axes parallel and with upper surfaces in the same horizontal plane. A circular cylinder rests upon the timbers. Can the supporting timbers be tilted without destroying the equilibrium of the cylinder, assuming the surfaces to be sufficiently rough to prevent sliding ?
points of support of a three-legged stool form an equiThe center of gravity is vertically of side a. above the centroid of the triangle. The stool is pulled horizontally by a string lying in the vertical plane containing and at a disShow that the stool will tip without sliding tance h above the floor. if the coefficient of friction is greater than al^k.
11.
The
lateral triangle
ABC
AB
uniform straight bar is placed with one end on a rough 12. horizontal floor and the other in the right angle between two smooth Show that it will be in equilibrium if its inclination vertical walls.
154
to
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
is
the vertical
less
than tan~'
(2^1),
/^
friction.
13.
In Ex. 12,
show
at either
end acts
forces.
in the vertical
that the resultant force acting upon the bar plane containing the bar. Deter-
mine these
bar is placed with one end upon a rough horizontal floor 14. and the other against a rough vertical wall. Determine the positions of limiting equilibrium.
CHAPTER XL
GRAVITATION.
176.
I.
Attraction Between
Two
Particles.
Law
attractive force
tion of this
Every portion of matter exerts an upon every other portion. The magnitude and direcattractive force for any two bodies may be determined in
of Gravitation.
may
be
Every
which
tude
is
two
particles,
The
may be
stated algebra-
ically as follows
Let
between two particles whose masses are iih, m.^, and whose distance apart is r and P' the force between two particles whose masses are mi, 7/, and whose distance apart is r'. Then
;
PjP'
This equation
{miinjr-')l(m;!n.;h'''-).
may
Pr^lmyin.^
= P'r"'lmiin.^ = =
7.
particles
equation
7,
or
p
in
= rymim.Jr'^
;
which 7
is
a constant.
is
The
value of 7
to
be determined by experiment
for all cases.
but having
been determined for one case it is known This formula apphes stricdy only to particles, but it gives, to a bodies of finite size close approximation, the attraction between two
whose
tween them.
We
shall
first
156
particles,
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and
shall then give a brief discussion of
is
particles or bodies
each exerts an attractive force upon the other, the two forces being equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This is implied
e.
,
in the
above statement of the law of gravitation. It is also in accordance with the law of "action and reaction," Newton's third law
of motion (Art. 35). 177.
The Constant
of
Gravitation.
The
quantity 7 in the
above formula is called the constant of gravitation. Its numerical value depends upon the units in which force, mass and distance are For any given system of units, 7 is numerically equal to expressed. the attractive force between two particles of unit mass at unit distance apart
;
for
if
w,
i,
in.^
and r
i,
7^=
If
7-
ordinary practical problems, the numerical value of 7 is very small. Thus if mass is expressed in pounds and distance in feet, 7 is equal
to the attractive force
between two particles of one pound mass each, This force is too small to be detected by ordi;
nary methods of measuring forces and if expressed in terms of any (See Arts. unit in common use its numerical value is very small.
184, 186.)
units
and force independently, they may be so chosen as give 7 any desired value. Moreover, two of these units may still
arbitrarily, the third
be chosen
7 ==
i.
Then
the units
must be so chosen
which
that
two
particles,
The
unit
mass
pleasure,
called
^e gravitation
To determine
gram, or other known unit, requires the same process of experiment and reasoning which is involved in the determination of the constant
7 when
all
This subject
will
be resumed
in Art. 185.
GRAVITATION.
en
Examples.
1.
If
12 lbs., apart?
tw0 particles 20 ft. apart attract each other with a force of with what force will they attract each other if placed ft
-^
to
2. If two particles of i 000 grams and 1 2, 000 grams mass respectively attract each other with a force equal to the weight of grams when 30 cm. apart, with what force will two particles of 1,800 grams
,
In Ex.
2,
what
is
in
terms of 3/^/40,000.
P}
?
4.
With
the data of Ex. (2), what is the gravitation unit of mass Ans. mass equal to 200/;/ (3/^) grams.
to examples 3 and 4 imply that the centithe unit length and the weight of a gram the unit force.]
179. Dimensions of
Units. The formula expressing the law of may be written Pr'^lm^m^ The 7.
constant 7
is
FL7M^
if
2.
all
taken as fundamental,
are
all
13).
The law
itself
furnishes a
ing one of these units depend upon the other two. tion expressing the law may be written
P=
vi^ni.Jr'^,
if the units be so chosen as to satisfy the condition stated in Art. 178. The relation between the units will then be expressed by the dimen-
sional equation,
p
by
__ -^in^
Any two
Thus,
equation
__ Lpi;2_
The
equation
relation
is
among
when
units
which
is
expressed by a dimensional
This
will
be
is
further illustrated
the kinetic or
' '
absolute
' '
system of units
explained.
158
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
180.
2.
Attractions of Spheres
and of Spherical
Shells.
Law
of Gravitation Applied to
is
Continuous Bodies.
The
and
law of attraction
stated
above as
applying to
particles.,
these are treated as bodies of finite mass but without finite size.
If
a body consisted of a
finite
number
of such particles,
its
resultant
attraction for
particle
If, instead of being made up of discrete particles of finite mass, a body occupies space continuously (Art. 5), so that any portion whose mass is finite is of finite volume, the resultant attraction of one body upon another may be computed in a similar manner, but the process
involves integration.
Let m^ and in.^ denote the total masses of two continuous bodies, and AZi A72 any small elements of these masses. If the dimensions
,
r being the distance between the elements. If the attraction of every ;i upon every element of m.^ be computed approximately in the same manner, the resultant of these forces will be an approxelement of
upon m.^ The approxwhich the bodies are subdivided the exact value is the limit approached by the approximate value as the elements approach zero in size. The magnitude of every component force thus approaches zero and the number of components approaches infinity, but their resultant has in general a
imate value of the resultant attraction of
imation
is
wZj
finite value.
The computation
tegration.
In applying this
sidered.
181. Attraction of
Interior
Particle.
Proposition. The
is
by a homogeneous
within
its
upon a
particle
inner surface
Let
and through
GRAVITATION.
159
draw any straight line intersecting the outer surface of the shell in two points A and B. On the outer surface of the shell take an elementary area containing the point A from every point of the perimeter of this element draw a line through 0, and prolong it to inter;
We
A and B, a and b respectively, and h be the thickness of the shell. The volumes cut from the shell by the two branches of the conical surface are approximately
Call the areas of the elements at
let
ha
respectively,
and
hb
and
Iialhb
= alb,
a and b approach
OA''IOB'\
o,
may be shown
alb
that as
approaches
The
and
B are
equally inclined
o,
to the line
AB
is,
they are
AB
that
and B of the two branches of the conBut ical volume whose vertex is at O.
these right sections are directly proportional to
OA
''
a and b, the elementary volumes ha and hb, and the masses of these elementary
volumes, are proportional to C^^ and 6'^".
If
Fig. 98.
and and
if
m m
is
and m" are the masses of the elements of the shell at is attracted toward A with a force
^nini I
OA
'',
and toward
with a force
ynim" I
OB I
m'jm"= OA'/OB',
or
vi'/OA'
= ni'lOB';
l6o
THEORETICAL MECHAXICS.
ni' upon m are equal and opand their resultant is zero. The whole volume of the shell may be divided into elements which, taken in pairs, are related in the same way as the two elements considered. Hence the resultant attraction of the shell upon
posite,
the particle at
is
zero.
it was assumed that the thickness of the becomes small, approaching zero as a limit. If the thickness has any finite value the result still holds. For the shell may be regarded as made up of a great number of very thin shells for each of which the conclusion is true at least approximately and if the number of shells is increased without limit, the thickness of each
shell
strictly for
each elementary
and therefore
its
The
proposition
also true
is
if
value
the
same
from
It is
evident from
symmetry
J^
with
the center oi
C
Fig. 99.
sphere,
and
the
surface containing
mass being m. Take an element of the spherical A, and let a denote the area of this element, h
Let
OA
r,
OC
c,
angle
The
shell
conical surface
whose base
is
a and apex
is
from the
pha.
The
attraction of
GRAVITATION.
this mass upon the particle which in the direction OC\b at
l6l
the resolved part of
is 'yinp/ia;r',
(jymphalr') cos
<^.
OC.
;
values
whose planes are perpendicular For every point of such a zone, ;- and have the same hence the total attraction in the direction OC due to the
(/)
is
dAjr',
dA
The
(^
attraction
due
to the
whole
P=
sphere.
variable
cos
'^7nph
I
dA
We
and
have
integrate.
We
But
hence
y'
Again,
or
= Rd6 27rR sin 6 = 2'kK' sin 6 dd. = + R' 2cR cos d r dr = cR sin B dO dA = {2TrRjc)rdr. = + r' 2cr cos = cos r" R'')/2cr.
dA
c'
;
R''
c'
4>,
(/)
(c*
-|-
(j)
and
dA
in the value of P,
and ex-
P=
The
-^^.
,
dr.
(O
two
parts, thus
62
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
limits,
f
-[{c
\_{c
-dr
-R)~{c+ R)-\ + + i?) - (^ - R)-\ = ^R. = 7 /[irR^kp Hence P = ir^mphR Hence But ^.irR'kp = M ^ total mass of P = r^Mmjc' (2)
4.R/c''
in/c''.
shell.
...
The resultant attraction between the shell and an exterior parhas the same value as if t/te entire mass of the shell were conits center.
centrated at
The
center.
For such a
shell
may be
each of which
as desired.
may be
Interior particle.
The
is
deduced ap-
we have
ir'^mphR
c'
r-J^
I
= F
'
c-
R' ^
r'
r'
dr
Jr-c
o,
The
forego-
ing results
value at
all
be appHed to a sphere whose density has the same points equally distant from the center.
may
Exterior particle.
The
resultant
upon an
same value
center.
as
if
its
an interior particle
is
same
as
if
the reis
maining
shell
its
resultant attraction
gravitation.
63
Examples.
1.
'
earth to be a sphere whose density is a function of the distance from the center, compare the weight of a body at the surface and at a point h feet above the surface.
is the force with which the earth atthe radius of the earth, and if /'and P' are the values of the earth's attraction upon the body at the surface and at h feet above the surface respectively, we have
'
Assuming the
The
'
tracts it.*
is
or
pjP' /"
(/e
hYiK\
PR'liR
Ji)\
is
of a body at height h above the surface fraction R''I{R -f hf of its weight at the surface. If h is a small fraction of R, we have, approximately,
the
is
the surface will the weight of a body be per cent less than at the surface ? [The mean radius of the earth 10" cm. or 20,902,000 ft.] very nearly 6.3709
2.
(i
hlR)-'
=
I
2hlR.
defined as the weight of a pound-mass a change of elevation of 10,000 affect the value of this unit force ?
3.
If the
pound-force
is
4.
Let
face,
and
G denote the weight of a given mass at the G its weight at a depth h below the surface.
'
earth's surIf
the earth
G'jG
Assuming
= (R h)IR =
I
/ilR.
that the earth is a sphere and that the density is a 5. function of the distance from the center, let p denote the mean density of the whole earth and po the mean density of the outer shell of Determine the relation between the weight of a body thickness h.
at the surface
the mass of the whole earth, M' that of the inner sphere its weight at h, in the mass of the given body, of radius its weight when at depth k below the surface. the surface and Then G is equal to the attraction between two particles of masses J\I and G is equal to the attraction and in whose distance apart is between two particles of masses M' and in whose distance apart is That is, Hence ^M'inl{R k)\ h. -/MmlR', G'
Let
M be
R
and
its
'
'
G'
nr
R
(I)
G
But
*
;
M\R h
^irp, [i?'
M = ^wR'p MM'=
The
effect of the earth's rotation See Art. 311.
(i?
]tf\
is
here dis-
regarded.
164
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Rh R
I
Pl
G'
Po\l
GRAVITATION.
l5r
take as units those of the British gravitation system. The unit mass is the pound, the unit force the weight of a pound mass at the earth's
surface (the pound-force), the unit length the foot.
Let
mean
density.
denote the radius of the earth in feet, its mass, p its Consider the attraction of the earth upon a body of
surface.
is
mass in at the
By
pounds-force
it
is
also equal to
m.
r^M
= R\
mean
density
since
is
known, this equation serves to determine and when the other is known. 7
M=
M, we may
The
p,
^^ttR^p/t,.
The
mean
Taking
is
= 20,900,000
X
345)
density about
ft.,
the value
= 3/47ri?/3 = 3/(477
of each
20,900,000
= 3-31
m
10-"
Let
pounds be
;
i,
one pound-force.
w,
P=
ym.^m.J r'\
may be
r
i,
io~"
as found above.
The
result
173,800 pounds.
constant 7 becomes unity, and the formula for the attraction between
two
particles
1/2^
^^'''^
P^m,mjr\
Thus, the " gravitation unit of mass" (Art. 178) is a mass equal to about 173,800 pounds, if distance is expressed in feet and force in
pounds-force.
*The above is not given as the actual method of determining ;', but merely as showing about what its value is. The above value of the earth's mean density is based upon the experimental determination of Y by the measurement of the attraction between bodies of known mass.
66
1 86.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Values of the Constant of Gravitation and of the Gravitation Unit of Mass in the C. G. S. System.* If the unit mass the is the gram, the unit length the centimeter and the unit force follows dyne (Art. 217), the value of 7 may be found as The attraction of the earth for a body of m grams mass at the
:
surface
is
is
approximately
also equal to
it
rfM=
Here
98 1 i?'.
is its radius in the mass of the earth in grams, and instead of Jlf, mean density earth's the Introducing p centimeters.
is
the equation
is
7P
=3
981/477^2.
Taking p
= 5.527
X
^= 6.371
10' centimeters,
-y
= (3
Let
98i)/(4'^
5-527
6.371
10')
= 6.65
10-'
i
m grams
r^m'',
or
If
m= i/\/y =
a mass of
is
i/l
is
6.65
10"^
3.880 grams.
if
3,
880 grams
the centi-
the unit length, the attraction in dynes between two particles whose masses are ;i and w^ and whose distance apart is r is given
meter
by the formula
P^
m^m^/r'
gravitation
earth' s
The above relation between the constant of mean density is only approximate, since
if its
and the
at its center.
is
The
lo-*-
mean
is
that of Professor
7= 6.6576 X
*
is
The
this
fSee "Nature," Vol. L, p. 419. For values found by other experimenters see " Nature," Vol. LV, p. 296.
Part
H.
MOTION OF A PARTICLE.
CHAPTER
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
I.
:
XII.
PRINCIPLES.
FUNDAMENTAL
and
Position,
Displacement
Velocity.
187. Position of a
Particle in a Given
line, its
Line
If a particle
is
moves
its
in
a given straight
known
-*
if
the line
known.
Let
(Fig. 100)
t-,-~-
the position
P'
Fig- ioo-
Let the
;
OP be represented
x is
value of
by x
is
then
specified
by the value of
x.
The
quantity
The
The two
directions
and minus.
188. Displacement.
The
is
change of position of a
If
particle dur-
and
(Fig.
loi) are
its
interval,
AB
displacement.
is
The
displacement,
\\
-i^
X
_
.^'^'^
'"
"*
called plus or
minus
^
Fig. loi.
d"
according to
of motion.
If .^^i
its
and
x.,_
x^
is
gives the
magnitude and
Uniform Motion.
The
motion of a particle
uniform
if
any equal
intervals of time,
however
may
The
be taken.
velocity of a particle
is its
rate of
moving
68
If
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the particle
is
certain interval,
its
velocity
interval
proportional directly to
The numerical
terms of which
and inversely to the duration of the interval. value of the velocity depends upon the unit
it is
in
expressed.
velocity possessed
by a uniformly moving
is
The
whose value
depends upon the units of distance and time. With the foot and second as the fundamental
locity is t)i&foot-per-second.
This
is
employed
in
tem
is
in
common
use.
is
When
is
the meter-per-second.
In purely scientific work, the centimeter is almost universally adopted as the unit length, the corresponding unit velocity being the
centimeter-per-second.
Dimensions of unit
fined as to
is
so de-
be proportional directly to the unit length and inversely to the unit time, there may be written the dimensional equation
V
if
= L/T,
L
the unit length and
(Art. 15).
found by
in-
Thus,
the time
time).
let
t,
X denote
particle at
reckoned from some assumed instant (taken as origift of Let x^ and x^ be the values of ;ir at times t^ and Then if v
'
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT
If
LINE.
69
and
V
value of V given
timeters,
is in
by
this
formula
is
in feet-per-second.
If
x is
in cen-
centimeters-per-second.
The
minus
according as the particle moves in the positive or direction along the line of motion.
the negative
The formula v ^=
{x.^
for
x.^
x^
if
of the vepositi\'e
if
will
be
minus
direction.
If a particle receives
its
ments
motion
is
variable.
may
still
be defined as
its
method
of
computing the value of this rate becomes inapplicable. Velocity must now be understood to be a quantity which has a definite value at any instant, but whose value continually varies. The meaning of velocity in case of variable motion is best explained
by a consideration of
' '
average velocity.
'
If
its
may be
defined as the
moving uniformly,
The formula
V =- (x,x,)l{t,
A)
always gives the value of the average velocity for the interval from
to
t.,.
196.
velocity
The Approximate Value of Velocity at an Instant. approximately be computed instant may any particle at of a
by
A;ir
Let
denote the abscissa of the particle at the instant t, and denote the increment of;r in a short interval of time A/; that
let
is.
Ax is the displacement during the time At. Then AxjAt is an approximate value of the velocity at the instant t. The approximation is closer the shorter the interval At.
The true 197. True Value of the Velocity at an Instant. by the approached value of the velocity at the time t is the limit
lyo
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
is
But
this limit
is
that
is,
V
This formula
locity
is
at Ml instant.
if
If
the position
known
any
is
instant as
may be computed from the above formula. a function of /, dxjdt may be determined by
Examples.
1.
Thus,
known
differentiation.
The
position of a particle
that the velocity at
is
is
kt"^,
being a constant.
a)
Show
any
2kt.
{b)
Where
If,
origin
of
time"?
(r)
"origin of time," the particle is 12 ft. x is measured, what is the value of the
(d) Assuming condition (r), what is the velocity when the par10 ft. from the origin? (e) What is the value of k if the centimeter is taken as the unit length ? (_/") What is the velocity when the particle is i met. from the origin? (Express the result in centimeter-second units.)
2.
The
position of a particle
is
^= 2t
-\-
i'\
being
(a)
in feet
and
t in
seconds.
Compute the average velocity for each of the following interbeginning at the instant / 10: 2 sec, i sec, 0.5 sec, o.i sec, o.oi sec, o.ooi sec. (b) Compute the exact value of the velocity at the instant t 10. Ans. (a) The values of the average velocity in ft. -per-sec. are 24,
vals,
(d)
22
ft.
-per-sec.
given approxthe distance Compare the true velocity at the end of 2 sec. with fallen in t sec. the average velocity for an interval of o. i sec. after the instant t ^= 2. Ans. True vel. Average vel. 64.4 ft. -per-sec. 66.01 ft.per-sec
3.
The imately by
position of a
body
the equation
falling freely
16.1/-, in
from which
rest
is
ft.
is
by
Lines.
If
and
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT
sumed
origin in the line of motion,
t.
LINE.
171
OP
another line parallel to OP, take an origin 0\ and lay off 0' P' equal (on any convenient scale) to v, the velocity of y, , ^
the particle at the time
is
t.
On
If
the velocity
q
^...
'
p
-d-
Fig. 102.
.-..^
position
if
varies,
is
is
P'
'q'
p^
moves.
the
If
velocity at
known, known.
When
;
a variable quan-
its
by
dxjdt
=X
d'xldf'
= dxidt =^ x
and
%\
etc.
This notation
will often
be used
2.
Velocity-Increment
Acceleration.
Let
/,
and
;
v.,
be the values of
%.,
and
t^
respecti\'ely
then
z\
is
the
to
t.^
is
(algebraically)
Geometrical representation.
If,
as
described
in Art.
199, the
velocity at every instant be represented in magnitude and direction by a length 0' P' laid off from a fixed point 0' (Fig. 102), the point
P' will
ally),
move
When
when v
P' moves
moves
in
The
displacement of
P'
any
interval repre-
The
them.
ment of the
There
is
The
point P'
may
or
same
direction as
the particle.
If the velocity receives 202. Uniformly Varying Velocity. time, however small these of intervals equal all in increments equal
may
be, the velocity is uniformly variable. Recurring to the geometrical representation given above ( Fig. changes at a uniform rate, the point P' 102), if tiie velocity of P
iy2
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
moves uniformly.
or decreasing.
The motion
is
(algebraically) mcreasing
203. Acceleration.
velocity of a par-
uniform
the acceleration
The numerical
which
it is
upon the
unit in
expressed.
Although
Hence the
may be chosen
arbitrarily, it is
convenient to
make
it
depend upon
is
unit acceleration
defined
whose
velocity increases
by one
unit in every
unit of time.
units,
the unit
foot-
that of a particle
whose
velocity increases
by one
that of a particle
unit acceleration
acceleration.
it
The
and inversely
by A, there may be
A = V/T
= L/T^
When
the velocity of
a particle increases at a uniform rate during any interval, the value of the acceleration in terms of the unit above defined is computed by
dividing the increment of velocity
by the duration
of the interval.
Thus,
let
of V at
V denote the velocity at any instant t, z\ and v.^ the values the instants t^ an4 and / the acceleration. Then
t.^
,
p=
(v,
v,)/{t,
t,).
This value of/ may be in feet-per -second- per-second, in metersper-second-per-second, in centimeters-per-second-per-second, or in other units, according to the units in which t and v are expressed.
'
I73
If
v.^
v^ is
is
negative,
is
negative.
is,
Tliis
means
decreasing
that
by the
any
minus
direction.
\i
is
plus, the
it
velocity
is
may be
decreasing.
if %' is
Thus,
positive
and increasing
'
in
'
decreasing "
magnitude, "
" "
p is / "
/>
positive
"
'
'
"
^1
" negative
'
'
In
ments of velocity
in
may still be defined as the rate of change of the velocity, but the above method of computing its value becomes inapplicable. Acceleration must now be understood to be a variable quantity, having a definite value at any instant. Its meaning is best understood by a consideration of
' '
average acceleration.
'
acceleration which,
an interval during which its velocity varies in any way is an if constant, would result in the same velocityinterval.
The formula
/
from
^1
{i>,
v,)l{t,
- A)
always gives the value of the average acceleration for the interval
to
t.j^.
An
approximate value of the acceleration at an instant may be found by computing the average acceleration for a very short interval of time. Let V denote the velocity at an instant t, and ^v the velocityThen At'/A/' is an approximate increment for a short time Aa
value of the acceleration at the instant
the shorter the interval A/.
t.
The approximation
is
closer
The exact 210. Exact Value of Acceleration at an Instant. approached by the value of the acceleration at the time t is the limit
approximate value as
zero.
Az*
is
This limit
is
= lim
[A'Z'/A/']
= dvjdt.
174
Since
t'
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
= dxjdt = p =
of
.t,
we have
d''xldt''
= dxjdt = X.
for
211. Application
tion.
Formulas
Velocity
and
Accelera-
The formulas
V ^=
dxjdt,
= dvjdt =
d''xjdt'\
x is known as
is
tion of t
this
that
is,
a funcknown. In
Thus,
if
case v and
f(t),
X=
we have
As another
every instant
;
case,
that
is,
x in
if
a relation
of the quan-
by
differentiation or
by integration.
one or two arbitrary constants will be brought in, the values of which cannot be determined without additional data as to
tion, either
Thus,
if
there
is
V,
p)
o,
as derivatives with
the motion.
Examples.
position of a particle is given by the equation x - /ct'-, k being a constant. Show that the acceleration is constant, and determine its value in terms of k.
1.
The
2.
In Ex.
I, if
the velocity
is
If the position of
k't
k",
show
equation were
4.
x=
a particle is given by the equation x that the acceleration has the same value as
kt^.
is
= = kf
3,
if
the
The
position of a particle
H- 2^^ -f
t'\
being
in feet
and
t in
MOTION IN A STRAKJHT
LINE.
I75
acceleration for o. i sec. after the instant t z, and compare it with the exact value of the acceleration at the beginning of the interval. The velocity is given by the formula
7'
When
t=
i^v
25.
is
= X == 5 + When =
i*
4^
+
v
2,t\
2. i,
=
ft.
26.63.
Hence the
av-
erage acceleration
Lvl^t=
The
(26.63
25)/o.i
=
ir
16.3
is
-per-.sec. -per-sec.
= dvldt = = 4
ft.
-f 6A
When
5.
2,
16
-per-sec. -per-sec.
i6t,
If the velocity of a particle is given by the equation ? determine the position at any time. The equation may be written
12
=;
dxdt
/,
=12
16^.
X=
12t
d,t''
C.
determined, the Thus, if t is reckoned from the instant at which the particle is at the origin, the values (;ir o, / o) must satisfy the equation. This requires that o. But if the "origin of time" ( e., the instant from which t is reckoned) is chosen as the instant when .jr 4, the values (. o) must satisfy the equation, and therefore C If 4, / 4.
In order that the constant of integration C position of the particle at some given instant
may be
must be known.
in feet, in If
7'
is
6.
6t,
.acceleration
o.
i
^,
sec. after /
-|- I8/^ t 7. Let the velocity be given by the equation 7' being in seconds and v in centimeters-per-second. Determine the position, the velocity and the acceleration at the instant ^ 10 sec. In order that the value of x may be completely determined, what additional data must be given ?
= = 12
at the
5.
instant
8. With data of Ex. 7, determine the average velocity and the average acceleration during o. 5 sec. and during o. i sec. following the instant ^ 10 sec.
of a particle at a certain instant is too ft. -per-sec. The acceleration is constant and equal to (a) When will the 24 ft. -per-sec. -per-sec. in the negative direction, (b) What will be its velocity 4 sec. later ? particle be at rest ?
9.
The velocity
A71S. {a)
10.
sec.
{b)
96
ft.
-per-sec.
The
and
176
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Then
the problem
is
to
= dv/di = J
C,
its
V = dxjdt = ft ^
the value of the velocity at some Let v^ denote the value of v when definite instant must be known. t o; then, since the last equation is true for any simultaneous values of v and /,
;
To
is,
determine
value,
an
'
'
initial
Hence
= / o + C; or C= ^ x =^/i + %.
(,
v.
= \fe +
v,t
C.
the position at To determine the constant of integration, Let ;r denote the value of x given instant must be known. x^ and ^ ^ o then, the last equation being true for x must equal x^. Hence
,
some when
o,
x= \ft' +
11.
v^t
is
-}-
X,.
The
velocity of a falling
body
ft.
-per-sec.
its
its
from
position of rest in t seconds ? [The acceleration is constant and equal to 32.2 Hence this is a special case of Ex. 10.] sec.
-per-sec. -per-
12. The acceleration of a particle increases in direct ratio with the time reckoned from a given instant. Determine the position and velocity at any time. Let distance be expressed in centimeters and time in seconds, and assume that the acceleration increases by 4 units Assume further that the velocity is zero when the acin I sec. celeration is zero, and that x is reckoned from the position of the particle w^hen the acceleration is zero. That is, the four quantities p, V, X, t are all zero together.
13.
its
With data
as in Ex. 12,
velocity 3 sec.
If
II Ans. X |/', 2t'' 4?. p where was the particle and what was before the instant at which the acceleration was
,
zero?
before the acceleration was zero,
from the position of the particle 3 sec. how would the results of Ex. 1 2 be changed? (Make no change in the origin of time.) Does this change in the origin of abscissas imply a different case of motion ?
14.
^ were reckoned
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE.
Motion and Force.
177
212.
3.
Laws
of Motion.
In the foregoing
analysis of the
motion
By
bodies.
it is
influenced
by
'
its
relation to
'
often expressed
by saying
' '
that one
'
by other bodies. Such an action another, measured in a particular way, is called force. (Art. 32.) Newton's three laws of motion give a concise statement of the way in which the motion of a body is influenced by forces, i. e., by
'
upon
'
-a.
full
re-
more general analysis of motion than has been given in this The present discussion of the laws of motion must be Chapter.
limited to the case of motion in a straight
line.
A formal statement
Body Which
Is
Bodies.
Newton's
is,
first
force (that
rest,
or else will
wholly uninfluenced by other bodies) will remain move in a straight line with uniform velocity.
of this
The meaning
(Art. 31).
Body
Initially at Rest.
If
a force of constant magnitude and direction acts, for a certain interval of time, upon a body initially at rest, the body will have at the end of the interval a velocity
whose
direction
is
and
whose magnitude
is
duration of the interval, and inversely to the mass of the body. denote the magnitude of the force, t the duration of the Let
interval,
and
vi the
body
is
proportional directly to
P and
mass
and inversely to
if
m
,
that
is, it is
proportional to Pt/m.
/'
Thus,
upon a
if
particle of
m'
a force
P"
it
a time t"
upon a
particle of
^,,
.
mass
;//'
initially at rest
gives
"; then
^,..
/>'/'/;'
p"t"jni".
178
theoretical mechanics.
Examples.
1.
lb.
for
sec. gives
it
velocity of 10 ft.-per-sec.
What
velocity
part to a mass of 5 lbs. in 4 min.? acting for 4 sec. upon a body of mass force of magnitude 2. 20 lbs. gives it a velocity of 10 ft.-per-sec. What velocity will be imparted to a body of 50 lbs. mass in 9 sec. by a force of magnitude
see force of 8 lbs. ( i. e. equal to the weight of 8 lbs. mass 3. lbs. for 12 sec, gives it a Art. 47), acting upon a body of mass What velocity will be imparted to a body velocity of 45 ft. -per-sec. of mass 77 lbs. by a force of 22 lbs. acting for 9 sec. ?
, ;
4.
Two
rest at the
same
lbs. and 5 lbs. starting from observed to have equal velocities at every Compare the magnitudes of the forces acting
,
5. A body near the surface of the earth will, if unsupported, fall It is observed that two bodies of different masses, toward the earth. What starting from rest, acquire equal velocities in equal times. inference can be drawn as to the forces acting upon them ?
6. A body falling from rest under the attraction of the earth is observed to have a velocity of 32. 2 ft.-per-sec. at the end of the first Assuming the attraction of the earth to be a constant force, second. what velocity will the body have at the end of 20 sec. ?
is the velocity acquired by a falling body in i velocity at the end of /sec, assuming that the only force acting upon the body is the constant attraction of the earth ?
7.
If
ft.
-per-sec.
sec, what
is
its
Body Not
Initially at Rest.
is
acted upon
by a
force of con-
stant
body
is
magnitude whose direction coincides with that in which the moving, its velocity wiU receive, during any interval of time,
4.
Then
7'i
is
proportional to
{t^
Qlin.
;
This case obviously includes that given in the preceding Article is zero, the final velocity is equal to the
If
velocity-increment.
a body
is
is
is
de-
MOTION
IN A
STRAIGHT LINE.
79
and
to the interval,
be reduced to zero,
and
will
A
and
it
velocity-increis
ment whose
of the force,
proportional directly
inversely to the
If the
to the force
and to
the time
it acts,
mass of the body. two directions along the line of motion are distinguished
as
plus and minus, the sign of the velocity-increment agrees with that of the force.
It
this principle
interval in question.
;
the result
The
upon the
merely upon the amount by which the velocity changes. The above proposition is a statement of Newton's second law of motion, as applied to the motion of a body under the action of a
single force
whose
For
a formal statement of the three laws, see Art. 259. 216. Equation of Motion for Particle Acted
Upon by Constant
a particle of mass
Force.
Let
a particle of mass
vi,
^v and
;
let
in a
ment
A7/.
Then
Az;
or
A7/
particular case of
mAv/PAt has the same value whatever the and the mass m motion considered the force having any values whatever, and Av being the increment of velocity There may therefore be written the equation received in a time At.
That
is,
the quantity
/;/
AvIPAt
k,
or
Av
=lk{PAti?n),
(i)
l8o
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
k being a
constant. This may be called the general equation of motion for a particle acted upon by a constant force directed along
If/
is
may be
written
.
.
P^KPlvi),
since
(2)
LvjU^t when the velocity varies at a uniform rate. p The numerical value oi k depends upon the units employed
in
m and A/.
:
These
units
having been
nature of
k can be determined by a
single experiment.
The
of
A force of known magnitude (say P' units) is known mass (in units) for a known time ( A^'
produced
is
applied to a
units),
body
locity
measured
= m'i^v'IP'^.t'.
units of force, mass, length and time may thus be chosen arbiand a value of k determined which will make equation (i) true for all cases in which the same units are employed. The unit velocity is here assumed to be derived from the units of length and of time as in Art. 191,
The
trarily
Examples.
the unit mass as a pound, the unit force as the weight of a pound-mass (z. e., a pound-force), the unit time as the second and the unit length as the foot. Determine the value of k.
I.
Take
m pounds-mass fall freely from rest under the acExperiment shows that the velocity increases at a uniform rate. In one second the increment of velocity is about 32.2 ft.-per-sec. The force producing this effect is the weight of pounds-mass, or in terms of the pound-force its value is m. Hence in the above value of k we may substitute m' in, P' m, At' I, A?/ 32.2
Let a body of
tion of gravity.
.-.
= {in
p
32.2)/(;;
i)
= = = 32.2.
is
The equation
therefore
The value 32.2 ft. -per-sec. -per-sec. is only an approximate value of the acceleration of a body falling freely under gravity. The true value varies somewhat with the position on the earth's surface. If
jf
g,
/>=I(PM
l8l
Since the pound-force varies with the locality in exactly the same ratio as the value of g, the numerical value of any given force (represented by in the equation) varies inversely as ^, so that equation (3) is always true if g is given its true value for the particular locality at which the pound-force is determined.
2. If the unit mass is equal to 200 lbs., the unit force equal to the weight of 10 lbs., the unit time the second, and the unit length the foot, determine the value of k. A/is. k gj 20.
is the unit mass, the foot the unit length, and 3. If the second the unit time, what must be the unit force in order that k may equal i ? Ans. force equal to ijg times the weight of i lb.
the pound
the pound-force is the unit force, the foot the unit length, and the second the unit time, what must be the unit mass in order that k may equal i ? Ans. mass equal to g lbs.
4.
If
employed, the constant k is numerically equal to the acceleration due to the unit force acting upon the unit mass. Answer examples i, 2, 3 and 4 by the direct appli5.
units are
It has been seen that, in the 217. Kinetic Systems of Units. general equation of motion given above (Art. 216), the four quantities, force, mass, velocity and time (or force, mass, length and time)
expressed in any arbitrary units, provided the value of k is It is also apparent that k may be given any properly determined. desired value by properly choosing the units of force, mass, length
may be
and
time.
i, and conIn order to simplify the equation of motion, let /& choice of units. sider what restriction is thus imposed upon the
The
= Av/At = Pjm.
(i)
In order to satisfy this equation it is unit force acting for a mass, length and time in such units that a unit velocity. unit time upon a unit mass will give it a called a of units satisfying this requirement may be
Any
It is
system
kinetic system.
obvious
that,
even with
this restriction,
units
arbitrarily.
But when
unit.
becomes a derived
182
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
For the purposes of pure science the common practice is to take and time ; the unit force being derived from these in accordance with the requirement above
as fundamental the units of mass, length
stated.
Two
may
be mentioned.
The centimeter-gram-second system. In this system the centimeter is the unit length, the gram the unit mass and the second the
unit time.
is
It is briefly called
the C. G. S. system.
The
unit force
called a dyne.
A dyne
The
scientific
is
upon a mass of
C. G. S. system
In
this
pound
unit time.
The
unit force
is
called a.poundal.
poundal
is
upon a mass
of
Examples.
1.
is
40
lbs. is
acted upon
by a constant
force of 12 poundals. What is the velocity after 4 sec. () if initially at rest, {b) if the initial velocity is 20 ft. -per-sec. in the direction
of the force, (c) if the initial velocity is 20 ft. -per-sec. in the direction opposite to that of the force. Ans. {a) 1.2 ft. -per-sec. {b) 21.2 ft. -per-sec. (c) 18.8 ft. -persec.
2.
A body of 20 lbs.
it
in
2 sec. gives
mass is acted upon by a constant force which a velocity of 60 ft. -per-sec. What is the mag-
body of 6 lbs. mass, starting from rest and falling freely under 3. the earth' s attraction, is observed to have, after 2 sec. a velocity of If the earth's attraction upon the body is a constant 64.4 ft. -per-sec.
,
force,
4.
its
what
is its
magnitude
in
poundals
own
of lbs. mass, falling vertically under the action of weight, receives during each second a velocity of _- ft. -per-sec.
its
body
What
5.
is
weight
it
is
in
poundals
?)
(That
is,
what
Aiis.
attractive force
is
exerted upon
by the earth
mg poundals.
force of
What
pound and a
one poundal?
6.
A body
dynes.
of 20 Determine
mass
is
at
rest,
MOTION
{b)
if
IN
A STRAIGHT
LINE.
83
its
initial
if its
velocity
initial
force, {c)
A71S.
(c)
12 c.m.-per-sec.
is
3 kilogr. is acted
upon by a constant
force which, in 5 sec, changes its velocity from 10 met.-per-sec. in one direction to 12 met.-per-sec. in the opposite direction. What is the value of the force ?
Ans. 1,320,000 dynes in the direction of the final velocity. A body of 2,000 gr. mass, starting from rest and falling freely under the earth's attraction, has at the end of 2 sec. a velocity of If the earth's attraction upon the body is a con19.6 met.-per-sec. stant force, what is its magnitude in dynes ?
8.
Alls.
1.96
10" dynes.
System. For
is
mass same
Such a
unit,
is
poses.
Let the pound-force (already defined as the weight of a poundforce, let the foot and second be taken as
let
P=
f/i(AzilAf)
mj>.
The
7ipon by
unit
be defined as a
mass
ivhose velocity
The
mined.
it
A
I
force of
lb.
acting
pound-mass may readily be deterupon a mass of i lb. for i sec. gives The same force acting upon a mass of
it
g lbs.
in
a velocity of
ft.
-per -sec.
The
therefore
system of units is employed, a mass whose value is given pounds must be reduced to the unit just defined by dividing
It will hereafter
P=
mp.
Examples.
I.
mass
ot
half a ton
is
lbs.
184
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
What
2.
Write the equation of motion, using the pound as the unit [i ton is the acceleration? 2,000 lbs.]
=
/
force.
A71S.
.61
ft.
-per-sec. -per-sec.
length be the meter, the unit time the second and the unit force the weight of a kilogram. Determine the value of the unit mass in terms of the kilogram, so that the equation mp may be satisfied.
units, let the unit
With French
P=
3.
half
its
weight.
Ex.
2.
mass of 200 kilograms is acted upon by a force equal to Write the equation of motion, taking units as in Determine the acceleration. A lis. / 4 9 met. -per-sec. -per-sec.
The relation 219. Dimensions of Units in Kinetic System. which must subsist among the units in order that the constant k in the general equation of motion shall be unity may be expressed by Let the units be represented by the same a dimensional equation.
symbols as heretofore (Arts. 15, 190, 204). mp. The equation to be satisfied \s
P=
jyj^
tion
is
therefore
p>
But also
hence
V=L/T; A=V/T
F
= L/r;
systems (Art. 217), the
are
= ML/T'^
P. S. this
If,
as in the C. G. S.
and the F.
If,
M, L and T,
however, F,
L and T
made
;
fundain this
may be
written
M = FT7L.
we
shall generally
regard
M,
and
L and T
all
Two
or
If
a body mov-
forces directed
it
sum
The same
effect
would
be produced by a single force equal to the algebraic sum of the sevThat is, the resultant of any number of forces acting eral forces.
85
a
its
line
of motion
is
is
acted upon by a
produced
in
any
given interval cannot be estimated so simply as in the case of a constant force. In this case the equation of motion becomes a differential
equation.
If
a body of mass
P=
m{^.viAt)
gives the magnitude of a constant force which will produce the same velocity-increment in the same time. If the interval A^ is long, the
magnitude of the force may vary widely from this value. But A/ be taken smaller and smaller, approaching the limit zero, At' also approaching zero, the value of given by the equation approaches as a limit the actual magnitude of the force at the beginning of the interval. Hence, if P denotes the value of the force at
actual
if
the time
any
instant,
P=
lim [w<Az//A/)]
= midvldf).
this equation.
The determination
in
any
finite
This
is
P is
known.
Number
if
of
be written
P :=
\i
midvldf),
or
P^
mp,
is
P the
instan-
sum
of
all
forces acting
its
on the
particle.
be specified by
distance
x from
the
equation of motion
may be
written
mid'^xuit--).
P=
CHAPTER
XIII.
21J,.
I.
APPLICATIONS.
General Method.
Classes of Problems.
The equation
. .
P ^= mp
may
(i)
always be applied in the solution of problems relating to the motion of a particle in a straight line. The problems that may conceivably arise are of various kinds, depending upon what is known
it is
sultant force.
(2)
known
The second
will
ferential equation,
and may be
the Motion Is
Known.
mp.
If
known
is
at every in-
equation
P=
known
as a
by
differentiation.
Examples. body of i lb. mass, starting from rest, moves so that its dis1. tance from the starting point at every instant is given by the formula i6.it'\ ;ir being in feet and t in seconds. Required the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the body at any instant. Ans. The force is constant and equal to 32.2 poundals.
2. If the velocity of a body is constant, what the resultant force acting on it ?
is
x^
the magnitude of
X
it
the position of a particle of mass in is given by the formula bt, determine the value of the resultant force acting upon as a function of;r. Ans. /-" mb'^x.
^ asm
3.
If
187
A
s
body
of
earth
attraction,
increment of '"g^^PO"^'?
5.
mass, acted upon by no force except the observed to receive each second a velocityft. -per-sec. What is the magnitude of the force act^.. .^ poundals.
lbs.
is
any
instant
seconds and
torce acting
body whose mass is i8 lbs. moves so that its position is given by the equation x 5/^ + 6^ + 8, / being
x m
at in
feet.
it
upon
at
6.
What What
What
Required the magnitude of the resultant any instant. Ans. 180 poundals or 5.59 pounds-force.
cm. -per-sec.
per. -sec. to a
7.
mass of 600
velocity
gr.
will
increase
8.
by g
grams mass
c.
m. -per-sec.
in
sec.
the weight in dynes of a mass of grams ? is the acceleration due to gravity, expressed in cm. -per-sec. -per-sec. Its value is known to be about 98 1.
Ans. mg,
\{
9. The velocity of a particle is proportional to its distance from a fixed point, and is 24 ft. -per-sec. when the distance from the fixed point is 2 ft. If the mass of the particle is 4 lbs., what is the value of the resultant force acting upon it when 8 ft. from the fixed point?
Also when 3
ft.
,728 poundals.
If
every force
t,
known
as a function of
one or
more of
termines
v,
P=
mp
becomes a
X and
V as functions of t.
some one
able
is
or
more
definite positions.
:
The
the following
The
The
method of determining
is
clear
of
To determine such
a constant
it is
always
some information
in addition to that
which enables
Let there be given any equation containing two variables, Then the value of C can be determined and a constant, C. y,
x and
if
one
88
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
"when
let
jr
^ some
oixandy be known that is, if it be known some known value." known value, y
;
Thus,
If
it
is
known
o.
b,
stants, there
may be
/(,
b,
C)
o,
from which C can be determined. In a problem relating to the motion of a particle, the variables being usually some two of the quantities x, t and v, the information necessary for determining the constant is equivalent to some knowl-
edge as to the position at some instant, or as to the condition of motion of the particle either at some instant or in some position. It is to be noticed that the same method will serve for determining any constant in an equation, whether introduced by integration or
otherwise.
2.
l<
X,
-51
O
Fig. 103.
^
t.
Let O (Fig. 103) be a fixed point in the line of motion, and let X be the distance of the particle from
equation of motion
is
at the time
The
then
.
W2(i/'jr/^/')
= P = constant.
(i)
Two
integrations give
m{dxldt)
= Pt +
C,t+
C^;
C,.
(2) (3)
mx=iPt'+
To detemine
the velocity
is
C^ and
w,
Q, let it be known that at a certain instant t and the abscissa of the particle x^. Then from (2),
and from
C,
(3),
Q=
(viv,
mv,-Pt,;
= mx, ^ iPt;
Pt,-)t
= mx, 7nv,t, +
\Pi^\
MOTION
IN A
189
may
be chosen arbitrarily,
;
at
which v
let t
then
be reckoned
o,
and
m{dxldt)
v)
.
= Pi
(4) (5)
any
instant.
Body Falling
Earth.
ward.
is
that for
may
is
be
regarded as constant.
jected vertically
Hence
it
or
pro-
to the influence
a constant force.
Experience shows that bodies of unequal mass, acted upon by Their weights are therefore proportional to their masses. Let IV^ and JV, denote the weights of two bodies whose masses are m^ and m.^ then
gravity alone, are equally accelerated.
;
true for
any
units of force
and mass.
If these units
gives the unit mass the unit acceleration), the acceleration of the
mass
1n-^
acted upon
i?i.^
by the
force
W^
is
of the mass
V.'iii.^.
If the
known
denoted by g,
*The value of g varies with the position on the earth. This variation is approximately represented by the following formula Let (p denote the latiitude and h (centimeters) the elevation above sea-level. Then in C. G. S.
:
units (c.m.-per-sec.-per-sec),
2(p
0.000003A.
ployed the value 32.2 ft. -per-sec.-per-sec. may value g8i c.m.-per-sec.-per-sec. is sufficiently correct. The effect of the earth's rotation on the value of
Art. 311.
is
considered in
igo
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
WJm^
Or,
if
WJm^
=^ g.
= g.
is
the weight of
Wjm
This equation
may
also be written
W = mg,
Thus,
in
or
in
Wjg.
any equation
in
vi
may be
The equation
of motion
P=
mp,
except
its
weight, becomes
mg =
This
nip,
or
^ g.
.
may be
written
d'xjdt''
^ g ^^
consXaxit,
(0
if
x denotes
of motion.
The
x is downward.
let
^
.
o,
x=
.
Xq and
v.
The
first
integration gives
dx/dt
= g(
-\-
Vo;
(2) (3)
x= igf +
Vot
+ Xo.
might have been deduced immediately from equaby substituting ^ for P'in. Consider the three cases in which the initial velocity is zero, positive, and negative, respectively. (i) Let the body fall from rest, and take the starting point as the origin for reckoning x, t being reckoned from the instant when the
results
These
tions (4)
and
body come
is
at the origin.
Then
x=\gt\
(2) If the
(5)
body has
initially
mulas (2) and (3) apply, v^ having a positive value. Let v^ and let x be measured from the point of projection, so that x^
= V, =
o.
191
(6)
= v = gt ^ X= + Vt.
V;
.
. .
(7)
(3)
is
^'0
If
the
body
o,
= V,x^
V upward, and if x and is positive downward, and equations (2) and (3) become
is
given an
initial
initial
velocity
position
dxjdt
= V gt V;
X=igt'Vt.
Examples.
...
i'''
(8) (g)
Prove that the velocity v of a body which 1. cally a distance x from rest is given by the formula
2.
2gx.
Taking the value of ^ in cendmeter-second units as 981, compute the velocity of a body after falling 10 met. from rest. 3. A body is projected upward with a velocity of 100 ft.-per-sec. When will it come to rest, how high will it rise, and when will it
return to the starting point?
body is projected upward with a velocity of 80 ft. -per-sec. 4. After what time will it be 20 ft. above the initial position? Explain the double answer. Take_^= 32.2 ft. -sec. units. Alls. After 0.26 sec. or 4.69 sec.
5.
body
it
will rise to a
and that
is projected upward with velocity Show that it height V'/2g that it will come to rest after a time V/g will return to the point of projection after a time 2 V/g.
; ;
body is dropped into a well 84 ft. deep. 6. the sound of striking the bottom will be heard, sound is i, 100 ft.-per-sec?
7.
How
if
/is.
body
is
dropped
after
into a well,
bottom
8.
is
heard
sec.
How
and the sound of striking the deep is the well? Aiis. 231 ft.
body is projected upward with velocity V. Show that after rising a distance /i its velocity is given by the formula i'' 2g/i. 9. If a body is moving vertically under the action of gravity,
= V
its average velocity during any interval of time is equal to The same is true velocity at the middle instant of the interval. in any case of constant acceleration.
prove that
its
10. At a certain instant a body (acted upon by gravity alone) is moving upward at the rate of 10 ft.-per-sec. What is its average
Determine
its
final position
by
What
is
second
after starring
the average velocity of a falling body during the th from rest? Ans. {n )_^ ft. -per-sec.
,;
192
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
falling
12. What distance (in centimeters) is described by a during the 5th second after starting from rest ?
body
gl2 for
from rest, has a downward acceleration then moves uniformly for 2 sec. then has an upward acceleration gJT, until it comes to rest, (a) How far does it descend ? {b) A person whose weight is 140 lbs. experiences what pressure from the elevator during each of the three periods of its motion ? Ans. (a) 13^/8 ft. ((J) 70 pounds-weight 140 pounds-weight 186^ pounds-weight.
13.
An
elevator, starting
,
sec.
lbs. mass rests upon a horizontal platform. If body of 14. the platform begins to fall with acceleration g, what pressure does it What is the pressure if the platform begins exert upon the body ? to rise with acceleration g ?
15. In Ex. 14, determine the pressures in the two cases in which the acceleration is 2g upward and 2g downward. 16. Equal masses of ; lbs. each rest upon two platforms, one of which has at a certain instant a velocity of 20 ft. -per-sec. upward and the other a velocity of 20 ft. -per-sec. downward. Both platforms Compare the pressures of the ha\'e an upward acceleration g/^. platforms on the two bodies. 17. Velocity is imparted to a body of 5 lbs. mass by means of an attached string whose breaking strength is a pull of 2 lbs. How
body
receive in 2 sec.
Ans. 4^/5 ft. -per-sec. 18. A string which can just sustain a mass of 4 lbs. against gravity is attached to a body whose mass is i lb. which rests upon a smooth horizontal plane. Is it possible to break the string by a horizontal jerk?
How
body
is 5 oz. is moving at the rate of 100 ft.receives a blow which exactly reverses its velocity. If the force exerted upon the ball is constant and acts for o. i sec.
when
it
what
is its
magnitude ?
Actually, the force would increase 19.4 pounds-force. from o up to a value much greater than 19.4 lbs. and then decrease The average force is 19.4 if the time occupied by the blow is to o.
Alls.
o.
I
sec.
In a locality where the value of is 32.2 ft. -per-sec. -per-sec. of ; lbs. mass falls 1 5. 9 ft. from rest in one sec. What is the average value of the resistance of the air ?
20.
body
MOTION
IN A
193
3.
Force
228. General Problem: Force Any Function of Distance. In dealing with the the forces of nature, an important case to be considered is that in which the force acting upon a particle is directed
toward or from a fixed point (or one which may be regarded as fixed), its magnitude being some function of the distance of the particle from the point. This case will now be considered, the motion
being restricted to a straight line containing the fixed point. The point toward (or from) which the force is directed
called the center offeree.
it
is
called attractive;
if
from the
let
center,
,
repulsive.
(6*,
For convenience
the origin
~~q
Fig. 104.
-^
and let the force be reckoned as if were repulsive in all cases. Let be the magnitude of the force for any position of the
force,
it
particle
is
m{d''xidt'')
= P,
to
then the
or
midxldt)
Since in the present case
= P.
be a function of
x, the
. .
is
supposed
equation becomes
)M(dx/dt)
^f(x).
is
(i)
and also the relation between x (or v) and t, thus determining the motion completely. The values of ;r and v will involve constants of integration, to determine which certain initial conditions must and
/,
' '
'
'
be specified.
In the following Articles special cases of equation (i)
sidered.
will
be con-
One important general result may, however, be here noticed. dx, the first member Multiplying both members of (i) by jir.^^ becomes integrable. Thus, we have first,
Integrating,
dx
C,
F{x) being obtained by immediate integration as soon as the form The last equation shows that the velocity is a oi f{x~) is known.
13
194
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
;
that
is,
if
the particle
once into the same position, the velocity has the same value, except
that
its
direction
may be
reversed.
is
The
is
disit,
given to
An
important case
is
is
pro-
portional directly to the distance of the particle from the fixed point.
The
force
may
first
case in which
point.
it is
the
i.
e.,
directed always
toward the
fixed
Let P' be the magnitude of the attractive force when the particle
is
from
the force
P = P'x,
dvjdi
O (Fig. 104) then for any distance and the equation of motion becomes
;
or
if
(i)
k be written for the attractive force j!er unit mass at unit distance from The reason for the minus sign is that the force, being always directed toward the point O, is always opposite in sign to x.
In order to completely determine the motion, certain
conditions
(i)
' '
' '
initial
must be known,
which expresses a relation that is satisfied in every position of It will be well to state explicitly all the data which serve to determine the solution of the problem. Let the following asthe particle.
sumptions be made:
{a)
is
The
always directed,
that
when the
;
negative
on the right of 0, x is positive and the force and when the particle is on the left of O, x is negative and
particle is
Take
the
' '
ticle is at
the point O.
that
(c)
Assume
when
the particle
its
is
at a distance
velocity
first
is
zero.
v,
To
its
member by
= kxidx^dt),
and the
or
by
dv
= kxdx.
MOTION
IN A
195
Applying condition
(r),
may
be written
v'
hence the
last
equation
(2)
which gives the velocity in any position. To determine a relation between x and
required.
t,
a second integration
is
Equation (2)
may be
written
(dxlJt'f
= k^d" x^),
dxjV d'
or
Integrating,
k^dt
^..,,
x''
_ 3i^,(^/^) ^
o.
---^
^,
Erom
fore
condition
(b')
it
C - sin~'(o) =
follows that
there-
,^J^/
or
X ^ a sin
(3J
Equation (3) gives the value of x at any time. [In determining the value of C, it was assumed that the angle whose sine is o is o. But this is only one of many allowable values. The general value would be sin^' (o) ti'tt, where n is any integer. Using this value we have
whence
xla
sin^' (x/a) j \
1
=
i
k^-'t
+
i
nir,
>
sin
{JiM
hit)
= sin (/6^/)
cos rnr
cos
(/J'^/')
sin mr.
=+
it
X
The double
to fully determine the motion The former has the positive or the negative direction when t o. supposition will be adopted, and the plus sign used, as in equation
sin {ky'^f). assumed conditions are not suificient it is left uncertain whether the motion
(3)-]
discussion of equation (3) shows that x is periodic ; that is, in it passes repeatedly through the same series
The
greatest value of ;r
is
and
it is
seen that
^a
2s,
(/^J^/)
=
kV-'t
that
tt/i,
is,
when
977/2,
etc.
etc.
577/2,
or
when
7^/2/^'/^
577/2/^^,
977/2/^^,
196
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
interval
;
The
t in this series is
27r//^^
which
is
a
etc.;
which occurs
when
sin (Ji^^t^
or
when
interval
= k'H ^ =
i
that
^1712,
is,
when
T'^l'i-,
ii''r/2,
37r/2/^^,
"iirhky^,
i7r/2^^,
etc.
The
It is also
X^
It---
a and
x=
---
a
a-
is tt//^'/^.
in-
when
the particle
7r/2/^'/=.
is
*.
A
is
is
seen to be
Al
O't-
-i
A.
x^
;
is
Fig. 105.
seen
in
successive
intervals
of
wj^ky^ sec.
A
re-
to C,
from
in
is
to
O to A
is
and then
Motion
motion, and
accordance with
law of force
called
harmonic
is
and
repulsive,
i.
e.,
acts
let
Let P' be the magnitude of the force when the particle is at the then P'x, and the equation of motion is unit distance from
;
P=
or
(0
where
sive force
a positive constant, and means the magnitude of the repulper unit mass when the particle is at unit distance from O.
is
Equation (i)
that
The
;
integration
if
and
the
same
conditions are
assumed, the
of
k for k. The position would be given by the equation corresponding to (3) of Art. 229:
.;tr
^a
sin
{tV k').
MOTION
IN A
igj
may be
the
initial
(dx/dty
= k(x'
a'),
(2)
the constant being determined from condition (r) assumed in the preceding case, that when x a, v ~= o. Equation (2) may be written
k'^dt
=
{x
dxjVx'
.
Integrating,
k'^t
If,
= log
is is
+
it
Vx''
d\ a') +
C is
C.
be assumed that
= o when ^ o
t
(condition
imaginary.
This shows
pass through
;
sumed
it
is,
if
the particle
the origin.
This
is
can never be
(1^)
than
a.
Therefore,
the instant
when x
a.
This gives
log
[(.r
C=
log
a,
and therefore
or
Solving for
x,
,,
.,.,.,
Here
its
value
being 2.718+.
Equation (3) shows that the motion is not periodic, as in the preand this is the least value x can If t o, X := a ceding case.
be given equal positive and negative values, the Hence the motion after the values of x are equal. corresponding motion before that instant. reverse of the the exactly o \5 instant t
have.
Again,
if t
As
/ increases,
x increases
its
and the
it
be-
nearest position to 0.
Examples.
Let the force be attractive, its magnitude at i ft. from the center I of force being 4 poundals per pound of mass of the attracted particle and let the particle be at rest at a certain instant at 10 ft. from the Determine the position and velocity in terms of t. center.
. ;
198
2.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
In the
same
case,
sec.
Ans.
3.
X = 5.45
= 16.77
ft.-per-sec.
In the same case, with what velocity does the particle pass the Ans. 20 ft. -per-sec. center of force ?
4.
How
often does the particle return to the starting point ? Ans. At intervals of 1.5708 sec.
i
5.
Solve examples
and
2,
to
be repulsive,
ft., v 220,200 ft.-per-sec. motion of a particle under a force 6. Solve the problem of the varying directly as the distance from a fixed point in the line of motion and directed away from that point, taking all data as in the above
Ans.
When
= x^ 110,100
5,
same
general solution with the following exceptions v^ a, assume that v dition 7' o when x
when x
o.
is
5, except that the velocity 7. 10 ft.-per-sec. when the particle passes the center of force.
to be
8. Let the force be attractive, its magnitude at i met. from the center of force being 1,000 dynes per gram of mass of the attracted Let the particle start from rest at 1 50 c. m. from the center. particle. Determine the position and velocity at any time.
data as in Ex. 8, determine the velocity when the parthe center of force, and determine the position and velocity 10 sec. later.
9.
With
100
ticle is
cm. from
Ans.
When x =
100 cm., v
= 354 cm.-per-sec
10.
Assume data
Determine
as in Ex. 8, except that the force is repulsive. the position and velocity 10 sec. after the particle is at rest.
whose magnitude varies inversely as the square of the distance from that Let P' denote the magnitude of the force when the particle point. is at unit distance from the center of attraction then the equation of
;
motion
or
in
is
= P jx X =^ dxjdt ^ kjx',
mx
rv
1
(i)
which k
{^
P'jm)
is
Jinit
mass
is
at unit distance
from the
origin.
*It
for all values of x, while in fact the force (and therefore the acceleration)
positive
when x
is
negative.
values of
only.
Therefore the equation must be used for positive For negati\'e values of x the equation must be .ik/x'-.
I99
Let equation (i) be integrated subject to the condition that the is at rest when at a distance a from the origin, and that t is reckoned from that instant. The first integration can be performed
particle
= klx + =
C.
The
initial
conditions
x'
make
is
kja,
hence
. .
{dxidty
2kii/x
/a).
(2)
find
Equation (2) gives the velocity when the position x and /, we have
known.
To
dtV 2kla
'
= dxVxlia
i\
x). -^i-
a):^] + C tT= o when;r= a above assumed), C = hence /V 2k/a = ~^'' ax --x' -f ia sin-'[(2.r a)/a] ia /V 2^/a = ax or + ^a the Earth. 232. Motion Under the Attraction the earth
/: tV 2kja
1
= ax~ x^ +
(as
^a
sin-'
[(2X
l{
^<g:sin-' (i);
,/
sin-'(i).
x''
cos-'[(2;ir
)/].
(3)
of
If
were a sphere of uniform density throughout, or a sphere in which the density had the same value at all points equally distant from the center, its attraction upon any body outside its surface would vary inversely as the square of the distance from the center. (Art. 183.) In
the actual case the attraction
is
Hence equations
(i), (2)
and
may be
toward the earth from a great height, supposing gravity to be the In Art. 227 the motion of a falling body was disonly force acting.
cussed on the supposition that the attraction of the earth upon
constant.
it is
is
supposed
to
be
so great that a
is
desirable.
k.
If Ji
denotes
we know
(i)
that
when x
^R
the acceleration
-.
we have
or
klR\
k= gR\
200
If _^
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
in feet-per-second-per-second,
must be
if
in feet,
and k means
earth's
The
value of
may be
feet.
Examples.
1.
A body
starts
from
rest at a height
Compute
the velocity
when
the surface
is
reached.
which
is
In this example a
v'
vie.
In feet-per-second,
V
2.
32.2
20,900,000
^ 25,900. ^
at the
What
is
from
3.
the greatest velocity a body could acquire in falling [Put a ? cc, x R.'\
With what
velocity
earth's surface in order that it may never return? velocity not less than 6.95 miles-per-sec. A?is.
4.
Deduce a formula
by a body
in falling
to the surface
from a height
Putting a =^
v'
R^
h and
^,2
x^
for
becomes
If
-^
^o-/^
\_RI{R
.
k)l
as a
^^^^
if
is
small
tion
first
._
^,2
approxima-
This
is
the attraction
write
were constant.
See Ex.
is
RI{R
and therefore
!'
/,)
= 2gh{i
= (!+ kIR)-' = " (W + W^/ " (/^ + - {hjR) + WRY - {A/Ry +...].
^
small
we may
By taking any number of terms of this series an approximate may be obtained which is correct to any desired degree.
5.
result
Let a body
Compute the
fall to the surface from a height of 5,000 ft. velocity acquired, using first the approximate formula
and second the accurate formula. (Take g 6. Determine the value of k, using C. G.
= 32.2.)
S. units.
APPLICATIONS.
201
4.
Miscellaneous Problems.
With Central
Force.
Let
body be acted upon simultaneously by a constant force and a force directed toward a fixed point. Then if P^ and P, are the values of
the two forces at any instant, the general equation becomes
vix
= P^^
P.,,
fi)
for P^
and
P.^
r and
t.
we have
= constant;
P.,
^f(x).
is
The only case that will be discussed is Body suspended by elastic string.
fixed point
its
A body
the following
suspended from a
by an elastic string, and is acted upon by no force except To deweight and the supporting force exerted by the string.
We
that
a stretched
elastic
string exerts a resisting force proportional directly to the amount of stretching. This law applies not only to elastic
strings but to a bar or rod of
^'
I
any
elastic material.
The
law
is
estabhshed by experiment, and for many substances nearly, though perhaps in no case exacdy, true.
is
M being
ex
Let
MO
O
X
MO, and x the amount of stretching at the time t at which instant the end of the string, originally at 0, is at A. The upward force exerted by the string upon the particle is then proportional to x, and we may put P.,
being the force necessary to proin equation Since the force pj^ j^g unit of length. one of duce an elongation proportion as in greater is elongation given producing a
(i), c
is
less, c is
inversely proportional to
/,
and
we may
e
^ _^^^^^^^ being a constant. For P^ may be written mg, the weight of the body
becomes
micPxldf')
write
hence equa(2)
tion (i)
= mg -
{ejl)x.
202
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
This equation can be integrated directly, but the process is simpler Let O' (Fig. io6) be the if the origin of coordinates is changed. two forces just balance when the string of the end the position of each other
;
is
by
putting P,
+ = that mg exjl =
/^2
o.
is
o,
or
.a;
= mglje.
s,
such that
-\-
d'^zjclt'
x^ s mgl/e, = {ejml)s.
particle
The
variable z evidently
measured
from 0'.
Art. 229,
The
last
equation
identical in
and the solution there given is here applicable. It is thus seen that in the case now under discussion the motion is the same as if the particle were acted upon by a single force directed toward the
point O' and varying directly as the distance from that point.
Examples.
a force equal to 10 pounds- weight would change the length 1. of the string from 5 ft. ( its natural length) to 6 ft. and if the mass of the body is 5 lbs. write the equation of motion. 2gz. 2x)g, or d'^zldf Ans. d'xldf == (i
If
,
,
In the same case, let the body be at rest when the string is 2. unstretched determine the motion completely. Ans. z \ cos {tV 2g). deduced 3. Can the initial conditions be such that the equation above does not apply throughout the whole of the motion? If so, how could such a case be treated ? [The value of P.^ the upward pull of the string on the body, becomes zero when the string shortens to its natural length, the body If the body rises above this point, /*, (Fig. 106). being then at is zero, and so long as this is the case the body moves under the
;
single force of gravity. If the string be replaced by a rigid bar of elastic material (such limit of elasas steel or wrought iron when stretched within the ticity ), the force P^ will follow the same law when the bar is short' '
' '
ex/ 1 is the value of jP^ ened as when it is lengthened; that is, throughout the whole motion,* even if the initial conditions are such that the length of the bar becomes less than the natural length.]
* This assumes that the " modulus of compression as in tension.
elasticity
MOTION
IN A
STRAKiHT
I.IKE:
APPLICATIONS.
203
4. With the data of Ex. i, let the body have a velocity of lo ft.per-sec. at the instant when the string' is unstretched. Determine
Medium.
If
through the
air,
which depend upon the velocity. retard the motion of the body
;
The
in
to
the
medium
is
always opgeneral
body
is
moving.
Hence
will
in the
enter as a force
whose magnitude
tion
is
is
some
whose
direc-
that
is,
for
such a
force,
P = fiv),
care being taken that the correct sign
is
used
Examples.
1. Write the equation of motion for a body moving vertically under gravity and the resistance of the air, the latter being assumed Explain the meanings of any conto vary directly as the velocity.
In the same case, assume the resistance of the air to vary as Can a single equation be written for the the square of the velocity. whole motion in this case, if the body has initially an upward velocity ? Integrate the equation once, thus determining the relation between
velocity
and
time.
235. Motion of Connected Particles. nected by a string which is kept tight, each
If
is
two
due
to the string.
If the string is
not in con-
tact with any body except the two particles mentioned, the tension Hence sustained by it has the same value at every cross-section.
the string exerts equal and opposite forces upon the particles. If the string passes around smooth pegs or pulleys, the tension
is
and the forces exerted upon the still they may not be opposite. though equal are string the particles by each particle, each equafor written be motion of equation If the By comof the string. tension the due to force the contain tion will
uniform throughout
its
length,
bining the two equations this unknown force This will be illustrated by a particular case.
may
iii.,
be eliminated.
iii^
and
be connected by a
204
String
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Let the initial conditions which passes over a smooth pulley. be such that each particle describes a vertical line, one rising while Assume the string to be without weight, perfecdy the other falls.
flexible
and inextensible. Assume also that the mass of the pulley is so small as to be negligible, and that it can revolve without frictional resistance. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 107. Let m^ be greater than m.^ and assume the parThen m^ ticles to be at rest at a certain instant.
,
will fall
and
;, will rise.
particle,
its
rest
dis-
\~^ -ffi
Fig
f^tn
107
l{
T^
;j
upon
;;/,
ing upon ;2 is 7" m.^g' downward, and that of in^ is x upward. for the two particles are therefore
;i^ T downward, and the resultant force act x upward. The acceleration of
is
The
equations of motion
m^g'
T^wi^'x;
(i)
.
(2)
(;,
is
m^g =
same
as
(m,
m,)x.
(3)
would apply to the motion of a particle of mass i^ -\- vi^ acted upon by a force {in^ i- ^-i ^'^i)g by a force equal to the difference between the weights of the particles. It is as if the combined mass of the two particles were being pulled in opposite directions by forces in^g and mg. Evidently equation (3) may be treated by the methods employed The equations derived from the motion of a in Arts. 226 and 227. falling body may be made applicable to the present case by substitutthe
',
ing \(m^
m^lim^ -f m.^'\giox g.
tension.
eliminating .v between an^' two of equations (i), (2) and (3), the value of 7" is found. It is
Vabie of the
By
T=
If
2\m^inJ(m,
-\-
m.,)]g.
(4)
Examples.
the two masses ai'e 4 lbs. and 4.1 lbs., determine the acceleration, the tension, the velocity acquired after 0.5 sec, and the distance fallen through in 0.5 sec. Ans. Acceleration =0-81.
I.
MOTION
IX
205
2. Two masses of 2 kilogr. each are suspended from the ends of a string which passes over a smooth pulley. The system being at rest, a mass of 10 gr. is added to one side. Determine the subsequent motion.
3. Three particles are connected by two strings, one of which passes over a smooth pulley as in Fig. 108. Determine the motion, and the tensions in the strings.
m.^ denote the masses of the the tension in the string w,;^ (Fig. 108), and T.^ the tension in 111 pn.^. Let x be the distance of m.^ below a certain fixed point then X is also the distance of m^ above some fixed point, and of in., above another fixed point. The equations of motion for the three particles are
,
Let w,
m.^
and
7",
three particles,
^1 -^ '>^hg=
^3
'!-*'
T.^
T^
]!i,g
= m.,x
vi.^x.
T.,
>",g
T,
The unknown
quantities
T-^
and
may
-|-
be elimiresult
ni^'x.
The
This
is
motion
for
acted upon by a force m^g in one direction and by forces ;i^, m.^g in the opposite direction. The values of 7\ and T.^ are
Wi H-
;2
particle of ^
mass
m.^
T;
4.
111.^
in.,)\g;
In Ex.
3, let
values
T,^
2, 3 and 4. Ans. T^ 16/9 kilograms-weight, T.^ 40/9 kilograms-weight. 2 lbs. 5. Let ;i Determine T^, 4 lbs., m.^ 3 lbs., m.^ and the acceleration. Ans. The acceleration of w^ is 5^/9 downward.
= =
r "h -f iih)']g. and tn.., expressed in kilograms, have Determine the acceleration and the tensions.
;;/,)/,/( ;;/j
;,,
m.^^
= =
Miscellaneous Examples.
[In the following examples the student should in every case write the differential equation of motion, even if it is not found possible to He should also examine what conditions are complete the solution. needed for the determination of the constants of integration. If this is done, the problem in Dynamics is reduced to one in mathematical
analysis.]
whose masses are equal are connected by an are projected from the same point with equal and opposite velocities. Determine the motion, assuming no forces to act except those due to the tension of the string.
I
.
Two
particles
elastic string.
They
206
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
A/!S. Let a be the natural length of the string and k the force If necessary to double its length. is the position of one particle when the string begins to stretch, that particle describes half of a after a time harmonic oscillation (Art. 229) about A, returning to TT^/ (ajn/ik). The two particles then approach each other with constant velocity.
2.
Assume
i,
unequal.
3. Two particles whose masses are Wj and tn.^, connected by an inextensible string, are suspended from a fixed point by an elastic If the system is held at rest with the elastic string attached to tn^ string at its natural length and then released, determine the subseDetermine also the tension in the lower string in the quent motion.
.
lowest position.
Ans. The required tension is twice the weight of jh.. particles, each of mass ;, are connected by an elastic The force necessary to double the string whose natural length is /. The particles repel each other with forces length of the string is i^ varying directly as their distance apart the repulsive force being /^' when the distance is /. If both particles are held at rest at a distance apart equal to / and are then released, determine the subsequent
4.
Two
motion.
is
given by the
X_
1~
F+
F'
sin
[n' 2(F
F^-)
F')/m/]
"
-z^F
is a harmonic oscillation (Art. 229) about a point distant F') from the point midway between the particles, the time of a complete oscillation being Trj \_2!nL{F F')\. If the origin be taken at the center about which the oscillation takes place, the motion is given by equation (3) of Art. 229, \i k 2{F F'')hnl. If F, the motion reduces to a case under Art. 230. F'
The motion
Fll2{F
>
5.
Solve with data as in Ex. 4 except that the masses are unIn Ex. 4 let the mass of each particle be 40 gr.
equal.
let / 20 50 grams-weight, F' 30 grams-weight. Determine the period of a complete oscillation, and the range of motion. Ans. Time of oscillation 0.9 sec.
6.
cm.,
j^=
the string m^7n.^ be elastic, its unstretched length being /. Let the system be initially at rest with ?,;.^ /. Determine the subsequent motion.
7.
In Fig.
108
let
8. Two particles, each of mass m, repel each other with forces varying inversely as the square of their distance apart. When the distance is / the force is F. They are held at rest in a vertical line
MOTION
at a distance apart
IX A
207
/', and are then released. Determine their subsequent motion, assuming the only forces acting on the particles to be gravity and their mutual repulsion. Ans. If r is the distance of the particles apart at any time, their
is
{drjdty
= {4rFPim){
m
Ir).
This equation can be integrated, giving as a function of r. The center of gravity of the two particles falls a distance ^gt' in /sec. These two relations determine the motion.
9.
particle of
mass
is
/.
string
is
attached to one end of an elastic The other end of the string is at-
tached to a fixed support. The particle is dropped from this fi.xed point of attachment. Determine the motion. Let the force necessary to stretch the string to double its natural length be F.
10. The natural length of an elastic string is / under a pull it stretches to a length 2/. The ends are attached to fixed pegs whose distance apart is 37/2. particle of mass is attached to the string
;
a point distant 4//5 from one peg, and is forcibly brought to the point midway between the pegs and then released. Determine the time of cscillation. Ans. (4Tr/i^)yXi^)n//F).
at
11. body is projected into a resisting medium which exerts a retarding force proportional to the velocity. If no other force acts upon the body, determine the motion. Let ; mass, initial velocity, and let the force i^when the velocity V. Ans. Let jr' denote the distance the body would move, and /' the time it would move, before coming to rest against a constant force F. Then the distance described in time / against the actual force is e-'l''). It is seen that x approaches the limit 2x' 2x'{\ but the particle never comes to rest.
V=
x=
is
in such a way that its acceleration velocity but has the opposite direction. When expressed in centimeter-second units the velocity and acceleraIn a certain position the velocity is 50 tion are numerically equal. Determine the value of the force after the particle has c. m. -per-sec.
12.
A mass
of 5 kilogr.
moves
directly proportional to
its
this position.
In Ex. 12, determine the value of the force i sec. after the When will the parinstant at which the velocity is 50 cm. -per-sec.
come to rest, and how far will it move ? Ans. 92,000 dynes. The distance passed over will approach 50 c m. as a limit, but the particle will never come to rest.
ticle
CHAPTER
XIV.
I.
Position, Displacement
and
Velocity.
236. Direction.
its
When the
path of a particle
is
a straight
line,
motion has
at
two directions
may be
is
by
signs plus
and minus.
But
whose path
is
a straight
line, definitions
and acceleration. These definitions must now be enlarged. Each one of these quantities is at every instant associated with a definite direction in space, and this direction is an essential element in its
value.
The
quantities
named
16).
by
Vector.
If
a particle
its
is
not confined
any motion
in space,
may
\i P (Fig. 109) is the position of the particle at any instant, and any fixed point taken as origin of reference, the position of/* is known if the vector OP is known. For, to know the vector OP completely is to know (i) the direction from O to /"and (2) the
OP.
Knowing
these,
^p
OP
is
called the
As
or in both length
and
direction.
commagnitude and direction of a vector, the values of certain angles and distances, measured from definite lines, planes or points regarded as fixed, must be given. For the present purpose it is not necessary to consider how the
Pjq jq
pletely the
value of a vector
may
238. Displacement.
If
the particle
moves from
to
during
any
AB
is its
displacement.
2O9
may be any
line joining
AB
independent of the actual path followed, which A and B. If the path is the straight hne
^5
^i?
is
the
actual displacement.
A CB
is
dis-
said to be tmiform
fig.
intervals of time,
however these
intervals be chosen.
It is to be particularly noticed that, since displacement is a vector quantity, successive displacements are not equal unless they agree in direction as well as in magnitude. Hence, uniform motion as here
i.
e.
it is
rectilinear.
This case of
in
If
Motion.
ments
in
in
variable.
The
un-
equal displacements
may
straight line,
the successive displacements agree in direction, the path is a and the motion falls under the case already treated.
The
241. Velocity.
line,
In
may still be defined as its rate of displacement ; * but the definition must be interpreted with reference to the meaning of displacement as a vector quantity.
the velocity of a particle
Whatever path a particle may describe, it is at every instant moving at a definite rate and in a definite direction. The velocity is a vector quantity whose direction coincides with that in which the particle is moving, and whose magnitude measures the rate of motion. The meaning of the definition of velocity and the method of estimating its value are best understood by considering "average"
velocity in case of the unrestricted motion of a particle.
The
it
average
receives
any displacement,
is
the
*As
14
2IO
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
velocity of a particle which, moving uniformly, would receive the same total displacement in the same time. The average velocity is a vector quantity, its direction being that
Note that
-k___^
Fig. III.
particle
Thus,
if
the
moves from A to B (Fig. Ill) along any path ACB, the total
is
displacement
the vector
AB.
If
/,
and B,
(vector AB)/{t,
t,),
A CB.
An
ap-
proximate value of the velocity of a particle at any instant may be found by determining the average velocity for a very short time. Thus, let A (Fig. 1 11) be the position of the particle at the time t,
and
its
A^
then
(vector AB)lt^t
is
is
an approximate
is
The approximation
closer
244. Exact Value of Velocity at an Instant. The true value /, when the particle is at yj, is the limit
This limit
is
a vector quantity.
is
chord
AB approaches
the tangent as
B approaches
A.
(2) Its magnitude is dsjdt, if s denotes the length of the path measured from some fixed point to the position of the particle. For as the point B approaches A, the chord AB and the arc ap-
AB
proach a
ratio of equality,
so that
dsjcit.
The magnitude
If this is
denoted by
v, its
value
is al-
= dsjdi.
;
AB
ticle,
Hodograph. Let
From
some
to repre-
the position B.
P,
when
FlG. 112.
Through
called the
the ex-
draw a
velocities or
curve.
This
is
mrve of
hodograph of the
motion.
Examples.
particle describes a circle of 2 ft. radius with uniform speed, 1. the whole circumference being described in half a second. Required {a) the speed {U) the values of the average velocity for i/io sec. and for 1/8 sec. (c) the values (both direction and magnitude) of the instantaneous velocity at two instants i/io sec. apart.
;
;
2. A particle describes a circle of radius r with uniform speed v. Determine the magnitude and direction of the average velocity for an interval t. Ans. Its magnitude is (2//') sin (vtl2r). describes A particle a circle of radius r in such a way that 3. s at'\ s being the length of the path described in time /, and a Required () the speed at any time (Jf) the being a constant. average velocity during the interval from t^ to 4
60 cm., and let the length of arc described 4. In Ex. 3, let r Required {a) the speed at the during the first second be 120 cm. end of 2 sec. {b) the average velocity during an interval of o. i sec. after ^:^ 2. ^j. () 48oc.m.-per-sec. (iJ) 478.5 cm. -per-sec
;
5. 6. 7.
What
motion described in Ex. 4. A particle describes any curved path with uniform speed is the form of the hodograph ?
for the
Draw
for the
i.
v.
212
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
2.
Velocity-Increment
and
Acceleration.
of the velocity of
and 4 be represented by the vectors 0' and O'B' respectively (Fig. 113). Then the vector ^'5' For B' is the vela city -increment for the interval from t^ to to produce O' B' (See is the vector which must be added to O'
a moving particle at two instants
t.^.
Art. 22.)
It will
be seen that velocity-increment as thus defined is not the The increment of the speed is
~ length
and
final
0'
A =^ v^v.^,
It is
and
only
when the
increment
and
final velocities
equal in magnitude to v^
is
i\.
247. Acceleration.
the acceleration
just
' '
If
a particle
moving
in a
curved path,
may be
' '
as
in
But since
its
change of velocity
is
is
a vector quantity,
acceleration
and
in
computing
value
In
' '
this
definition
of acceleration,
'
'
Fig. 113.
Consider
velocity
is
first
varying uniformly
by
this is
meant
Thus,
any
different intervals
same
direction
to the intervals.
the vector
A B' (Fig.
A/", and let the velocity-increments during any partial intervals into which A^ may be divided have the direction B' and be proportional in magnitude to the partial intervals. Then the acceleration as above defined has a constant value through-
B')ll^t.
in
When
the velocity
is
not varying
this
MOTION
acceleration
IN A
CURVED PATH.
213
is a variable vector quantity, having a definite magnitude and direction at any instant. The exact meaning of the
value,
may be
best understood
acceleration."
The average
acceleration of a par-
for
magnitude
in
and
direction,
would
value
result
the
increment in the
ment received during the whole inFig. 114. terval by the duration of the interval. \i A' B' (Fig. 114) represents the velocity-increment for
terval
the in-
from
/,
to
t.^
the expression
{^&cX.or A'B")l{t.,
t^)
or
v,)l{t,
O,
final
which
t\
and
;
v.^
denote the
it is
initial
and
of the velocity
v.,
for
The
Thus,
*
t
if
represented by O'A'
Compare
If,
Art. 208.
however, z\ and v^ be regarded as vector symbols representing the initial and final \-aliies of the velocity in direction as well as in magnitude, the. vector 7:2 c'l is the value of the velocity-increment (Art. 22) and
[vector
is
(z'2
e'l)]^^
A)
214
(Fig. 114),
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and the velocity
after the short interval
Athy
O'B', then
(vector A'B')/At
is
The
approxi-
mation
The
true
i is
by
Ai approaches
zero.
That
is,
acceleration
To
determine
this
employed Let O'A' and O'B' (Fig. 11 5) represent the values of the velocity at the beginning and end of A^ respectively, so that vector A'B' denotes
the increment of velocity, the
curve A'B'
approaches
The
limit-
Fig. 115.
A'
\i s' is
the derivative
A'B' measured
it
;
describing
that
is
= ds'jdt.
so that
if
particle
Consider the cnrveA'B' (Fig. 115) to be described by a moving whose position at every instant corresponds to that of the
AB
P represents
the
and the vector O'P' its velocity, P' is the position of the point describing the hodograph or curve Evidently, ds' jdt is the velocity of the point P' Hence A'B' The acceleration of a point describing any path in any tnanner is at every instant equal {in magnitude and direction) to the velocity
any
instant,
. .
The
is
general be said
215
magnitude
in
251. Sudden Change of Velocity. In what precedes it has been assumed that when the velocity changes from one value to another, it passes through a continuous series of intermediate values,
and
quired.
change of velocity a finite interval of time is reconceivable that this condition might be violated, and
that a particle might receive an instantaneous increment of velocity. In case of the motions actually occurring in nature there is no reason
beUeve that instantaneous changes of velocity occur. Sudden changes of velocity do, however, occur and will be treated in another place. (See Chapter XVI.)
to
Examples.
1. A particle describes a circle of radius 2 ft. with a uniform speed such that the entire circumference is described in i sec. Required {a) the velocity-increment for an interval of o. i sec. {b) the average acceleration for the same interval (give its magnitude and the angle
;
its
direction
Ans.
18.
makes with that of the initial velocity). (a) 7.766ft.-per-sec. ((^) 77.66 ft. -per-sec.-per-sec; angle
;
2. A particle describes a circle of radius ;- with uniform speed v. Required {a) the magnitude and direction of the increment received
by the velocity while the particle describes one-fourth of the circumference (3) the magnitude and direction of the average acceleration for the same interval.
;
Ans.
3.
(Jj)
(2i/2/7r)(w7'')' inclined 45 to
initial velocity.
data as in Ex. 2, determine the average acceleration in any finite interval A/. (Give its magnitude and the direction it makes with the initial velocity.)
With
Let (Fig. 116) represent the arc described in time A/. The velocity at the beginning of the interval is represented by a vector O' A\ of length v, perpendicular to the radius the velocity at the end of the interval is represented by a vector O'B', also of length
AB
OA
as well as in magnitude,
regarded as a vector symbol representing the velocity in direction and if Jv is the increment of the vector v in the time Jt, the value of the acceleration may be written
If
z*
is
But the meaning of dv/dt is quite different from that of the same expression when V denotes the speed.
2l6
V,
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
OB.
The
is
velocity-increment
is
thereaccel-
fore vector
eration
A 'B')/Ai.
is
angleA'O'B'
=r (arc
AB)/OA
'
= angle A OB = (vAt)/r;
hence 2V sin {v A.t\2f), length A B' and the average acceleration has the magnitude
^^'^-
"^-
A 'B'jAt =
{2vl!\f) sin
(z;
Ai'/2r).
Its direction is
AB.
4. Taking the result reached in Ex. 3, let the interval At approach the limit zero determine the magnitude and direction of the limitDetermine thus the exact ing value of the average acceleration. value of the acceleration at any instant.
;
approaches the tangent to As At approaches zero, the chord the circle at A, and the direction of the vector 'B' which is perpendicular to the chord AB, approaches AO. Also, since the angle <i=^ A' O'B') approaches zero as A^ approaches zero, the value of the angle in radians may in the hmit replace the sine that is, vAt/2r may replace sin (vAt/2r). Therefore
AB
A OB
limit
[A
'B'/At]
That
is
the actual acceleration at the instant when the particle is at directed toward the center of the circle and has the magnitude
is,
v''/r.
5. What is the value of the acceleration of a particle moving as described in Ex. i ? A7ts. 78.92 ft.-per-sec. -per-sec. toward the center.
the path and the hodograph for the motion described Choosing any point on the path, find the corresponding point P' on the hodograph. If P moves with the moving particle, what is the velocity of P' at any instant ? From the principle stated in Art. 250, that the velocity of P' is equal in magnitude and direc6.
Draw
2.
in
Ex.
speed V
MOTION
IN A
CURVED PATH.
217
3.
2^1. Effect of a Constant Force. The effect of a constant force upon the motion of a body which initially is either at rest or moving
along the
been considered
is
in Arts.
214
and 215.
The
it
during which
acts,
and inversely to the mass of the body. The body has initially a velocity not parallel to the force
force
whose
direction
is
move
along
AB (Fig.
upon by any
point B.
Let
MN
The
some
Fig. 117.
in
magnitude
and direction
particle
is
for a
period A^.
straight path
AB, and
describes
curve i)C
in direction,
The
and
changes
also in magnitude.
Representing the velocity at the beginning of by a vector O' B' (Fig. 117) parallel to AB, and
by
a vector
'
C parallel
to
BC at
tude and direction of this velocity-increment depend upon magnitude and direction of the force, (2) the duration of the A/, and (3) the mass of the particle.
(i)
(i) the
interval
The
the force,
and
magnitude
is
is
of the force.
(2) Its
interval.
magnitude
magnitude
proportional directly to the duration of the proportional inversely to the mass of the
(3) Its
particle.
is
2l8
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
These
principles
may be
tion
A
acts
ment whose
proportional directly
it a velocity -increof the force, and whose magnitude is the force and to the time during which it
and inversely
to the
is
mass of
the particle.
form with that given in Art. 215. But since the discussion was there restricted to the case of rectilinear motion, the velocity-increment was necessarily parallel to the line of motion. This restriction being removed, the proposition is still true,
This proposition
identical in
velocity
and
velocity-incretnent being
The special
ment.
It is
thus seen that the effect of a constant force upon the motion
is
of a particle
initial
ve-
The
velocity-increment
is in
-v,
Jl
to the velocity
for the
same time on
is
same
The
fiyial
initial
velocity
the vector
sum
velocity.
The path of the particle will depend both upon the initial velocity and upon the magnitude and direction of the force. To illustrate this, compare two cases in which the force has the same value while
the
initial
The two
is
cases are
shown
in
Fig. 1x8.
initial
velocity 7\
represented by the
vector
0'A\
. ;
MOTIOX
IN A
CURVED PATH.
2I9
magnitude being much greater in the second case than in the first. force (represented by the vector has the same magnitude and direction in both cases. The mass of the particle is also the
The
MN)
same, so that the values of the velocity-increment in a given time are equal in the two cases The velocity-increment being represented by the vector A' B\ the final velocity w, is given by the vector 0' B'
.
The
the
values of
v.^
in the
two cases
differ
both
in
direction.
initial
The two
allel to v^
tangent at
is
parof
parallel to
first
v.,.
The curvature
the path
Examples.
sec, after which
0. 5 sec.
,
projected horizontally with a velocity of 50 ft. -pen is acted upon by the constant force of gravity. Determine the magnitude and direction of its velocity at the end of
1. is
it
A body
I sec. and 2 sec. [The velocity-increment due to gravity is to be computed as if See Art. 227.] the body fell vertically from rest. 2. A body is projected with a velocity of 50 ft.-per-sec. in a direcDetermine the magtion inclined 40 upward from the horizontal. nitude and direction of the velocity at the end of o. 5 sec. i sec. and
,
2 sec.
Ans. At the end of 2 sec. the velocity is 50 ft.-per-sec, directed 40 downward from the horizontal (very nearly).
body falling vertically at the rate of 30 ft. -per-sec receives 3. a blow in a horizontal direction which, if the body had been at rest, would have given it a velocity of 100 ft.-per-sec. Determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity immediately after the blow.
4. With data of Ex. 3, determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity i sec. after the blow, assuming gravity to be the only force acting on the body. Ans. 1 17.8 ft.-per-sec. inclined 31 56' downward from the hori-
zontal.
253. Equation of Motion for Particle Acted Upon by a Constant Force. The general principle above stated (Art. 252) may be expressed by an equation similar to that given in Art. 216 for the
Let the increment of velocity (vector case of rectilinear motion. represented by Aw, and the force (vector be Fig. 118) A'B'
,
MN,
Fig. 118) by
P.
Then
if
vi is the
mass of the
particle
and A^ the
220
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
P produces
the velocity-increment
is
Az/
= kiP^tjin).
as a vector equation, expressing identity
But
this
must be interpreted
Taking
and time
as in Art. 217 or
k =^
\,
the equation
may
be written
P=
But
A?'; A/,
m{l^vl^.t).
is
the accel-
Hence,
if
acceleration
is
equation
may be
written
P=
so chosen that
/^
inp,
it
or
= Plm.
be assumed that units are
will hereafter
i.
particle
may be
acted upon
by a
mag-
Consider the
effect of
upon the motion of the particle. Let the vector 0' A' (Fig. 114) represent the velocity of the particle at an instant /, and the vector 0' B' the velocity after an interval
A?.
Then The
yJ'5'
is
by the
particle
m
If
(vector A'B'^ji^t.
A/
is
the interval
interval
is
differs little from this value during and the true value of the force at the beginning of the the limit approached by this approximate value as A^
approaches zero.
That
is, if
is
P = limit
Here
\_m (vector
A 'B')IA.t]
= mp.
force
is
P and p must be
in magnitude and in direction. Thus the equation of motion has the same form when the variable as when it is constant.
both
MOTION
IN A
CURVED PATH.
221
255. Resultant of Two or More Forces Acting Simultaneously Upon the Same Particle. Any number of forces acting simultaneously
upon a
upon the motion, to a For the acceleration has at every instant a definite value p, and this same acceleration would result from the action of a single force of magnitude mp, agreeing in direction with/.
single force.
same
effect as several
the
same time
a force equal
to their vector
sum.
truth in case of two
Its
Assuming
any number of
meaning may be explained as follows Let/j be the acceleration due to a force P^ acting alone upon a given particle, and/^ the acceleration due to a force P acting alone upon the same particle. Then if the particle be acted upon by P^ and P.^ at the same time, its acceleration is the vector sum of p^ and p.^ If the particle be acted upon at the same time by a third force P^ which, acting alone, would produce acceleration /j the actual accelAnd similarly for any eration is the vector sum of/j,/.^ and/3.
.
,
number
of forces.
Thus, the acceleration due to the concurrent action of several (i) by determining forces may be computed in either of two ways,
the acceleration due to each acting alone and taking the vector
of these separate accelerations, or (2)
sum
by determining the
acceleration
due
ics,
to a single force equal to the vector sum of the several forces. This principle must be regarded as a fundamental law of Dynamderived from experience and not deducible from any simpler law
or laws.
256. Equation of Motion for Particle Acted Upon by Any Number of Forces. The equation of motion may be written in the
upon the
^^^
particle as
when only a
_
/
is
its
acceleration at
any
instant,
and
P the vector
257.
sum of all forces acting upon the particle at that instant. Remarks on General Equation of Motion. The equation
P =mp
(i)
222
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
thus be called the general equation of motion for a particle acted may be taken to mean any In interpreting it,
may
and/
or
P may mean
due to
their
the acceleration
combined
action.
In either case
it is
to be understood that
P and/
same direction. that unless the units of force, mass, remembered must also be It length and time are related in a certain manner (Art. 217), the equationwiUbe
are vector quantities having the
p_k{Plm\
or
P=k'mp.
unit
The
is
constant
mass
eration.
may be used
;
if
(Art
2 17.)
may
be chosen
arbitrarily,
in
'
such a way as to
make
'
the constant
'
In particular, the
'
of units, de-
may be
employed.
That
is,
in
mp, we may take the pound-force as the unit force, provided the mass be expressed in units, one of which is equal to g If the mass of the body is known in pounds, its value pounds-mass.
in these
P -
new
units
is
Thus,
\i
P^
denotes
{Mlg)p.
employed
unit mass.
The most
precise
Since,
position
on the
two
localities is
the
known.
force which,
upon the
This has
which
its
value
A force
whose value
known
in terms of the
weight of a unit
223
at a given place
the value of
known.
may be expressed in terms of the absolute unit (the acceleration due to gravity) at that place is Thus, a force equal to the weight of pounds-mass at a
certam place
is
equal to
mg
poundals,
if
^ is
gravity at that place, expressed in feet-per-second-per-second. The most accurate method of determining the value 227.)
of
any place
^ at
ef-
known
pendulum of
425.)
Any
' '
as a measurable quantity
must
rest
For
this
reason the general proposition or law of motion stated in Art. 252 IS often regarded as a definition of force rather than as a proposition about forces. (See Art. 260.)
'
259.
tion, as
Law
motion
force to
I.
uniform
in
except in so
may
be compelled by
change that
state.
is
Law
acts.
IL Change of motion
every action there is always an equal and contrary the mutual actions of any two bodies are always equal and oppositely directed.
reaction
;
Law
IIL
To
or,
all
Law
is
This
law of inertia ;
inertia
erty of matter
by
virtue of which a
body cannot
own
256.
state of motion.
II includes in its
Law
meaning the
252-
may be
clearly understood,
is
some explana-
employed by Newton
needed.
as
The word motion is to be understood as meaning what is defined momentum (Art. 312); that is, a quantity proportional directly
mass of a body and
to its velocity at
to the
any
instant.
Change of
* These laws are stated nearly in the language of Kelvin and Tail's "Natural Philosophy," || 244, 251, 261.
224
motion
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
therefore change
of momentum, and is a vector quantity mass and to the change of velocity or velocityincrement. Again, impressed force must be understood to mean, not simply force as the term is now understood and has been used in the foregoing discussions, but a quantity proportional to the force and to Thus, if a force of magnitude the time during which it acts. acts for an interval of time A^ upon a body of mass m, and if l\v repreproportio/ial to the
^v
is
proportional to
in Art.
t^t.
This
is
evidently the
force,
That Law
simultaneously (Art. 255) is not immediately evident from the language in which it is expressed. By Newton, however, the law was
doubtless intended to imply that every force acting
upon a body
produces
the
its effect
combine accord-
some ground
laws of Dynamics.
Whether
this
given in Art. 255. Law III has been stated and explained in Art. 35. In spite of its importance and its simplicity, its true meaning has often been missed.
statement
is
word
action
state-
forces exerted
other.
By Newton
since
its
here omitted,
The law
motion of a single
confined
third law.
But it is of fundamental importance in the analysis of the motions of two or more particles which exert forces upon one another. The importance of the law in Statics has already been seen in Chapter VI.
*,See Kelvin and Tait's "Natural Philosophy,''
t Kelvin
and
254, 257.
225
constant force acting upon a body of mass 40 lbs. for 3 sec. changes its velocity from 20 ft. -per-sec. north to 80 ft. -per-sec. east. Required the magnitude of the force in poundals. A//S. 1099. 2 poundals. 2. If the same force continues to act, what will be the velocity of the body after 3 more sec?
1.
A/is.
particle of 5 lbs. mass at right angles to each other;
3.
6 1. 3
ft.
-per-sec.
S.
75 58' E.
is
acted upon by two constant forces one equal to the weight of i lb., the
single force
What
same
37.9 poundals. In Ex. 3, if the particle has initially a velocity of 20 ft. -persec. in a direction opposite to that of the lesser force, determine its velocity after 2 sec. Ans. 67.3 ft. -per-sec. at angle of 107" 16' with initial velocity.
4.
5.
effect?
particle
whose mass
is
250
gr.
is
stant forces whose directions are inclined to each other at an angle of 60. One force is equal to the weight of the particle, the other is equal to 50,000 dynes. If the velocity at a certain instant is 600
c. m. -per-sec. in a direction bisecting the angle between the determine the velocity 3 sec. later.
forces,
6. 7.
In Ex.
If a
5,
what
single force
may
of 38 lbs. mass describes a circle of 40 ft. diameter at the uniform rate of 30 ft. -per-sec. what is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting upon it at any instant? [Use result of Ex. 4, following Art. 251.]
,
body
8.
A
v
body of mass
ft.
/'
at the
uniform
Required the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting upon it at any instant.
rate of
-per-sec.
260.
Mass.
been
is
In
Laws
of
of
Force and
it
has
tacitly
assumed
be
measurable independently of the other so that either or both may made fundamental in the system of units which we may choose
(Art. 216.)
to adopt.
But when
it
it
is
appears to be impossible to
It
been shown that the second law furnishes a means of defining the unit force in an exact manner when the unit mass has been chosen (Art.
258).
closer analysis
definitions of
both force
and mass
226
Notice
first
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
that
if it is
the action of equal forces, the second law furnishes a definite comLet bodies whose masses are m.^ and m.^ be parison of their masses.
accelerations.
Then
(Art. 253)
'^1
A=
'2
and if p^ and p.^ can be measured, the ratio of the masses is at once known. If a third mass m^ be acted upon by a force equal to P, the ratio of its mass to that of m^ or 111.^ becomes known if its acceleration /.
is
measured.
In
fact,
Th
and
if ;, is
(A Ip2 )"h
'a
(/i
'p>h
Wj
are known.
of any
if it
expressed in terms of
celeration
it
a unit
will
Evidently, however,
the
same magnitude P. The masses of two particles may be compared by comparing the accelerations produced in them by equal forces of any magnitude whatever and two masses may be compared indirectly, by comparing each independently with a third mass, forces of different magnitudes being used in the two comparisons.
;
Now
all
such
direct
whose effects same value of the ratio nijni.,. This if the science based upon these laws is self- consistent. true must be Assuming it to be true, we have a method of defining mass as a measurable magnitude in a consistent and exact manner. equal forces applied But is it possible to define the meaning of without making use of the notion of mass itself? to different bodies The answer to this question is that such a definition is supplied by the equality of action and reaction.* the third law,
'
'
'
'
* Maxwell's
answer
is
may be accomplished by
conceiving the forces applied by means of an elastic string, one end of which is attached to each of two or more bodies in turn. The other end is pulled in such a way that the string elongates by a certain amount which is the same in every case and is kept constant during each experiment. Assuming the
MOTION
IX A
CURVED PATH.
any instant
is
227
The
ticle
acceleration of a particle at
due
to the influ-
upon a parwhich causes acceleration of B is called the "force exerted by A upon B. The third law of motion asserts that A and B influence each other mutually, so that the force exerted by A upon B and the force exerted by B upon A are at every instant equal in
of a particle
The "action"
'
'
magnitude and opposite in direction. Let the masses of the two particles be ;, and m.^. Let that part of the acceleration of A which is due to B he: p^, and let that part of the acceleration oi B which is due to A he p.^. The "force"
exerted by
erted
B
;
by
upon A is then measured by vi^p^ and the force exupon B by la.^p.,. By the third law, these are equal in
,
magnitude
that
is,
'i/i
"'iPi
>
or
VL^, in^
= /, /,
may
tzvo bodies.
Or, in words.
The masses of any two bodies are in the inverse ratio of the accelerations they give each other at any instant. This conception of the meaning of mass and of force, and of the significance of the laws of motion, may be embodied in the following
statements
(i)
:
The The
acceleration of a particle
is
of other particles.
(2)
is
to the vector
sum
caused by
(3)
their
all
The
by reason of
The masses
This
is
a definition of mass.
The
acceleration which
force exerted
due
to another particle
hy B upon A.
This
is
a definition of force.
remain constant, it may be assumed that the magnitude of the force is the same in every case. ("Matter and Motion," Chapter III.) Even if no actual string can be found for which this will be true, this may perhaps still be regarded as a satisfactory method of explaining ideally what is meant by equal forces.
elastic properties of the string to
228
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The
it
first
of these statements
if
is
virtually
Newton's
first
law
for
implies that
is,
ticles (that
from the action of forces) it would have no acceleration. is the law of composition of forces, usually
The second law as regarded as included in Newton's second law. applied to the effect of a single force is included in statements (4)
and
(5).
is
261.
in the
and Bodies.
The
"bodies," have here been applied only to the ideal bodies called
particles.
The
as applying to particles.
sessing finite
These particles have been regarded as posmass while occupying no finite volume. That such a
one of the
It
is,
' '
bodies
'
'
of our experience,
we
are not
applica-
justified in asserting.
bility this abstract
what
To answer
this question
is
which are reached when the theory of the motion of a particle is extended to systems of connected particles. Assuming the acceleration of every particle to be in accordance with Newton's second law as abo\'e explained, and assuming the influence of the particles upon
one another to be in accordance with Newton's third law, it is possible to deduce certain general laws governing the motion of conThese laws are found to describe with nected systems of particles. great accuracy the actual motions of natural bodies.
Moreover, it is immaterial whether a body is regarded as made up of a finite number of particles, each of finite mass, or whether it is regarded as occupying space continuously (Art. 5). If by particle
we understand a portion of matter whose volume and mass are both vanishingly small, the foregoing theory of the motion of a particle may be applied if it be assumed that the force acting upon any particle
To extend
the theory
the laws of motion along the lines of the above works may be consulted " Science of Mechanics,"
:
by Dr. Ernst Mach, English translation byThomas J. McCormack. "Grammar of -Science," by Karl Pearson. "Theoretical Mechanics," by A. E. H. Love.
229
this hypothesis, a
differ
motion of a body of
on
from those resulting from the other assumption. Newton's first and second laws are not intelligible
as applied to a
body
have
it
be assumed that
all
parts of the
body
velocities.
This
is
is,
indeed,
actual occurrence
would move
still
less
general statement be
made
One
that there
is
in
whose motion is accurately described by Newton's first and second laws, if the whole mass be regarded as concentrated at that point and acted upon by forces equal in magnitude and direction to the external forces which are
(the center of mass)
actually applied to the system.
262.
4.
Simultaneous Motions.
Meaning
is
of a particle
The actual motion of Simultaneous Motions. sometimes regarded as the resultant of two or more
Thus, if the total displacement during a given interval is ^i? (Fig. 119), the particle may be regarded as receiving
simultaneously
the displacements
dis-
AC,
given instant
tor
A'B'
may be
is
taneously two
velocities represented
by A'
C C B'
,
And
if
the
actual acceleration at
any
instant
A"
B"
may
two
accelerations represented
230
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Any
may
is
thus be
sum
equal to
__
A'
n,
;(7"
A"
263. Resolution
Process.
Obviously a
;
Into
Simultaneous
have, at
different paths
neither can
"elocities or accelerations.
at
speed, and
the
A'ector.
This
may be
expressed as the
vectors, but
it is
only by an arbitrary
represented
sum
of several
by the
particle at the
same
instant.
May
One case
is
in
which
it
may be advantageous
particle
is
neous motions
that in
which the
more
forces such that the effect of each acting alone admits of simple
determination.
From
is
the law of composition of forces (Art. 255) the vector sum of the accelerations which
would result from the several forces acting singly. Hence these component accelerations may be computed separately and then comThis method may be carried further, and appUed to the bined. computation of the velocity-increment and the displacement due to
the simultaneous action of several forces, constant or variable, during
any
interval.
265. Velocity-Increment
taneously.
Since acceleration
Due
is
ment of
to Several Forces Acting Simulby definition (Art. 247) the increand since, by the law of composition
is
the vector
sum
of the
23I
forces,
would
result
in
any interval
res2ilt
is
the vector
sum of
zuould
from
interval.
If at
if
and
/"^
>
jP,
locity-increments v^,
interval
is
the vector
sum
of
v^,
z',
v,,
266. Displacement
Due
Simultane-
ously.
Since
depends upon the magnitude and direction of its velocity at every instant throughout that interval, the total displacement may be cominto
puted as the vector sum of the displacements due to any components which the actual velocity may be resolved. Thus, suppose a
having
7'
,
particle,
at the
velocity
to be acted
interval
by
a force P.
The
may
be determined
Determine separately (a) the displacement in the time At due to the initial velocity if no force acted, and (3) the displacement in the time At due to the force P acting on
the particle initially at
rest.
The
is
vector
sum
of these displacements
the actual
resultant
displacement.
initial
its
This vector,
position of the position at the
determines
end of the interval. Thus, the displacement due to the initial velocity v is a vector whose direction
is
that of v
\i
and
A^hose length
is z'
At.
Represent
this
by
AB
ticle
(Fig. 122).
BC represents
would receive in the time At if initially at rest and acted upon by the force P, the vector ^ C represents the resultant displacement. The path followed by the particle from A to C is some curve tangent to AB sA A. If two forces P^ and P.^ act upon the particle during the interval At, the total displacement may be computed as the vector sum of
AMC
232
three components
:
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
a component v^ A/ having the direction of the component equal to the displacement of the particle if initially at rest and acted upon by the force /"j alone, and a component equal to the displacement due to P.^ acting alone on the
initial
velocity v^, a
number of
the
Examples.
1.
A
,
particle
after
its
is
per-sec.
which
projected horizontally with a velocity of 20 ft.it is acted upon by no force except gravity.
Determine
sec, 2 sec.
velocity
and
its
position after o.
sec.
o. 2
sec.
o.
Ans. Let v = velocity, ^ = angle between v and the horizontal, = distance from starting point, = angle between r and the horizontal. At the end of 2 v = 67.4 -per-sec. ^ = 72 r= 75.8 ^ = 58-9'.
r
sec.
ft.
,
45',
ft.,
2.
A
it
which
3.
velocity
and
Determine
its
particle
direction incHned
velocity 267.
and
its
projected with a velocity of 100 ft. -per-sec. in a 20 upward from the horizontal. Determine its position after o. i sec. o. 5 sec. 2 sec.
, ,
Relativity of Motion.
The
Thus, in all ordinary practical problems, the earth is regarded as a fixed body, of unchanging dimensions the displace-
be "fixed."
ment and
to
velocity of
any
terrestrial
If
being two points fixed upon the earth, the straight line is its total displacement when the earth is the standard body with reference to which motions are specified. If, however, the rotation of
the earth upon
different value.
ticle at
its
AB
axis
is
are selected.
In the foregoing discussions, and in those that follow unless the contrary
reference
is
explicitly stated,
is
it is
body
of
considered.
When
when
regarded
made up
rules of combination,
233
same standard
body.
268. Motion of a Particle Referred to
In
Two
Different Bodies.
is
is
some
aided by
regarding
referred
the
A
motion being
This
first
illustrated
to another.
AB
motion.
B
;
while the
A"B"
AB being
^"
its
position
A'B' and the ends of the tube describing the straight lines A'A",B'B"
^"
The
is
total
from A'
B"
ment may follow any curve or broken -^ ^ line lying between ri'i?'j9" and ^'^"i?" Fig. 123. If the motion of the particle along the tube from A to j5, and the motion of the tube from A' B' to A"B", both take place uniformly, the actual displacement will be along the vector A'B"; but the same total
.
may
in
occur
in
many
in
other ways.
be observed that
or
two
employed
Thus,
AB {or A'B'
;
while
A"B") is the displacement of the particle with A" (or B'B") is the displacement of the B" is some "fixed" body not specified and
the displacement of the particle with respect to this same ''fixed" Of these three displacements the third is seen to be equal to body.
the vector
sum
of the
first
fixed
' '
reference
body
is
therefore
P moves
in
AB at
moves
is
the direction
A'
A"
the particle
at the point
of the tube
when the tube is at A'B', and if it moves from A tube moves from A'B' to A"B", the actual path
is
to
while the
of the particle
If
this
total
234
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the actual velocity of the particle throughout the motion has the
'^^^"^
(vector A'B")li^t.
is
This
sum
of two components,
(vector B'B")li^t,
(vector AB)ibLt
and
of which the former represents the velocity of the particle with respect to the tube,
and the
actual
'
velocity of the particle {i. e., its velocity with respect to the assumed " fixed " reference body) may be regarded as
'
Hence the
'
'
the resultant
of two
is
its
is
above is useful in many cases in which the velocity and of a particle may easily be estimated with displacement reference to a body which is itself in motion.
analysis like the
An
Examples.
met. long, moves in such a way that 1. A straight tube AB, i every point has a velocity, relative to the earth, of 12 c. m. -per-sec. A particle slides uniformly from in a direction inclined 45 to AB.
Required (a) the velocity of the particle relative to 2) sec. {b) its velocity relative to the earth (c) its total disto the tube placement relative to the earth while it slides from to B. [Give direction as well as magnitude of each of the required vector quan; ;
Bm
tities. ]
2.
hour.
A stream of water flows uniformly at the A boat is rowed in such a way that in
ft.
still
water
its
velocity
would be 5
If
the current, (a) what is its velocity referred to the earth? (b) If the stream is 3,000 ft. wide and the boat starts from one shore, where will it strike the opposite shore ?
3. If, in Ex. 2, the boat is headed up-stream at an angle of 60 with the shore, answer questions (a) and (b). Ans. (a) 2.86 ft.-per-sec, 29 12' up-stream. 1.118 miles (1^) up-stream. 4. In Ex. 2, how must the boat be headed in order to strike the opposite shore as near as possible to the starting point ? Ans. 35 55' up-stream.
5.
Show
that the current does not affect the time of crossing the
stream.
235
straight tube AB, 4. ft. long, rotates about the end 6. at the uniform rate of i revolution per sec. particle slides along toward A at the rate of 10 ft.-per-sec. the tube from Determine the velocity of the particle relative to the earth when it is midway and B. between Ans. If C is the position of the particle, its velocity is 16.06 ft.per-sec. in a direction making the angle 51 30' with CA.
CHAPTER
XV.
I
.
in
a Plane.
The
principles developed
Chapter
XIV apply
to
any motion of a
particle in space.
In con-
sidering the
to consider
restricted case.
270. Coordinates of
restricted to a plane,
its
Position.
motion of a pardcle is may be specified by the values of two quantities. Any two
If the
OX
and
124.
OY
(Fig.
be the
and
moving measured
particle at
parallel to
any
instant.
Then
the distances
OX
by
If
x and y vary.
at
and
are
known
functions of the
P is
known
every
Fig. 125.
Polar coordinates.
point
Let
line
;
the
OX
POX (or
CP (or
P.
As
P moves
PLAX1-.
its
MOTION OF A PARTICLE.
every instant
if
237
position
is
known
at
r and d are
known
functions
of the time.
Any vector
in
components
specified.
and
may each
two components, the directions of resolution being chosen at pleasure. The particular directions chosen will be determined by convenience, depending upon the nature of the problem under consideration. In
nearly every case, however, the two directions of resolution will be
of the velocity
and of the
accel-
their time-derivatives.
If the position
it is
specified
by
its
rectangular coordinates,
usually
The
placement.
If
the particle
moves
is
from
to
AB.
This total
C
Fig. 126.
Let
x,
be the
; ,
coordinates of position at any instant let x^ j', be the coordinates and x., y.^ those of B. Then the axial components of the disof
x^
and
y.,
j',.
The average velocity of 274. Axial Components of Velocity. the exact value AB),At (vector interval At is the particle during the the limit approached is interval the beginning of of the velocity at the
;
by
this
average value as At
x.,
is
made
to
But since
Xi and y,
jj',
238
ponents of vector
are
limit [(x^
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
AB,
AB)/Ai]
^i)/^^]
and
limit [(j,
J,)
A;"].
The
axial
limit [(x,
limit
\_{y.,
x,)/At] = limit [Ax/At] = dxjdl = = jr-component jrO/A/] = limit [^AyjAt] = dyjdt ^^ y = _y-component.
;
.i
point
Let s denote the length of the path measured from some fixed up to the position of the particle v the magnitude of the re;
sultant velocity
respectively.
a, /3
i'
jjz-axes
Then
7'
^ ds/dt = dxjdt
^= dyjdt
(dsldi) cos a
y
zP
V COS
/3
{dsjdf) cos
/3
= x' +y';
/3
tan a - cotan
= y/x.
Let
velocities
Let O' (Fig. 127) be this point, and from O' draw O'X' and O'V parallel respectively to the axes of x and y.
in Art. 245.
The
is
by vector A'B'.
completely
known
we know its
axial
components
CD'
and E'F'. Fig. As found above, r and y are the values of the axial components of the velocity at any instant. Let x^ j/j be the values of these components at the beginning of the inter\'al, and x^, y.^ their values at the end of the interval. Then (Fig. 127)
,
X,
O'C,
r,
- O'E';
x,^
O'D',
y,
=:
O'F'.
239
\\.
CD'
.i\
j''2
.ij
-^
.i\
E' F'
j',,
The
axial
.\\
i'l
The
average accel-
At
The
is
exact
the limit
approached by (vector A'B')IAi as At is made to approach zero (Art. 250). Since the axial components of vector A'B' are equal to iTj x^ and y.^ j\, or Ax and Aj>, whatever the length of the interval, the axial components of limit [(vector A'B')^Af\ are
limit [Ai-/A/]
and
limit [Aj/At].
That
is,
hmit [A.x-/A^]
limit [A_i>/A/']
= ^
i/x dt
d'xdt' d''y,dt''
x
_i'
: ;ir-component := j/-component.
dy^dt -=
and
a', /3'
the angles
its
direction
x-
and
_y-axes re-
spectively.
Then
y
t^n a'
CO tan
/S'
-=
r x.
277.
instant
Hodograph.
is
If the
O'P'
(Fig. 128),
O' being
Y'
F'
The
rectangular
,
coordinates
of
referred to axes
0' X'
O'V,
y, are
and
E'-
x and
are
y.
If the values of
and
known
at
every instant,
mined.
Fig. 128.
240
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
278. Cases Adapted to Polar Coordinates.
There
others,
are certain
when
is
directed
some
it is
conven-
their resolved
and perpendicular
The
atives will
now
be deduced.
279. Components of Velocity Parallel and Perpendicular to Radius Vector. Let a particle move from A to B along the curve
AB
Let
r,
6 be
its
polar coor-
dinates at
any time
t,
and
let
the
initial
i\
,
be
6^
r,
and the
i\
final
values
r.^,
d^.
Then
e,
= BOX.
is
The average
interval
(vector
At
Fig. 129.
is
made
approach zero.
i\,
Take
(vector
OA'
OA
and
let
AB)
(vector
AA') and
(vector A'B).
is
Then
The
latter
pendicular to
radius vector
limit
component has the direction OA and the former is perOA. Hence the component of velocity parallel to the
is
[A'B/At]
[Ar'A/]
--=
dr'dt,
is
These results may also be deduced from the values of the axial components of velocity. Thus, let x, y be the coordinates of position referred to a pair of rectangular axes, the origin
and the
r, 0.
;t:-axis
initial line
(Fig. 130.)
Then
x:=
r cos
= r sin
0.
(i)
241
The
velocity
is
equivalent to a component
V.
in direction
OX
and a
in direction
is
equal to the
x and j
Hence
and perpendic:
OP are
-\-
as follows
sin 6
cos d
=
OP
;
component along
1'
cos d
sin
=^
to
component perpendicular
OP.
Fig. 130.
The
values of
.r
and
j may
r,
pressed in terms of
Thus,
X
1'
fir
---
cos P
r sm a'i^ u
dt
-\-
dt
sm u = dr
.
r cos u
^d0
dt
(2)
dt
dv
dt
= component in direction
OP
to
component perpendicular
dt
OP.
to
280. Components of Acceleration Parallel and Perpendicular Radius Vector. Since the acceleration is equivalent to two com-
ponents,
in
direction
OX
OY,
:
(Fig.
its
131) and
in direction
re-
OP are
6
-\-
as follows
sin
cos 6
in direction
OP
cos 6
X sin 6
perpend, to OP.
242
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
respect to
t.
by
The
PI.
243
and
let
</)
denote
tlie
angular acceleration.
Then
(f)
= Aco/At.
is
If CO
changes
at
eration for the time At, and the instantaneous value of the angular
acceleration
is
the limit of
AwjAt
(^
as
At approaches o
that
is
= dwjdt.
by the angle A^,
If
the point
is
and
if
As
is
As=
hence
dsfdt
rAO;
= r(dd/dt).
every instant equal to the product of
That
is,
is
at
must be expressed
Examples.
any manner. Show that its angular velocity about any point of the circumference is at every instant equal to half its angular velocity about the center. The angular velocities about all points in the circumference are equal.
1.
2.
ft.
A particle
Determine its angular velocity and angular acceleration about a point A, 6 ft. from the path, in two positions (a) when
-per-sec.
is
when
AP
AP
is
inclined 45 to the
=8
/IS.
(a)
Q)
= 4 rad. -per-sec.
P
A
</>
o.
(it) &)
2 rad. -per-sec.
describes a straight line in such a way that its 3. A particle distant A from the path is constant angular velocity about a point and equal to (o. Determine the linear velocity and linear accelera-
any position. denote the angle between Ans. Let the path, 7' the linear velocity and J> the
tion in
T'
AP and a perpendicular to
linear acceleration
;
/ioo
sec^ 0,
then
21m'- tan
6 sec^
6.
282. Relation
of
Path.
The
methods of resolution above considered, though useful in the analysis of particular cases of motion, do not show clearly the relation of velocity and acceleration to the path of the particle. This relation is best shown by resolving along the tangent and normal to the path.
244
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The
values of the components of velocity and acceleration thus determined are independent of any particular system of coordinates of
position.
Normal Components
any position of the
itself, its
of Velocity.
Since
;
particle,
tion of the tangent to the path, its resolved part in the direction of
the tangent
is
the velocity
zero.
of Acceleration.
Let
(Fig. 132) be the position of the particle at an instant t, and the path described during an in-
AB
A
terval
will
Aa
The speed
in the position
v.
be denoted by
From any
velocity
final velocity
A
the average acceleration
tion
at
and
at
respectively.
(vector
^ '5' )/A/;
is
value as t^t
made
to approach zero.
now
A'C,
It
is
'
C'B',
if
the point
is
C=
O'A'
z'.
evident that as
is
A^ approaches zero, the limiting direction of B' is parallel to 0' A ': perpendicular to 0' A' and that of
but O'A'
is
The
tangential
AB
at the
and
limit [(vector
.-J
'C)/A/].
Evidently C'B' is equal in magnitude to the increment received by the speed during the interval A/. Hence
limit
[C'^'/A^]
= limit
[A^'/Ai-]
= dvldt,
245
Draw normals
of intersection.
to the path at
and
/>,
and
let
Lay
off
OC
---
OA.
The
triangles
are similar
hence
A'C'jA'O'
AQAO;
;
A'C
limit
As At approaches
of
and the limiting value R. Again, as At approaches zero, the points C and J) approach coincidence A C and arc AB approach a ratio of equality. Hence
AB at A,
AO
is
Call this
limit
lA CAt]
= limit
limit
[(arc
AB):At]
^---
limit [As/At]
= ds<dt
--
v.
[AT: At]
{v:R)v
v'iR.
are there-
= T'7-^ =
d'sjdt''
= tangential component
-
(ds'dty/R
normal component.
particular system of coordi-
the coordinates.
E.\AMPLES.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant accel1. eration of a particle describing a circle of radius /' with uniform
speed V. [Express the values of the tangential and normal components and determine their resultant. Compare with result of Ex. 4, following Art. 251.]
2.
plane.
The path of a particle is a circle of radius r lying in a vertical The speed is given by the equation t ^= ^] s, where s is
the vertical distance below a horizontal plane through the center of Compute the tangential and normal components of the the circle. acceleration for any value of s. (^''/2)')'\ {r' - .^r^); normal A?is. Tangential component
component
k''s'-r.
246
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
8 ft. -per-sec. when z i ft. and let the 3. In Ex. 2, let w Compute the tangential and normal comradius of the circle be 2 ft. ponents of the acceleration when the particle is in its lowest position.
,
--=
o; normal comoonent ^= 64
ft.-
particle describes a circle 01 50 ft. radius in such a way that 4. Compare the true I6/^ in which s is in feet and t in seconds. s acceleration when t ^= 2 with the average acceleration for the ensuing o. I second.
2.
Motion
in
a Plane Under
A ny
Forces.
a Plane.
is is
If
particle
instant
pendicular to the plane will remain zero, and the path of the particle
will therefore lie in the plane.
286.
Two
Independent Equations
of
Motion.
equation of motion,
P=
The
general
mp,
is
members.
If
both
P and p be
we have
^ w
Hence by
tions
number of
if
true equa-
may be
For
is expressed by any equation obby resolving in a third direction. The form of the two independent equations depends upon the
in specifying
and
also
upon the
directions of resolution.
Terms
of
Rectangular Coordi-
of a particle be specified
by
its
coordinates
X and y,
any pair of fixed rectangular axes in the plane of the motion, and let the two equations of motion be obtained by resolving parallel to the axes. Let the axial components of the resultforce h^ and Y. If ant P several forces act upon the particle,
247
the algebraic
the algebraic
axial
The The
X
Y = my
288. Equations of
If
micPx'df^-,
(0
(2)
m{d''y;dt'').
radius vector.
force
most convenient form by resolving parallel and perpendicular to the Let Pr and P^ be the resolved parts of the resultant
P in
The
become
Pr
Hi'
iff
^ h
d'^
'
(0
Pa ^
'^2
,
drdO
dtdt
df
(2)
r dt\
dt
to
and Normal
Path.
Let
the components of the resultant force P resolved along the tangent and normal to the path at the instantaneous position of the particle Using the values of the rebe denoted by Pt and /* respectively.
in
Pf
(I) (2)
Problems
relating to the
direct,
motion of
may
be classed as inverse or
according as
The most
problems
{a)
important cases
fall
To determine
To determine
when
The
former problem
248
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
291. Direct Problem:
the Motion Is
force
is
Known.
P=
or
by any
If the coor-
components of the velocity, are known components of the acceleration can be de-
termined by differentiation.
Examples.
1 A body describes any curve at a uniform speed determine the resultant force acting upon it. 2. A body of mass 12 lbs. describes the circumference of a circle 12 ft. in diameter at the uniform rate of 100 ft. -per-min. Required the resultant force acting upon it. 3. The position of a particle at any time is given by the equations X a -{- bt'\ J A -\- Bf The mass being ;, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force at the time t. 4. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force at time / if the position is given by the equations x a bt, y ^= A +Bt Ct\ 5. What is the resultant force acting on the particle P in Ex. 3, Art. 281 ? If A rad. -per-sec. and the mass of the 6 ft. o) I
;
^ ^
particle
is
particle
6.
is
5 lbs., determine the value of the resultant force when the 12 ft. from A. Ans. 415.7 poundals.
The path of a particle is an ellipse whose semi-axes are 20 ft. and 10 ft. The mass is 12 lbs. and the speed is uniformly 100 ft.per-min. Determine the resultant force acting on the particle when
at the
axis.
determination of the motion requires the integration of two simultaneous differential equations. These may be of various forms, de-
pending upon the system of coordinates employed and also upon the directions of resolution. Usually it will be found convenient to use one of the three pairs of equations given in Arts. 287, 288, 289.
A problem
ficient initial
conditions are given for the determination of the conto the consideration of
stants of integration.
We
motion.
proceed
some important
cases of plane
249
3.
the axis of
then
X=
P,
5'^
mid'yidP)
= =
P;
0.
(i)
(2)
/^ is gi\eii.
From
{2),
.)'==
= constant Ct + C
and
(3)
.
(4)
remains constant.
Equation (3) expresses the fact that the /-component of the velocity Motion of this character is often called y>arado/tc.
The
may
be determined
if
the
some
instant are
known.
and Magnitude. -^
is
Let
^ f ^ constant
dir/dP=/.
then
Integrating twice,
dx
dt=ft
-f C"\
fs)
x=
\fP
C"t
^ C"
f6)
Equations (4) and (6) give the position at any time, and (3) and (5) Cand C" the velocity at any time, as soon as the constants C,
if
A particle
left
.1
to the action of gravity and the resistance of the air is called In the following discussion the resistance of the air projectile.
is
disregarded.
This problem
is
The
chosen.
must be
vertical
250
horizontal,
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and ^ must replace /!
In order to determine the con;
be specified Let the particle be projected from a certain point which will be taken as
origin of coordinates, the positive di-
rection for
being downward.
Let
its di-
rection making an angle a upward from the plus direction of the j/-axis. Let / be reckoned from the instant
when
Fig. 133.
the particle
is
at the origin
(Fig- 133)-
The
are, as
above found,
;
The
initial
when
o,
X
The
o,
o,
dxdt
= F" sin
o,
a,
dvidt
V cos
C"
a.
C ^ V cos
a,
C=
dxldt
C"
V sin
;
a,
(0
(2)
/;
x^^gt''
Fsin a
t.
(3) (4)
y
(3)
^ V cos a
t
Equations (i) and (2) give the velocity at any time, and equations
position.
(4), the
equa-
y tan
2
a.
V- cos" a
its
(5)
This
is
axis vertical.
The
may be found by
y''
^ \mx.
so
251
this
we put dxjdt
=o
in (i)
we
find t
=
^=
Fsin a)lg;
value of
substituted in (3)
-f
= {V^
{V ?,m
a cos
a)lg.
These are the coordinates of the point at which the curve is horizontal, and this is the vertex of the parabola. For if, with this point as origin, the coordinates of any point of the curve are x' /, we have
,
X^
x'
{V
sin" a)/2^,
in (5)
,,
j =
give
j'' -\-
(V sin
a cos a)/^.
V'
cos'
x',
g
which is the equation of a parabola whose vertex 0' and whose principal diameter is in the axis of;ir'.
is
at the origin
Examples.
1.
will
OV
(This distance
projectile.)
2.
Determine
for
F"
sin 2a)/^.
greatest.
3.
A71S. a 45. Determine the greatest height to which the projectile will rise. Ans. ( sin' a)/2^.
the body is projected with a velocity of 50 ft. -per-sec. in a 4. direction inclined 25 upward from the horizontal, find (a) the equation of the path (d) the position of the highest point reached with reference to the point of projection (r) the range and (d) the position and velocity at the end of 4 sec. from the instant of projection.
If
; ;
;
Prove that the same range will result from two different values How are these two values related ? A7ts. They are complementary. 6. A particle is projected from a point A with a velocity V. What must be the direction of projection in order that it may pass through is inclined at angle 6 to the horizon a point B such that the Hne ? and the distance angle between J^and horizontal, its value is given Ans. If a
5.
of
a.
AB =
(2a
AB
by the equation
sin
61)
= sin +
6*
(ga
cos' 0)/2
V
great as
Show
ga{i
is
impossible unless
V'^ is at least as
+
A
sin 6) 1 2.
particle is to be projected from a given point in such a way 7. as to pass through a point 50 ft. higher than the point of projection
252
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
What
is
What is the least allowable speed of proit. the corresponding direction of projection ? 52 14'. Ans. 63.4 ft.-per-sec. a
V=
upon a
zero.
particle
is
also equal to
The
velocity
and direction.*
Statics has
been de-
Dynamics which
Thus,
in
made
use of the
any system of concurrent forces is a force equal to their vector sum. The same principle was used in dealAll the methods of combining ing with concurrent forces in Part I. and resolving concurrent forces which have been developed in Statics
principle that the resultant of
be noticed that the principle of the parallelogram (or triis the foundation of the methods of combining
in
concurrent forces, has not been proved, but has been assumed as a
298. Equilibrium
in equilibrium
if
their
system of forces applied to a particle is combined action produces no effect upon the
The general condition of equilibrium for motion of the particle. any set of forces is, therefore, that their resultant is zero. This does not imply that the particle is at rest but that its acceleration is zero and its \'elocity uniform in magnitude and direction. This result is included in the meaning of the general equation of motion (Art.
;
256), as of course
* This
is
it
should be.
upon by no
line at a
forces, or
is
zero,
moves
in a straight
uniform rate. This principle has been assumed in the deduction of the general equation of motion, which must of course include the principle
itself.
253
4.
Central Force.
Force.
point
A force which
many
Upon by Central
a center of attracis
is
is
The
fixed point
is
tion or a center
directed toward
We
give
by the
differential equations,
and polar coordinates. Let the center of force be taken as Rectangular coordinates. origin of coordinates, and let jV (Fig. 134) be the position of the If the resultant force is an attraction of magparticle at the time /.
nitude P,
we have
X=. Pcosd
The equations
in
which
(i)
(2)
r''
Take the center of force as pole, and choose Polar coordinates. forces and accelerations parallel and perResolving line. initial any pendicular to the radius vector, the equations of motion given in Art.
288 become
''-^^rf\=-P-.
dP
\dt]
(3)
^i^(.-^Uo.
r dt\ dt
In the important case treated in the next Article
to
(4)
it is
convenient
and
300. Force Varying Directly as the Distance From a Fixed When the central force varies directly as the distance from Point.
254
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Let k denote the attraction per unit mass at unit distance from kr, and equations (i) and (2) of Art. 299 the center; then Pjm
become
d'xldf
= -kx;
(5) (6)
dy/di'=kj
Each
of these equations
is
identical in
form with equation (i) of Art. and they may be integrated separately by the method there employed. Four constants of integration will be in229,
troduced.
values,
let
initial
condi-
tions
be assumed
At a
origin,
is
in
the axis of
at a distance
a from the
to the
t
and
moving
parallel
axis of
with velocity
initial
V.
Let
be
reckoned from
stated as follows
this
:
instant.
Then
the
conditions
may be
When
:=
o,
)'
o, i:
o, J'
V.
Integrating equation (5) as in Art. 229, and determining the conx a, there results o when x
(7)
Integrating again (Art. 229), and determining the constant from the condition that
(i).
a, the result
.
is
= a cos
ik'^t).
(8)
Integrating equation (6) and determining the constant by the condition that y :^ when jj/ o,
y^
if
{dyjdty
V^
- ky =
kib^
j/^),
(9)
b'^\s
kH
= sm~\ylb) sin-'(o),
255
that
o.
Taking
sine of each
^ o when
sin {k^'t)
yjb.
The
/-direction
values of
t.
is moving in when t ^^ o, because it is evident that r is The equation may therefore be written
if
the particle
the positive
for small
= b sin
[k^'t).
(id)
Equations (8) and (ro) give the position, and (7} and (9) the velocity, at every instant.
If the force is repulsive, the equations of momust be changed by the substitution of a minus quantity for k. The above solution holds mathematically for this case, but involves This may be avoided by integrating the equations by imaginaries. If initial conditions are assumed the method employed in Art. 230. as in the above solution of the case of attraction, the values of x and
Repulsive force.
tion
^^''^
x=ia(e'''''
e-^^'');
(11)
_
y=
In these equations
^bie^'^t
_ g-A^/y
Vl}/ k.
(12)
Examples.
eliminating t between equations (8) and (10) that an ellipse whose principal diameters lie in the coordinate Determine the values of the principal semi-diameters. axes. Prove 2. Determine the time of describing the whole ellipse. that this depends upon the intensity of the force (/. e. its value at a given distance from the center), and is independent of the initial con1.
Show by
is
the path
ditions.
3.
What
4.
bola.
show
is
an hyper-
Re301. Central Force Varying According to Any Law. turning to the general case of motion under a force directed toward a fixed point, certain general principles may be deduced which hold
without restricting the law of variation of the torce. Using polar coordinates and resolving along and perpendicular to
the radius vector, the equations of motion are (Art. 299J
256
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
dt'
\dt]
ii^(.^^)
r dt\ dt\
0.
(2)
Here
is
To determine
the motion
these equations
must be integrated. must be a known function of one or more of the variables r, 6, t. In the most important case / is a function of r only. One important result may, however, be obtained for any case of motion under a
central force.
From
equation
(2),
multiplying
by
;-
r'
^ = constant.
/z
3)
dt
To
134,
radius vector, in
let
NOX =
direction
In time
denote the area swept over by the Thus, in Fig. position. ^= r, be the position of the particle at time /, 6 and let JIN be a portion of the path, described in the
ON
A/N.
Then
A
At
let
= area J ION.
move
to
the particle
N'
the increments of
and
are
Ad
Approximately,
= angle NON',
or
to
AA
AA^At
= area NON'
AA=^^r'A6,
In the hmit, as A;*
that
is,
\r\AdAn.
is
is
made
exact
r\deidt)
Equation (3)
=
2
2{dAldt).
may
therefore be written
dA !dt
The
ticle,
/z/
^ constant.
is
(4)
quantity dAjdt
may
anv
The
;
last
ity is
constant
and
cases of
motion of a particle
directed
257
and
t^
A^~- A^
That
is
is,
-= \h(t,
t,).
The constant h is the double areal velocity. Its value is known any case if the velocity in some one position is known in magnitude and direction. Thus, at a certain instant let the distance from the center of force be a, and let the resolved part of the velocity at
in
The
instant
is
P^/2,
and therefore h
^ aV
The law
is
As applied
to the
sun, equation (4) expresses Kepler's law that the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times.
only
when
of central force.
For use in the treatment of certain problems, equation (i) takes more convenient form if a new variable, n ijr, be introduced
instead of
r.
This
is
accomplished as follows
From
equation (3)
'^
= hu\ =
I
dt
Also, differentiating the equation r
i/?<,
...
,dii
(5)
dr
~'
~dt
~ l?Yt ^ ^ ^''~deVt ~
value
liir).
du
diidO
dd
its
Again,
^/V__
'df'~'^
d ldii\ _ ~~
Jt\d~e]
d'^udO _ _ ^ 'dF'lft^ ~
^'
;
'"
df''
d'^r/dt'^ in (i),
we have
.
finally
^ liHi^'tA ^
d'^u
hhi\
(6)
de'
Equations (5) and (6) may be used instead of (i) and (2). To determine the law of variation of the force when the path is If the polar equation of the path is given, d'ltldO' may be given.
found by
the force
differentiation.
By
substituting
its
may be determined
17
as a function of
u or
r.
258
theoretical mechanics.
Examples.
Show that a particle cannot describe a straight line under a 1 force directed toward or from a fixed point not in the path.
[Applying the above method of determining the law of force, it appear that /" o. ] 2. If the orbit is a circle passing through the center of force, show that the force varies inversely as the fifth power of the distance.
will
which
describes a conic section under the action of a force always directed towai'd a focus. Show that the force varies inversely as the square of the distance.
3.
is
A particle
case of motion under a central force is that in which the force varies inversely as the square of the distance from In this case it is most convenient to employ equathe fixed point.
tions (5)
and
then Pjin
= klr' = ku',
and
k = dhi
This,
"
...
(7)
f=^hu\
at
tions of motion.
....
= ^
(8)
The path
equation (7).
results
of the particle
may
To
accomplish
this,
^_ _
in Art. 229, the first integration gives
Proceeding as
'If ---^
and the second,
s-
=
k
Csin (^
-|-
a).
Here
initial
conditions.
= - +
Csin
(61
a).
(10)
259
is
The form
let
a conic section,
its
To
simplify
form,
a be determined from the condition that when 6 o, r is equal to a, and the velocity is perpendicular to the radius vector. The last condition makes dr dt, dii dt and dudQ all zero when ^ From (lo), o.
C and
]'=
d6]
C^cosH^
a).
Hence
the condition
du d6
sin
i.
a when
6^0,
Iv
The equation
//
of the path
is
therefore
=
k,
cos p
+ ,.
li^'ak
and semi-
parameter 1^
dinates
the focus being at the pole of the system of coorin the initial line.
an ellipse
a parabola
h'jak
/i'jak
k^iiik
<
2
2
2.
if if
=
>
an hyperbola
initial position, it is
is if
seen
the
initial
a parabola
greater, the
if it is less
than
an
ellipse
and
orbit
is
an hyperbola.
To
V denote the V
;
velocity
when
= a and ^ ^
V'^ik,
f"-'
The double
<^ 2k a
areal velocity
relations
;
hence
Ji^jak
=a
for ellipse
J'"'
^
>
2k a
2k ill
for parabola
V^
for hyperbola.
26o
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Examples.
1. body moves under the action of a central force which varies At a certain instant it is lo inversely as the square of the distance. of attraction and moving at right angles to the ft. from the center In this position the force radius vector at the rate of 5 ft.-per-sec. Write the equation of the path, is 10 poundals per pound of mass. and determine whether it is an ellipse, a parabola or an hyperbola.
2. l{ v is the velocity of the particle when at a distance rfrom the center of attraction, show that the path is an ellipse, a parabola or an hyperbola, according as i''^ is less than, equal to, or greater than 2k/r this result being independent of the direction of v.
;
Prove that z''' 2k/r is constant versely as the square of the distance.
3.
when
4. Integrate equation (6), Art. 301, for the case in force varies inversely as the cube of the distance.
which the
5.
Constrained Motion.
303.
is
Meaning
of Constrained
if
said to be constrained
while the forces which must act in order that the motion form to those conditions are not specified.
may
con-
A
moves
is
either at rest or
manner
is
is
motion.
Another case
that of a
body
in
sliding
on an inclined plane
which
is
either at rest or
moving
a given manner.
The laws of motion and the general equations deduced from thfm, in any of the forms given in the foregoing discussions, may be applied in the solution of problems in constrained motion. The constraint is always produced by the action of forces. The feature which distinguishes constrained motion is that certain of the forces are not given directly, but are given indirectly by specifying their effect ufon the motion. Such forces are called constraining forces.
304. General Method.-In dealing with a case of constrained motion of a particle, we are to apply the general differential equa-
being introduced as unknown In addition there will be one or more equations expressing the conditions which are to be imposed upon the motion. If rectangular coordinates are used, w? have (a)
quantities.
26
.
= !ny =
A',
(l)
(2)
Y,
in
which
X and
Y involve
;
the
unknown
known forces and (d) certain equations of condition which may involve any or all of the quantities x, v, a r, x, y. The only case which will here be considered is that in which the path is assigned. The equation of condition is then of the form
as the
t,
,
fix, _r)
0.
...
(3)
its
motion
be considered.
Smooth Inclined Plane Under Gravity. Let a body of mass m pounds be placed upon a smooth plane surThe forces acting upon face, inclined to the horizontal at an angle a.
305. Motion on a
its weight and the pressure exby the body which it touches. The former is mg poundals vertically downward, and the latter is perpendicular to the plane but of unknown magnitude
it
are
erted
(say
N poundals).
body
to pass
The force
is
called
the
it
surface, for
The motion is thus the bodies separate. " constrained" to follow the plane. It will be assumed also that the
motion
is
is
the figure.
let
downward along
mx
my
tion (2)
^=
mg sin
(i)
a.
.
^ N ing cos
(2)
is
o.
o,
so that
o,
equa(3)
N mg cos a :=
to
262
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Comparing equation
(i) with the equation of
motion
for a
body
falling vertically,
it is
may
be applied to the present case by substituting g sin a for g. The three cases in which the initial velocity is zero, down the
plane,
306. Motion on a
Rough Plane Under Gravity. If the plane is among the forces entering the equaWhile the body is sliding, the force of friction is
;
equal to y^N,
fj,
being the coefficient of friction (Art. 129) the direcTaking axes as in Fig. is opposite to the sliding.
motion are
mx
The
latter
= mg ^ N my
sin
y^N
7tig
cos a.
...
.
. . . . .
(i) (2)
equation becomes
because of the
(3)
o.
X
The
= gisin a
equation
/u.
cos a).
(4)
integration of equation (4) gives results agreeing with those y cos a) ior g. This
applies
in If
down
the plane.
up the plane the direction of the force fiN must be reversed. If ;r is still
taken as positive
gives the equation
downward along
the
up the plane
YTng
Fig. 136.
It
= g(sm a +
down
is
/a
/x
cos a).
(5)
should be noticed
that, in
the case
of motion
will increase
member
a,
of (4)
is
positive or negative.
sin
that in which
cos a =^
o,
or
= tan
o.
263
move
uniformly
down
the plane.
is
impossible.
Examples.
1.
body
20.
slides
down
far
inclination to the
first 2 sec. after
horizon
2.
is
How
slides
does
a
move during
the
Aiis.
22
ft.
A body
down
ft.
smooth plane whose inclination to the the velocity when it reaches a position 12 of rest? Ans. 27.8 ft. -per-sec.
is
body
whose
down
is
What
is
is
its
velocity after
distance
vertical projection
lit
Show
5. A body is projected up a smooth plane inclined 30 to the horizon with a velocity of 200 cm. -per-sec. What is its velocity
after
moving 40 cm.?
When
will
it
come
to rest,
and when
will it
it is
;
body
is
whose
inclination
a.
when
will
it
plane return
it
rise
Prove that
will
vertically
same speed.
7. Solve Ex. being 10.
assuming the plane rough, the angle of friction Ans. 11.4 ft.
ft.
8. A body is projected with a velocity of 20 plane whose inclination is 25^, the coefficient of Determine the position and velocity after 2 sec.
-per-sec.
down
friction
being 0.4.
Ans. 43.9
9.
ft.
23.9
ft.
-per-sec.
In Ex.
8, if /i
o. 5,
when
will
the
10.
In Ex.
8, if
is
In Ex. 8, let the direction of the initial velocity be reversed, and let the angle of friction be 25. Determine the motion. Ans. The body will come to rest after 0.73 sec. and will remain
11.
at rest.
12.
body
is
placed at rest on a rough plane, and the inclinaIf the coefficient increased until sliding begins. what is the angle of incipient sliding?
is
'
264
13.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
A A
30.
body
body
,
is
must be
14.
satisfied in
is
projected up an inclined plane. What condition order that it may slide down after coming to rest?
zon
ft.
is
-per-sec.
The angle of friction is 20. If the initial velocity is 20 (a) when will the body come to rest, (d) when will it
return to the initial position, and (c) with what velocity will it pass through the initial position ? Ans. (a) At end of 0.70 sec. (d) 1.47 sec. after coming to rest,
(c)
9.52
15.
ft.
-per-sec.
A A
body
is
projected on a horizontal plane with a velocity of rest after 6 sec. What is the degree of
stone thrown horizontally on a sheet of ice with a velocity 16. of 120 ft. -per-sec. comes to rest after sHding 1,400 ft. Assuming the coefficient of friction to be independent of the velocity, determine Ajts. 0.16. its value.
17. Write the equations of motion of a body sliding on a smooth inclined plane, under the action of no force except gravity and the pressure of the plane, assuming that the motion is not confined to a Show that the path is a parabola. vertical plane.
18. In the case described in Ex. 17, show that the motion is given by equations like those deduced in Art. 295 for a projectile, with the substitution of sin a for g, a being the inclination of the plane to the horizon.
307. Motion of a
in
which a particle is constrained to move in a given plane curve amU now be considered. To fix the ideas, let the particle be a bead
sliding
1
forces act-
/
jp
'
This
'
ypT\^
/'a-.
iL
;
T"
pressure
is
" passive
resistance
/' \y ^~\
L:
(Art. 41);
sist
the wire.
S'^''^
The
FiG. 137.
is
Let
N represent
Two
unknown normal
all
pressure,
regarded as positive
(See ig. 137.) Let Q denote the resultant of the bead except the normal pressure iV.
265
any
two directions.
Two
be given.
(i) Resolution
of rectangular axes,
alongfixed rectang^ilar axes. Choosing any pair kt denote the angle between the tangent to the
x.
Then
6,
the normal pressure makes with and with the j-axis the angle B (Fig.
The
axial
components of
N sin
But
if
of the path,
point, sin
= dyjds,
cos
~- dx:ds
therefore
;
Nidyids) = -t'-component of N
N^dxjds) =jj/-component of iV.
Let X',
and
A',
Y the axial
on the bead
X = A" N^dylds)
Y =^
N{dxlds).
m{d-yjdt')
(i)
(2)
These two equations, together with the equation of the path, serve
determine the motion. normal. Let Qt and Qn rep(2) Resolution along tangent and of Q then if forces components normal and tangential resent the and normal to the tangent the along resolved be and acceleration
to
Qt;
(3) (4)
^N + Qn.
to
and
(2),
and
may be
used, as
most convenient.
the
If
308.
Q be
direction.
266
the ^-axis
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
taken
is
If the force
tions
become
vS)
(6)
An
important result
may
equations, irre-
Multiplying (5) by
dx and
dt
(6)
results
m\
\dt
df
dt
mgdx,
df
-I
or
if 7' is
Adtl
+
li^
"{] Adt]
=^
= g^ +
+
integral
constant,
2gx
constant,
the speed.
limits i\
Taking the
v.^
between
limits x^
and x^
for
X,
and
and
for v,
6','
v^
if
= ig{x^ X^) =
body
Ex.
is
i,
2gh,
is
falls
changes from
to
j',
Comparing
freely
Art. 227,
it is
seen that
the
same
as
if it
had
fallen
vertical distance
The
circle.
becomes
and acted upon by no forces except gravity and the force is called a simple pendulum. pedulum exists only ideally. An actual pendulum conSuch a suspended a bar body by or string of a possessing weight. sists The motion of any actual pendulum, if frictional resistances be neglected,
exerted by the rod or string,
is
the
same
as that of
some simple pendulum, so that the discussion pendulum is of practical value as well as theoret-
267
So long as the string remains tense must be a circle with the point of suspension as center and the force exerted by the string upon the particle is directed toward
the path
;
the center.
Let
tion occupied
by the
particle
during
its
motion, and
stant.
6,
B
OA
and
I.
Also
let
A OB by m de-
The only
particle
ing
upon the
its
weight, a
magnitude mg, directed downward. Let s denote the length of the arc AB then s Id. (Both 6 and s will be negative if the particle passes to the left oi A.) Equations (5) and (6) of Art. 308 are now applicable but it will be better to resolve along the tangent and normal to the path. The
force of
;
equations thus take the forms (3) and (4) (Art. 307).
the direction of the tangent,
!n{d''sldt'')
Resolving
in
r=
mg-s\nO\
6.
(7)
and resolving
in the direction
BO,
m(v'll)
= N mg cos
=
(g: I) smd.
is
(8)
Since s
= 16,
(7)
may
be written
(9)
d'Oldf
The
(8)
N may be
known.
This would
in-
The complete
tegration of (9) will not be shown, since it involves an elliptic integral. One integration, however, may readily be performed, and the value
of
N determined.
(
If
is
small in comparison
(J. e., if
small), a complete
approximate
practically correct.
(9)
Mutiplying both members of equation ) Exact partial solution. I by dd and integrating, there results
\{,d6idty
(^//) cos e
c.
268
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
C, let
To determine
in its
is
at rest
highest position
then
C=
{gjl)
becomes
(deidtf
2(^//)(cos e
is
cos
(id)
The
velocity in
any position
therefore
.
= KdO^dt) = 1/2^/ (cos 6 cos a). (11) substituting the value The value of N may now be determined by
V
of v" in (8).
That
is,
^],
^V
= mgi2, cos 6
;
cos a).
(12)
to re-
s/l,
and equation
(7)
becomes
d''s/dt'^-(g/l)s.
Multiplying by 2(ds/dt)dt and
integrating,
(13)
(dsidty
= (gl/)(a'-s').
is
(14)
Here
may be
Vgil
s
= dsiy
a''
s'-
^ o when ^
t
o,
tVgll=
Taking
sine of each
J
sin-'(.f/a)
sin-'(o).
member and
reducing,*
.
= sin (^l/^//).
(15)
This result is identical in form with that found in Art. 229 for the motion of a particle in a straight line under a central attractive force The motion of a simple pendulum varying directly as the distance.
when
*
the range
It will
is
small, is thus a
harmonic
oscillation.
of integration leave
prefi.xed
be noticed that the conditions assumed in determining constants it uncertain whether the plus or the minus sign should be to the second member of (15). If it be further assumed that s is plus
t (i. e., t
is
direction through
A when = o),
moving
in the positive
See Art.
229.
269
and of
oscillation.
If (T
and
Fig.
39)
C to
C to
ticle is
or
a.
C to Cis called a vibration, while the passage from C and back to C called an oscillation. The at C as often as s and at C as often as j = While s changes from a to sin (t^ g I)
is
C or
pai'-
a,
changes from
TT.
+1
to
^i, and
t]
of one \'ibration
ttI
lo-,
is 2
(16)
7"
is
Seconds pendjihun.
that vibrates
A
=
Fig. 139
seconds pendulum
Its
one
length
may
if^
is
known
thus,
if
7"
Determination of g. By determining the time of vibration of a pendulum of known length, the value of g may be determined from
equation (16).
i,
giir'.
Examples.
1.
What
is
the value of
at
^ is
the length of the seconds pendulum at a place where 32.2 ft. -per-sec. -per. -sec.
2. If ^1 and ^2 3-re the values of g at the surface of the earth and an elevation of h ft. above the surface respectively, what is the relation between g^ and g.^ ? Ans. li P^ and P.^ are the values of the earth's attraction upon the body in the two positions, the law of gravitation (Art. 176) gives the proportion pjp_^ (7? hy:R''.
Or, since
7^,,/',
= gjg^,
3. If//! is small compared with 7?, show that the result of Ex. ihjR). reduces approximately to the form ^^ =^i(i
4. If 7\ and T., are the times of vibration of the same pendulum two places of which the second is k ft. higher than the first, what Show that this relation is approxis the relation between T^ and T^l T.,(i imately expressed by the equation T^ ^^/7?).
at
the last result may be used in determining the difference of elevation between two points in the same neighborhood, the same pendulum being swung in the two places.
5.
Show how
6. If TV, is the number of vibrations of a pendulum in any time at a certain place, and ^V, the number of vibrations of the same pendulum in an equal time at a place k ft. higher, show that, approximately,
270
7.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
At
sea-level a pendulum beats seconds. At the top of a mounbeats 86,360 times in 24 hours. What is the height of the
tain
it
mountain ?
8. Determine roughly a value of g by swinging a weight suspended by a string. 9. A body whose mass is i lb. is suspended from a fixed point by a string 12 ft. long. The string is swung to a position 60 from the vertical and the body released. Determine the velocity when the body is in its lowest position also when 2 ft. above its lowest
;
position.
positions specified
in
determine the tension in the string in each of the also in the initial position. Alls. Tension in lowest position is twice the weight of the body highest position, half the weight of the body.
ID.
9,
;
;
In Ex.
Two bodies A and B are connected by a flexible, inextensible which passes o\'er a smooth pulley C. The body A is vertically below C and rests on a horizontal plane. The body B is held on a level with C, the string being tight, and is then allowed to fall under the action of gravity. How far will it fall before A leaves the
II.
string
floor?
= A CB.
>
Ans. Let
3wz',
;,
ni be the masses oi
the instant
and
respectively,
If 7
when
is
lifted,
cos 6
= tn/yn'.
and
let
will
not be
lifted.
If
v, its
acceleration
at
every instant
and
is
equal to
v'/r.
Therefore, from
forces acting
upon the
par-
the center.
Let A (Fig. 140) be the particle, and suppose it to be attached to an inextensible string A O, of which the end
O
Fig. 140.
is
If the
particle
be projected
in a direction at
right angles to
AO
with a velocity
v,
and
tions
if
upon it except that due to the string, the equaof motion obtained by resolving along the tangent and normal
no force
acts
m{dvldt)
o,
m(v^h-)
T;
27
T being the force exerted upon the particle by the string. The first equation shows that the speed v remains constant the second gives the value of T. The string thus exerts upon the particle a force
;
whose direction
is tHv''lr.
is
By
OA.
The
its
string sustains a
; ,
whose value
uniform throughout
length
exert upon each other forces which are equal and opposite (Art. 43), each being equal to imi'^jr. The peg is pulled by the string in the
direction
OA
in
inv'^jr.
The
may be
expressed
terms of
If
its
of the circle.
= rw, and
7>w ''jr
= inrw'.
Examples.
1
A
may
body
it
string
which
rate
lbs. mass is swung in a circle of 2 ft. radius by a capable of sustaining 2 lbs. against gravity. At what move without breaking the string ?
of 2
is
Ans. About 8
2.
ft.
-per-sec.
of 250,000 lbs. mass describes a curve of 2,000 ft. radius at the rate of 30 miles-per-hour. What is the resultant force acting upon it ? What horizontal pressure does it exert upon the rail ? Ans. Resultant force := 7, 520 lbs. toward the center.
A locomotive
m describes a curve of radius r with Determine the resultant force acting on the locomotive, (d) Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant pressure between the track and the locomotive, (c) What should be the difference in elevation of the rails in order that there shall be no tendency of the locomotive to slide laterally? Ans. (a) The resultant force acting upon the locomotive is a force mv ''Ir directed toward the center of the curve. This resultant a downward force mg (the weight is made up of two components, {b) of the body) and the supporting force exerted by the track, This supporting force assumes such magnitude and direction that, when combined with the weight, it gives the resultant tnv'lr toward Hence its magnitude is the center.
3.
locomotive of mass
(a)
speed
V.
force.
upon the peg is sometimes called the "centrifugal" seems better, however, to reserve this term for another use, in connection with problems in relative motion.
It
272
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
(;7'Vr)^
imgf
= m\
;
Qv'Irf -^ g';
and its inclination to the vertical is tan~'('i'7''^)- {c) The pressure between the rails and the locomotive should be normal to the surface determined by the tops of the rails hence this surface should make \vith the horizontal the angle whose tangent is v'^jrg. If the horizontal distance between centers of rails is a, the outer rail should be
higher than the inner by
v'^a'gr.
horizontal platform rotates about a vertical axis at the uni4. body of 20 lbs. mass rests form rate of 6 revolutions per min. upon the platform at a point 16 ft. from the axis of rotation, {a) What is the resultant force acting upon the body ? {b) Of what ac(f) How great must be the tual forces is this resultant composed? coefficient of friction to prevent the body from sliding ? Ans. {a) 126.3 poundals toward the axis of rotation, (b) The actual forces are the weight (20^ poundals) and the pressure of the supporting platform. The normal component of this pressure is 20^ poundals upward, the tangential component is 126.3 poundals toward the, axis of rotation, (c) The coefficient of friction must be at least
26.
5.
3/20^ In Ex.
o. 196.
4, if
is o. 5,
how
far
from the
ft.
axis
may
6.
body be placed without sliding? In Ex. 4, if the body rests upon a smooth
the
Atis. 40.8
what must
is
In Ex.
it
4, if
the
body is suspended by a string from a support what direction will the string assume, and what
will swing directly away from incHned 11 6' to the vertical.
tension will
the
a.xis
sustain?
is
The
platform rotates about a vertical axis with uniform angular 8. velocity ta. body distant x from the axis is placed on a smooth surface whose inclination is such that the body rests without sliding. Show that the surface is inclined to the horizontal at an angle whose tangent is xw^ g. The surface slopes directly toward the axis.
9. Using the result of Ex. 8, show that a smooth surface upon which a body would rest wherever placed must be a surface generated by a parabola which rotates with the platform and whose prin-
cipal
diameter
lies in
are the coordinates of a section of the surface by a plane containing the axis of rotation, the origin being at the point in which the axis pierces the surface, the result of Ex. 8 gives
If X,
dyjdx
Integrating,
10.
= =
{ai^lg^x.
{w''j 2g)x''
Two
which
string
bodies, each of 5 lbs. mass, are connected by an elastic passes through a straight tube 3 ft. long and by its
273
tension holds the bodies against the ends of the tube. The system rotates uniformly about a vertical axis perpendicular to the axis of the tube at its middle point. The natural length of the string is such that a pull equal to the weight of 2 lbs. is required to stretch it to the length of the tube. What is the pressure of each body against the tube when the system is making 10 revolutions per minute?
32.2 ft.-per-sec.-per-sec. Ans. 56.2 poundals or 1.75 pounds-force. 11. Let the system described in Ex. 10 rotate about a vertical axis 6 ins. from the middle point of the tube. Determine the pressure of each body against the tube. US. The body nearer the axis presses against the tube with a force of 58.9 poundals the other with a force of 53.4 poundals.
(Take
g=
axis of rotation being as described in Ex. 10, suppose the angular velocity gradually to increase. When will the bodies cease to press against the tube ? Ans. When the angular velocity reaches 2.93 rad. -per-sec.
12. 13. If the axis of rotation is located as in Ex. 11, and the angular velocity gradually increases, which body will leave the tube first? When this occurs, what will be the pressure of the other body on the
tube?
body
the angular velocity reaches 2.54 rad. -per-sec. the will cease to press against the tube. The pressure of the other against the tube will then be equal to half the tension in the string or 32. 2 poundals.
A71S.
2
ft.
When
suspended from a fixed point by an inextensible force except its weight and the pull of If a is the length of the the string describes a horizontal circle. string, d the angle it makes with the vertical, the angular velocity, T the tension in the string, and in the mass of the particle, show that cos 6 inao)'. glaai\ T 15. In Ex. 14 let the mass of the particle be i kilogr. and the If the number of revolutions per minute length of the string i met. (Assume^ =981 C. G. S. units.) is 40, determine 9 and T. 1.788 kilo56 (nearly) Ans. 6* 7=1.755 X 10" dynes
14.
particle
upon by no
grams-weight.
311. Effect of the Earth's Rotation
of Bodies.
pull
Upon Apparent Weights by the weight of a body is meant the gravitational of the earth upon it, the apparent weight differs from the true
If
weight because of the earth's rotation. Let Fig. 141 represent a meridian of the earth,
polar diameter and
NS being
the
B
X
The form
of the
meridian
is
known
18
cm. and
27-^
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
6.378
10
exaggerated.
cm., very nearly. In Fig. 141 the ellipticity is greatly If the earth were spherical and of uniform density, or
at the surface
of density varying only with the distance from the center, the attraction
upon
body
(Art. 183).
AH'
and let P' denote the magnitude of the attraction upon a body of mass m. To fix the ideas, suppose the body to be suspended by a string attached to a spring balance, and let /"be the supporting force If the body were in equilibrium, P as measured by the balance.
AC
G QE
Fig. 141.
But since the body moves with and the supporting tension such a magnitude that the resultant of P and P' is just sufficient to maintain the actual motion of the body.
daily rotation, the string assumes such a direction
Let r
= radius of
circle
described
by body,
a>
= angular
The
^'elocity
AD and the
magnitude
to
mrco''.
Q may
is
known
constant and r
is
EFG,
The
as
in
which
to
AD.
value of
;
computed
triangle
above
to AC, and determined by experiment Q may be and P' may then be determined by solving the
,
EF\^
parallel to
AH' FG
EG
P is
EFG.
force
The
to the
"apparent" weight of
275
at
direction
is
(i. e.,
water).
The angle
<^
between
It will
A C and
is
is
very
EFG
is
also very
difference
assuming this to be true, the value of the angle and of the between and P' may be determined to a close approximation in the following simple form
angle
EFG =
(i) (2)
Here
/S is
expressed
in radians.
Examples.
1.
sec.
2.
The time of one revolution of the earth is 86,164 mean solar Determine the value of o), the angular velocity, in rad.-per-sec. Ans. log ft) 0.00007292. 5.8628 10; Determine the linear velocity of a body at sea level at the
ft)
equator, using the value of the equatorial radius given above. 10* c.m.-per-sec. Ans. 4.65
3.
weight of a body of //i gr. at the equator. Ans. For a body at the equator P, P' and Q are all parallel, and Also, Q P' mv'lr, in which 7/ 4.65 X 10* (Ex. Q. Therefore Q 6.378 X lol 2), ;3. 39i; dynes. 4. If the value of ^ at sea-level at the equator is 978.1 c.m.-persec. -per-sec, what would be its value if not modified by the earth's
P=
^
?
rotation
The
is
value
If
of^as
i.
acceleration,
at rest.
e.,
is
experimentally determined is the "apparent" the acceleration on the assumption that the earth the apparent weight of a body of mass ;,
g=
Pjm.
to the true attraction
is
P' jm.
981.5. 978.1 3.4 Qlm the earth should rotate seventeen times as rapidly as at present, its form and density being unchanged, the apparent weights of bodies at the equator would be reduced nearly to zero. 6. In latitude 40 the radius of a parallel of latitude is very nearly 4.894 X 10* cm. The value of^at sea-level is about 980.2 C. G. S. Determine the influence of the earth's rotation on the magunits.
5.
= PIm +
if
Show
that
276
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Using C. G.
10,
ft)
which r ^ 894 = 2.6o2z dynes. 2.6o2ni cos 40 = i.g93. Q cos hence P' = 982. 2w; and equaFrom the given data, P ^= tion (i) gives 4o)/982.2 I3={Q sin 4>)IP' = (2.602 = 0.1703 radians =
S. units, the
value of
Q
;
is
mrai', in
is,
4.
io~^ (Ex.
i)
that
4> "-==
<)9i0.2m,
sin
5'
51".
The
rotation of the earth thus changes the magnitude of C. G. S. units, and its direction by 5' 51".
by 1.993
7. If the length of a degree of longitude is 78,849 meters in latitude 45, and the value of ^ 980. 6 C. G. S. units, compute the effect of the earth's rotation on the value of ^.
8.
If
latitude
^ w'
<^ is
the diminution of the apparent weight of a given body in w, and if the value of at the equator is w' show that cos^ ^ (very nearly).
CHAPTER
MOMENTUM AND
312.
I.
XVI.
IMPULSE.
Rectilinear Motion.
Momentum.
The
its
moinentiim of a particle
is
a quantity
mass and to its velocity. Momentum is sometimes called mass-velocity. It is often regarded as a measure of the "quantity of motion " of the particle.
proportional directly to
The numerical
value of the
momentum
of a particle of given
mass moving with given velocity depends upon the unit in terms of which it is expressed. Unit of momentum. For most purposes it is convenient to choose as the unit the momentum possessed by a body of unit mass having the unit velocity. The unit thus defined depends upon the units of mass, length and time. If these are the pound, the foot and the second, respectively, the unit of momentum is that of a body of one pound mass having a velocity of one foot-per-second. Other units would be the momentum of a particle of one gram mass having a velocity of one centimeter-per-second and that of a kilogram mass having a velocity of one meter-per-second. In the discussion which immediately follows, it is to be understood that the motion is restricted to a straight line.
313. Increment of
varies, so also
Momentum.
v^ at the
If the velocity If
of a particle
;,
the mass
is
and
if
the
and
^^^^^
314. Acceleration of
momentum
acceleration
(or increment of
unit time)
is
called the
of m-om.entum..
Az",
an interval of time
If
the acceleration of
;(At'/A/).
neous value of the acceleration of momentum case its value is mp, p being the acceleration.
often called mass-acceleration.
midvjdi).
this
For
reason
is
278
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The most convenient unit of mass-acceleration is that of a unit mass having unit acceleration. With the usual British units of mass, length and time, this unit would be the mass-acceleration of a poundmass having an acceleration of one foot-per-second-per-second. If the gram and centimeter are taken as units of mass and length respectively, the unit mass-acceleration is that possessed by a particle of one gram mass having an acceleration of one centimeter-per-second-per-second.
The impulse of a force 315. Impulse of a Constant Force. which remains constant in direction and magnitude is a quantity proportional direcdy to the force and to the time during which it acts. The numerical value of the impulse of a given
time depends upon the unit
in
Unit impulse.
terms of which
expressed.
act-
equal to the
In the
it is the impulse of a dyne acting These may be designated as a poundal-second zxA a dyne-second x&'!,Y>^c\\viy. If the engineers' system (Art. 218) is em-
a second.
for
In the C. G. S. system
a second.
is
the pound-second.
its
Impulse
is
direction
and
Restricting the
in a straight line
upon a
all
particle
moving
which
is
may be
distinguished by signs
and
these
Force.
If the
throughout a certain
interval, its
computed by
let it
integration.
at any instant t be denoted by P, and be required to determine the value of the impulse during the interval from t t' to t =^ t" Let this interval be divided into small intervals each equal, to A^ and let /"^ /^^ denote
the values of
the beginnings of the successive small intervals. Represent the required impulse by P' then, approximately,
;
P at
F = P,^t ^
P,Lt
(I)
; ,
MOMENTUM AND
The approximation
to
is
IMPULSE.
279
If
A/
is
taken.
A/
is
made
approach zero, the number of terms in the series (i) increases indefinitely while the value of every term approaches zero. The sum in general approaches a definite value which is the exact value of the
impulse P'
That
is,
^'-^limit[/^,A/
+ P,A/+
= i:'"pdt.
''
(2)
When
is
p=
agreeing with Art. 315.
Pit"
t'\
Momentum.
is
If;;/ is
the
mass of a
line of
particle acted
upon by a
single force
P directed
along the
P=
in{dvidf).
/'
and
t"
Pdt= m{v--v\
.7/;
(3)
t'
('
and
t" re-
spectively.
The
the force
;;;-;:''
first
member
of equation (3)
/'
is
to t"
member,
its
is
at the instant
and thv"
value
for
v'^
.
is
momentum
t'
to t"
Tlie imptdse
given interval
is
of a force acting alone upon any particle during a equal to the change of momentum of the particle
during that
interval.
upon the
particle, its
change of
momentum
is
and
sum
several forces.
Examples.
pounds falls vertically under the the impulse of the force during t {b) What increment of momentum is received during t sec? sec. Ans. {ci) mgt poundal-seconds. {b) mgt momentum-units.
I.
is
action of gravity.
Compute
28o
2.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
In Ex. I, if the velocity?
initially an upward velocity v^, what Ans. gt v^ ft.-per-sec. downward. mass projected downward with a velocity of 12 lbs. is 3. A body of 20 ft.-per-sec. Write the equation of impulse and momentum for an interval of 3 sec. and thus determine the velocity at the end of
is its final
body has
the interval.
=^ kt, t being particle of mass is acted upon by a force 4. Compute the impulse the time reckoned from a definite instant. ^'. Write the equation of imduring the interval from ^ o to / pulse and momentum, assuming the velocity to be zero when t =: o. Explain the meaning of k.
5.
In Ex.
sec.
=z
10,000 dynes when 500 gr., and let 4, let 7n Write the equation of impulse and momentum and deter/
P^
^8
sec.
Ans. v"
318. Dimensions of Impulse and
= 640 c.m.-per-sec.
Momentum.
If units
of force,
is
all
chosen
impulse
momentum
of dimensions
ML/T.
But with such an arbitrary choice of units the equation of impulse and momentum must contain a constant, taking the form
(impulse)
(constant)
(change of momentum),
system of units
dimensions ML/T.
The equation
impulse ;= change of
thus becomes homogeneous, both
momentum
319.
Sudden Impulse.
is
called a
time of action
infinitesimal, the
impulse
is
The
is
very great.
unless
For
P t^t
is
P acting for
very small,
be very small
if
A/
is
is
very great.
finite
An
MOMENTUM AND
force
is infinite impulses which are do not come within our experience.
;
IMPULSE.
strictly
28
instantaneous therefore
are,
There
however, cases
in
in
which a very great force acts for a very short time, and
the subject of observation.
which the
made
Such impulses may often be regarded as instantaneous without important error. Thus, when two bodies come into collision, the force which each exerts upon the other cannot usually
be determined, since
its
time of action
is
very short
but the
its effect
may sometimes
be found by observing
The effect of a sudden imsudden change in the momentum of the body If this change of momentum can be observed, the value acted upon. of the impulse can be determined, although the force and the time both remain unknown.
320. Effect of a Sudden Impulse.
is
pulse
to produce a
In considering
magnitude
the effect of
usually be
ball struck
forces of ordinary
may
by a
bat.
gravity (a
downward
But
during the short time of action of the force due to the blow, the
in
change of momentum due to the force of gravity is exceedingly small comparison with that due to the blow, and may be neglected withIf
an impulse
is
strictly instantaneous,
any
finite force
whatever
may be neglected in comparison with the force the momentum due to a finite force during an
infinitesimal.
be the force of an instantaneous impulse which produces a change of momentum, and let Q he a. finite force acting on the Then the equation of impulse and particle at the time of the blow.
Let
finite
momentum
is
J
If
Pdt
t'
Qdt=
'^
t'
m(v"
v).
approaches zero, the
blow, /"
t' ,
second term of the first member Hence Q may be neglected in estimating the change of
during the blow.
momentum
282
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Examples.
moving horizontally at the rate of struck by a bat. Immediately after the blow the ball moves at the rate of 1 50 ft. -per-sec. in the direction opposite to What is the value of the impulse ? that of its original motion.
1.
ball
weighing 5)^
,
oz.,
100
ft.
-per-sec.
is
2. In Ex. I, if the time occupied by the blow is o. i sec, what is the average value of the force (z. e. what constant force would produce the same change of momentum in the same time) ? A71S. 820.3 poundals.
,
3.
What would
at rest
4.
and acted upon by the same impulse as in Ex. If the same blow were applied to a body of i
its
lb.
mass, what
would be
effect?
When
at the place
whose magnitude increases from zero up to some maximum value and then decreases to zero again. The time of action of these forces is so small that their magnitudes cannot be measured therefore in dealing with cases of- impact the discussion must usually be limited to a consideration of the total changes of velocity and moforce
;
If
is
in the
same
If
may have
is
the impact
indirect.
The
further be
bodies are of such symmetrical form that the forces acting be-
along their
common
line
Elastic
lision,
and inelastic
is
bodies.
As the
col-
each
distorted
by the
pressure, the
amount
of distortion in-
If the bodies are wholly inelastic, permanent, the bodies showing no tendency to re-
move on
each
common
they are
elastic,
tends to regain
original form,
and
in
The method
of
MOMENTUM AND
323.
IMPULSE.
283
Law
of
1{
and
forces exerted
by them
upon each other are at every instant equal and opposite, in accordance with Newton's third law (Art. 259). It follows that the impulses
of these forces during any time are equal and opposite.
the
Also, since
momentum due
to
an impulse
is
the two bodies receive during any part of the time of the collision equal and opposite quantities of momentum. thus reach the fol-
We
lowing principle
T/ie collision
7iientt{in.
of
Let
ni^
ni.^
v.^ their velocities before collision and 7'/, any instant during or after the collision. (In any particular case algebraic signs must be given to the velocities in
the
t',/
same
their velocities at
line of
motion.)
is
Before
momentum
its
at
a succeeding instant
value
is
By
the above principle these two quantities are equal, giving the
,
equation ^
m^Vy
is
-\-
m{Li.^
= WjWj
-)-
m^v^.
t'/
(i)
Equation (i)
but
if
and
v.[
may be
V
;
For example, suppose there is which the two bodies have the same that instant ?',' =^ ?',/ v, and (i) becomes
or
(;,5:'i
+
If
in,v^)l{m^
vi.,).
(2)
line
in the
same
;
are inelastic, they will not separate after collision (Art. 322)
in this case equation (2) will give their
hence
common
pact.
Examples.
sphere of mass 10 lbs. moving at the rate of 20 ft.-per-sec. I. overtakes a sphere of mass 20 lbs. moving at the rate of 10 it. -per
284
sec.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
If the bodies are inelastic,
what
is
lision?
2. In Ex. I, what during the collision?
is
Ans.
i2,y3 ft.-per-sec.
positive,
S.
momentum of the first body changes from 200 to 133^^ (F. P. units), while the momentum of the second changes from 200
266^.
first
is
body
is
66^
to
+66^
poundal-
moving at the rate of 700 3. A body whose mass is 5 kilogr. Both bodies are m. -per-sec. meets a body whose mass is 4 kilogr. Required (a) the original velocity brought to rest by the collision. of the second body, and (1^) the value of the impulse acting on each body during the collision. Ans. (a) {d) Two opposite impulses each 875 cm. -per-sec.
c.
,
equal to
4.
3.
10" dyne-seconds.
bodies collide while moving in opposite directions with Show that their velocities inversely proportional to their masses. If they total momentum is zero at every instant during the collision. are inelastic, what is their common velocity at the end of the collision
?
Two
5. A body of 2 lbs. strikes a body of 50 lbs. which is at rest on Immediately after the collision the a smooth horizontal surface. heavier body has a velocity of 4 ft. -per-sec. while the lighter body is at rest. What was the initial velocity of the lighter body ? What total impulse acted on each body?
2-oz. bullet passes through a block of wood weighing 4 velocity being thereby changed from 1,100 ft.-per-sec. to 950 ft. -per-sec. With what velocity does the block move after the impact, if free ? What is the value of the total impulse acting on
lbs.,
its
the block
8.
block weighing 10
in
it.
What
lbs. is struck by a 2-oz. bullet which After the collision the block has a velocity was the original velocity of the bullet?
Ans. 810
325. Elastic Impact.
straight line collide,
it is
ft.-pei'-sec.
If
two
elastic
same
convenient to divide the time occupied by the impact into two parts the time Zj up to the instant of greatest
distortion of the bodies,
At the
velocity.
resisting
MOMENTUM AND
IMPULSE.
285
their approach, after that instant the forces are urging their separation.
Let the whole impulse which either body exerts upon the other be divided into two parts
the part acting during T^ being called the impulse of compression, and the part acting during T.^ the impulse of restitution. Let the ratio of the latter impulse to the former be called
;
e.
Let m^ and
locities
m.^
i\
and
v^ their ve-
before collision
;
their
common
ni^
greatest compression
same body during restitution. The imm^ are then eQ. Q and Before the colConsider either body, as that whose mass is m^
lision its
it is
momentum
;
is
m{u^
compression
m-iV
at the
end of the
collision
m^u^.
Hence
(increase of
(
momentum due
"
is
to impulse
Q)
eQ)
"
"
"
"
Or, since
the impulse
momentum
it
produces,
(3)
(4)
Eliminating
Q and
v^
= (i
+
-|-
e)v
et\.
(;i?7,
m{i'^\{ni^
?,,)
which substituted
m^
In like manner,
-d +^)(^',-^g.
m.^
(5)
by writing equations
similar to (3)
and (4)
for
may
v.,
find
v:
^^-(i
^)(^.
- ^0-
(6)
Equations (5) and (6) determine the velocities of the bodies after The value of the impulse Q and of the total impulse they separate.
286
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
(i -\- e)Q may be determined from the equation of impulse and momentum. Thus, the total change of momentum of the body m^ is Equating this to the total impulse, and using the value m^iv^ z\). of v^ given by equation (5),
(I
+e)Q
Q
=-
"''''''
(I
e)(v, -V.,);
(7)
=
;i
,
^-^{v^
-|-
v^.
(8)
m.
Equation (7) gives the whole impulse acting upon the body m^. Assuming z'j greater than v.^ the impulse is negative. Equation (8)
states that the
is
independent of e, that
elasticity.
The
impact e
value of e
o,
For
inelastic
{m{o^
mp^)l{in^ -f
;,),
\,
(9)
as in Art. 324.
For perfect
restitution, e
2111.,
(z'l
and
. .
V,);
(10)
m^
-\-
m.,
2m
(v.
v,').
(11)
m^
-\-
;j
Examples.
1.
100
ft.
lbs.,
-per-sec.
With
lbs. leaped into a boat whose mass was to move from rest with a velocity of 10 what velocity did the man leap ?
At/s.
2.
i6}(
ft.
-per-sec.
water when a person weighing 1 50 lbs. starts to move from one end to the other. If he moves 10 ft. relatively to the boat, how far does he move relatively to the water, and how far does the boat move ?
lbs. is at rest in still
By Newton's third law, the force urging the man forward is at every instant equal to the force urging the boat in the opposite direction. Let be the magnitude of each of these forces in poundals then at any instant the acceleration of the boat is PI200 and that of the man P/150 in the opposite direction. The velocities due to these accelerations in any time are in the same ratio as the accelerations and the distances described by the two bodies in the same time are proportional to their velocities, and therefore to their accelerations. The boat thus moves three-fourths as far as the man.
MOMENTUM AXD
3.
IMPULSE.
287
line col-
Two
lide.
velocities.
body whose mass is 5 kilogr., mo\ing at the rate of 4. 5 niet.-per-sec, coUides with a body whose mass is 4 kilogr., moving the same direction at the rate of 4 met.-per-sec. The coefficient of restitution is 0.5. Determine the velocities of the bodies after
5.
Aiis. 4V3 met. -per-sec. and 47,, met.-per-sec. In Ex. 4, compute the value of the impulse acting during compression, and of the total impulse during the collision.
they separate.
Ans. (2/9)
6.
10"
dyne-seconds; (1/3)
10" dyne-seconds.
ft. -per-sec. rate of 5 ft. -persec. After the collision the velocity of the former body is 6 ft. -persec. Required (a) the final velocity of the second body (/') the coefficient of restitution. Ans. (a) 8 >^ ft. -per-sec. (1^) yi.
;
body weighing 10 lbs., moving at the rate overtakes a body weighing 18 lbs., moving at the
of 12
7.
Prove
that, in
any case of direct collision, the two bodies after impact to their
before impact
8.
is
lbs. is discharged while lying on a smooth horizontal plane. The weight of the bullet is 2 oz. and it leaves the barrel with a velocity of 1,400 ft. -per-sec. What will be the velocity of the " kick "? What is the impulse of the kick ?
rifle
weighing 3
9.
If
the discharge of a
rifle
?
were
strictly instantaneous,
what
man weighing 165 lbs. leaps from a boat weighing 124 into a boat weighing 150 lbs. If the boats are initially at rest, compare their velocities after the leap.
lbs.
326.
2.
Motion
III
Any
Patli.
Momentum
particle has
its
a Vector Quantity.
The
momentum
of a
moving
tional directly to
been defined (Art. 312) as a quantity propormass and to its velocity. When motion in a
it
cun'ed path
as
fore
is
studied,
direction as well
magnitude
of
is
momentum.
Momentum
in fact,
a vector quantity,
its
Moment of Momentum or Angular Momentum. The momentum of a particle is at every instant associated with a certain
327.
position.
It
is,
its
posi-
288
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
directed.
The
position-line
is
any point
into the
motion
is
is
momentum
perpendicular distance of
its
position-line
Moment
of
momentum
also called
angular momentum..
328. Increment of
Momentum.
If the velocity of
a particle
the
momentum.
magnitude or in both) so also does The increm.ent of mom,entnni for any interval may be found in the manner already described for finding increment of velocity
(Art.
246)
(Art. 22).
Thus,
let
AB
(Fig. 142) be
by a
particle during
any
interval,
t^j
A
B.
and
v^ its
magnitude
in the position
At
a.t
the
momentum
has the value nn\, directed along the tangent to the path
its
at
value
is 7nz>.^
Representing these values by vectors OA' and OB', the vector A'B' represents the increment of momentum for the given interval.
B.
Momentum a Vector Quantity. The acof m.omentum (or mass-acceleration') of a particle is a vector quantity proportional directly to the mass and to the accel329. Acceleration of
celeration
eration.
Its
direction
is
it
does not, in
general, coincide with that of the tangent to the path at the position
of the particle.
Acceleration of
momentum
momentum
defined as
may be
defined concisely as
is
momentum-increment per unit time; just as acceleration velocity-increment per unit time (Art. 247).
Examples.
ft.-per-sec. in
a particle of mass 18 lbs. changes from 12 a certain direction to 20 ft.-per-sec. in the opposite direction, what is the momentum-increment?
I.
If the velocity of
Ans. 576 F.
P. S. units.
MOMENTUM AND
IMPULSE.
289
2. If the velocity of a particle of 18 lbs. mass changes from 12 ft.-per-sec. in a horizontal direction to 20 ft. -per-sec. vertically down-
ward, what are the magnitude and direction of the momentum-increment? Arzs. 419.9 F. P. S. units 30 58' from vertical.
;
60 lbs. mass describes a circle of 6 ft. radius at the uniform rate of 120 revolutions per minute. Determine the magnitude and direction of the increment of momentum received by
3.
particle of
the particle while making (a) one-sixth of a revolution, of a revolution, and (c) one-half a revolution.
(/;)
one-fourth
Ans. (a) 4,524 F. P. S. units. 20 gr. mass describes a circle of 90 cm. radius with a uniform speed of 250 cm. -per-sec. Determine completely (in magnitude and direction) ^-he increment of momentum in onehundredth of a second. Ans. Its magnitude is 139 C. G. S. units, nearly.
4.
particle of
5. With the data of E.\'. 4, compute the moment of the momentum {a) about the center of the circle (b) about a point in the circumference, (f) Compute the greatest and least values of the moment
;
of the
momentum
Impulse
about a point 40
of
cm. from
the center.
330.
If
the
must be taken into account in computing the impulse. Impulse must now be regarded as a vector quantity, its direction being determined by that of the force and the impulses for successive intervals of time are to be combined by vector addition. Thus, if P^ and P.' denote the values of the impulse for two successive intervals A/'j and A^.^, the impulse for the entire interval A;*; + A/^ is the vector sum of P^ and P.[. If the force has a constant direction during the interval A/, and a constant but different direction during the interval A/,, P^ and P.^ may each But if the direction of the be computed as in Art. 315 or Art. 316. continuously, different method must be employed. force varies a required compute the impulse of any variable force Let it be to Let the interval be subdivided the interval from t' to t". /'during values of P at the A/j, A/^, and let the parts into small Approximate beginnings of these intervals be P^, P.,,
;
,
in direction of P.^
P.At^
in direction of P.^
total
impulse F'
is
290
vector
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
sum
of /"jA/j, PJ^t,,
be made as close as desired by taking the intervals sufficiently small. The exact value of the total impulse is the limit approached by the
A4
all
approach zero.
That
is,
= limit [PAi, +
+
PAh +
J.
will
is
pulse
acts.
sign denotes vector addition.* be noticed that the above process of computing imindependent of the path of the particle upon which the force
far as its
magnitude and direction are concerned, impulse depends only \x^or\ force and time.
So
of impulse and
rectilinear
and Momentum. The prinmomentum, already stated for the case of motion, may now be extended to the case of a particle de-
scribing
any path under the action of a force varying in any manner. The impulse of the force during any interval is equal in magnitude and direction to the change of viomentwn of the particle during
This statement includes the proposition given
in Art. 317.
that interval.
The
equation ^
impulse
= momentum-increment
.
rectilinear
must now be interpreted as a vector equation in the motion it reduces to an algebraic equation.
;
special case of
compo-
case in which the path of the parricle and the line of action of the
t,
and
let
Plor the
interval
from
to t'\
ponents of P'
Then
A"
*
r Xdt;
=f
Ydt.
in the language of differentials, Let /"be a vector symbol denoting the value of the force at the instant /, and /" a vector symbol denoting the value of the required impulse. Then dP' dt. This is a differential equation, both members of which are
as follows
=P
vectors.
MOMENTUM AND
From the values of may be determined.
A'''
IMPULSE.
291
and
V the
333- Algebraic Equations of Impulse and Momentum. In the case of plane motion the vector equation of impulse and momentum is equivalent to two algebraic equations. These may be
differential equations of
motion (Art.
=-
7;ix,
uiv-
Multiplying each through by dt and integrating between limits /' and t", the values of .r and y at the limits being x' x" and y', y"
,
respectively,
r Xdt = mix"
The
first
x')
C Ydt
== ;(>"
y').
members
impulse of the resultant force acting upon the particle (Art. 332); the second members are the axial components of the increment of
momentum
of
the particle.
tlie
proposition that
resultant impulse
of momentnm.
The
general principle
Art. 331
is
path of the particle nor to the position in space of the line of action
of the force.
plete explanation of the principle of impulse
The momentum
at
This
may be
regarded as
its
position-line,
momentum
A
whose
force acting
upon a
of action.
The impulse
of a force
whose
line
of action remains
constant
may therefore
is
position-line
the line of
action of the force varies, the elementary impulse Pdt corresponding to an elementary time dt may be regarded as a localized vector
292
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
335. Angular Impulse.
instant
t,
any
Let /-" denote the value of a force at and P' the impulse during the time from t' to t" Choosing any origin of moments O (Fig. 143), let a be the perpendicular distance from O to the line of action P.
Then Pa
is
the
moment
of the
A/
let
force
is
applied
in
move
AB.
The change
P will
be small
will
the impulse
be approxi-
O
Fig. 143.
and the moment of the impulse will differ little from Pa At. Let the whole time from t' to t" be
;
A^
Aa^
and
P^,
a.,,
let
P.,,
the values of
,
at the
arm a being
a^
The sum
P^a^At^
P.fl^
A4
moment
of the
intervals
may
resultant impulse
Taking the
moment
^
Pyz, A/,
+
O
is
= r'" Pa
\
dt.
If the
moment
represented by G,
G
and the moment of the impulse
= Pa,
is
equal to
Gdt.
The moment
called
its
is
also
336. Position-Line of Resultant Impulse. It has been pointed out that the impulse of a force during an elementary time dt may be
of any length
may
variable. The resultant impulse for an interval be regarded as localized in a line whose position
MOMENTUM AND
is
IMPULSE.
293
given point.
determined by the value of the moment of the impulse about any Its distance a' from the origin of moments must satisfy
the equation
P'c
It will
.c
Pa
dt.
tude, direction
interval
is
be observed that the method of determining the magniand position-line of the resultant impulse for any
essentially the
same
direction
and
acting in the
same plane on a
is
rigid
body
(Art. 97).
sum
of the components
sum
of
moments
of the components.
any
interval
sum
of the
re-
sum
of the
moments
of the
fur-
elementary impulses.
ther illustrated.
The
may be
(Fig. 144) represent the path described by the particle Let during the time from t' to t" Let the whole time be subdivided
.
AB
A^
let
A^
a, b,
;
be
and
Pi,
/'j,
be the corre-
sponding values of the force, their directions being as shown in the figure
t^tx
A/^
P.,^t.,
line ',
Let these be combined as if they were forces their resultant is equal N' to their vector sum and acts along some determinate line, as M' resultant impulse and this resultant is an approximate value of the The exact value is the limit approached by the approximate P' are all made to approach zero. The line value as AA A/,
;
M'N'
is
the position-line
P'
294
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Examples.
is projected horizontally with a given velocity V. upon by no force except gravity. Determine acted after which it is the position-line of the resultant impulse of the force of gravity
1.
particle
Let the particle be projected from the point A (Fig. 145) in the be the path described during the time T. AB', and let Let this time be subdivided into a number of small intervals, each equal to At, and let A, a, b, be the positions of the particle at the If is beginnings of these intervals. the mass, -the force is equal to ing and
AB
Applying the constant in direction. described, the required impulse is approximately equal to the resultant of a series of equal impulses
is
method above
mgAt
acting
in
hnes
AA\
aa'
bb'
successive distances between these lines are equal, since the Fig. 145. hence horizontal velocity is constant the position-line of the resultant is midway between the extreme The limiting position of this line, as At is made to lines AA' gg' approach zero, bisects AB' The magnitude of the resultant impulse is obviously nigT.
; , .
.
The
2.
In Ex.
integration,
I, compute the moment of the resultant impulse by and thus verify the above result.
The
by it, during any element of time, are not only equal in magnitude and direction but have the same position-line. From this it follows And since this that their moments about any origin are equal.
equality holds for every element of time,
it
whatever.
That
is,
The angular impulse of a force for any interval of time is equal angular momentiLm produced by the force during that time. This equation and the two given in Art. 332 are the complete algebraic expression of the principle of impulse and momentum as applied to the motion of a particle in a plane. To summarize The proposition that impulse is equal to change of momentum, in its full meaning, must be understood to express equality of magnitude, agreement in direction, and identity of position-lines. In case of plane motion, this is completely expressed by three algebraic
to the
:
MOMENTUM AND
equations.
IMPULSE.
in
295
Two
of these
any two
and
from
itial
Momentum. Let
by a
.
curved,?
scribed
t'
to t" Let v' and v" be the inand final values of the velocity. From any point draw vectors OB', representing the initial and final values of the momentum. These vec-
OA
path at
and
,
at
OA'
= 7nv'
ment of
resented
OB' = inv" The incremomentum 711 Av is then repby the vector A'B' To apply
.
respectively,
and
position-line of the
momentum-increment must
The
at -J
;
AB
the
position-line of the
momentum-increment
Let P' be the resultant impulse applied to the particle during the
interval
;
then P'
^^-
m Av,
and
its
position-Hne
is
CD,
parallel
to
A'B'.
In the foregoing explanation of the general principle of impulse
and momentum,
forces acting
it
is
upon a
in Art. 336.
As
applied to
momentum,
of
momentum
received by a par-
ticle
forces acting
during successive intervals are to be combined as if they were on a rigid body in order to produce the momentumin reality to defini-
increment for the entire interval. These are arbitrary assumptions, amounting
tions of resultant impulse
They
are ex-
tremely useful because they make it possible to state very concisely These the full meaning of the equation of impulse and momentum.
definitions are especially valuable
when
is
ex-
to rigid bodies.
296
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Examples.
1.
In Ex.
I,
Art. 336,
show
B bi-
sects
[Apply the general principle of impulse and momentum, using the result already found in the solution of the example.]
.
AB'
2. \i A and B are any two points in the path of a projectile, show by the principle of impulse and momentum that the tangents at A and B and the vertical line bisecting the chord AB intersect in [The position-line of the resultant impulse may be located a point.
as in Ex.
3.
i,
Art. 336.]
Show
that the
its
during any interval passes through position-line bisects the path described
339.
Sudden Impulse.
is
If
whose
direction
inclined to that in
changed.
itial
is
which the particle is movmotion is suddenly The relation between the in-
and
final velocities
by the impulse. During the time of action of a sudden impulse the particle moves over a
the time occupied
The
direction of
however, change by
Let a particle describing the straight path whose total impulse is repinitial
LA
(Fig. 147)
AB'
represent the
momentum
blow OB'.
The path
after the
BM,
the
parallel to
impulse
shorter
will
The
the
Fig. 148.
AB.
If the
and
would
fall
together,
momentum and
impulse.
297
Examples.
oz. is moving horizontally at the struck by a bat in such a way that immediately after the blow it has a velocity of 150 ft.-per-sec. in a direction making an angle of 30 upward from the horizontal. Required the value of the impulse. Aus. 102.4 poundal-seconds, inclined 13 54' upward from the horizontal, assuming the horizontal velocity to be reversed in direction by the blow.
1.
ball
whose mass
is
5^
when
it is
2.
In Ex.
at
moving
it
move
I, suppose the ball to receive the same blow when an angle of 10 downward from the horizontal. How will immediately after the blow ?
3. In the same case, if the blow occupies o.oi sec, what is the average value of the force ? What will be the effect of gravity on the motion of the ball during the blow?
Moving
in
Different
Paths.
The
moving
in Arts. 322-325. No discussion of this be given here, except to point out the appHcation of the
As
their
follows that
momentum-increments are equal and opposite. The vector sum of their momenta therefore has the same value after collision as before. Its value is, in fact, the same at every instant during the
coUision.
Examples.
mass strikes a fixed surface which deflects it 20 and changes its speed from 25 ft.-per-sec. to 10 ft.-per-sec. What is the total impulse exerted upon the body during the collision ?
1.
body
of 5
lbs.
A?is. 79.8 poundal-seconds, directed at angle 167 38' with the original motion.
ball of 6 lbs. mass is at rest on a horizontal plane when struck by a ball i? of 4 lbs. mass moving at the rate of 12 ft.is moving at the rate of 4 ft. -per-sec. After the collision per-sec. How does in a direction inclined 60 to the original velocity of . move after the collision? Ans. With velocity 10. 4 ft. -per-sec. at right angles to modon of ^.
2.
it is
direcdons with velocides in3. Two bodies moving in opposite versely proportional to their masses collide in such a way as to be deflected from the original directions of motion. Show that after the collision they move in opposite directions with velocities inversely proportional to their masses.
CHAPTER
XVII.
341.
I.
Work
in
When
A force
when
its
is
said to do
work
is
applied
point of application
moves
in the direction
acts.
342. Quantity of
of
Force.
The amount
its
to the
point
The numerical
value of the
work depends upon the unit in which it is expressed. The unit of work usually chosen is the quantity of work done by the unit force when its point of application moves the unit distance in the direction of action of the force. If the pound is taken as the unit force and the foot as the unit distance, the unit work is the quantity of work done by a force of one pound when its point of
moves one
called
2.
application
is the unit commonly employed by engineers. In the C. G. S. S3'stem the unit of work is the quantity of work done by a force of one dyne while its point of application moves one centimeter the name erg has been given to this unit.*
This unit
is
foot-pound, and
work
is t\\&
foot-pounda!.
When
that distance.
tity
The
unit
work may
ver>-
small in comparison u
I
itli
pound.
Thus,
foot-poundal
I
foot-pound
10'
(The last result assumes^ ^= 981 C. G. S. units.) For practical use, especiall)- in electrical engineering applications, another unit of work, the joule, has been introduced, defined as equal to 10'
ergs.
299
said to
If
and Negative Work. If the point of application moves in a direction opposite to that of the force, the force do negative work upon the body.
the algebraic value of a constant force, and i^x that of the
its
is
displacement of
the
same
work
is
the product
Examples.
1. A body weighing lo lbs. Compute the work done upon
ft.
is
it
by
and {If) while it falls lo ft. ioqg"foot-poundals. {b) -(-loo^ foot-poundals. Ans. {a) air amounts to a constant force of 2 lbs., 2. If the resistance of the compute the work done by it in both cases of Ex. i.
Ans.
344.
Work Done by
Variable Force.
its
If the
value of a force
work
must be computed by
Let
integration.
OB
P be
x
xi
the value of
the force
let it
when
is
at distance
from 0, and
done by
tion
of applica-
moves from
X
O
H
.
^
1
Divide
:= Axj ad
,
= Ax.,, be = A,r
AB
Aa
A ah c
Fig, 149.
is
and
Let
let
P P,,P,,
be the
at
values of
P when
A,
a, b,
then, approximately,
+ PAx, +
The
as desired.
work
is
the limit approached by the approximate value as Ax,, Ax,, That is, if x, OA and are made to approach zero.
X,
OB,
rr=limit
[/^,Ax,
/'.Ax,
Pdx.
200
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Work Done by
Variable
^5 representing
the displace-
ment
A'
is
whose length
for that
position
The
A
FiG. 150.
B
AB.
area
bounded by the curve, the line AB, and the ordinates AA', BB\ is equal to the work done by P during
the displacement
work,
r
is
Pdx,
in
Examples.
1.
A
is
body
4
ft.
length of 5 ft.
suspended by an elastic string whose unstretched Under a pull of 10 lbs. the string stretches to a length Required the work done on the body by the tension of the
is
its
string while
ft.
to 4
ft.
Ans. 20 foot-pounds.
2. A body whose mass is m falls vertically to the earth's surface from a height equal to the radius R. Compute the work done by xhis. \ingR kinetic units. the earth's attraction during the fall.
Give the ft. Ans. 1.05 X 10'. 4. A particle moves in a straight line under the action of a force directed toward a fixed point in the line of motion and varying diCompute the work done on rectly as the distance from that point.
100 lbs., 3. In E.x. 2, let value of the work in foot-pounds.
m=
R=
21,000,000
the particle during a given displacement. Alls. Let P' be the value of the force when the particle is at the unit distance from the fixed point, Xj and x.^ the initial and final disThen the required work is ^P'(x^' tances from that point. x^^).
If
system
(Art. 219),
= MLIT',
unit
work
to the dimensions
ML Ml
301
2.
Work
in
Any
Motion of a
Particle.
Work. When
which
is
work must be
in
enlarged.
magnitude and direction while its point of application describes any straight Hne AB (Fig. 151). The quantity of work done depends upon the value of AB\ the
orthographic projection oi
projection
Let a force
remain constant
AB
upon the
This
may be
application receives
uct
The quantity of work done by a constant force zvhile its point of any rectilinear displacement is eqnal to the prodof the force into the effective displacement.
If the direction of the effective
work
is
positive
is
if
op-
work
negative.
displacement
Fig. 151.
Fig. 152
is
ment
153-
zero.
The cases of positive and negative work may be illustrated by a body sliding along an inclined plane. Let P be the weight of the In computing the work done by the force P, the effective body. displacement is the vertical projection of the distance moved by the body. If the body descends a vertical distance /^, the work is +/%. If the plane is PIi. If it rises a vertical distance Ii, the work is horizontal, the work is zero.
Work Done by Constant Force Whose Point of Application Receives Any Displacement. The above rule for computing the work of a constant force may be extended to the case in which It may be shown that the the displacement follows any curve AB.
348.
quantity of
force
is
302
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
upon a line parallel magnitude of the force into the projection of For, suppose the path to be replaced by a broken line AabB (Fig. 154), a and b being any points of the curve. The work done during the displacement along this broken line is equal to
to the force.
AB
P{Aa
It is
a'b'
b' B')
= PX
work
AB'
if
results
the displaceIf
is
ment
any broken
P
^.^f""^
vT
'
'. ;'
the
taken
hence the
//
j^
^,_i^^^
"
work
^
It
;'
PX
5^~"
J
that the
p,Q
plication
-4
force
magni-
point of ap-
moves from
to
An example of this is the work done by gravity during the movement of bodies near the earth's surface.
described between
and B.
Formula
for
Work of
Constant Force.
force
The
work done by a
its
which
remains constant
cation
ally in the
in
point of appli-
moves from
form
is
to
may be
stated algebraic-
^ ^ ^^^ ^^^
is
which
is
AB
and the
direc-
tion of P.
The work
less or greater
180'^).
than 90
may
[P
exceed
Since
the
PX
(AB
is
cos 0)
to
cos 0)
X AB,
it
is
evident that
work done
equal
the
useful to
resolved part of the force in the direction of the displacement. remember the rule in both forms.
350.
Work Done by
Variable
magnitude and direction while the particle to which it is applied describes any curved path (Fig. 155). On choose any number of
ment
of Its
Point of Application.
Let
Force During
a force
Any
Displace-
P vary in
AB
.
AB
points a,
b, c,
Let
par-
Px, Pi,
when the
303
at A, a, and let ^^ angle between P, and Aa, 0.^^ angle between P.^ and chord ab, etc. Then an A approximate value of the work done by the force is
.
. ;
<:hor
P, cos
6,
(A a)
P, cos
6.^
{ab)
P, cos 6, {be)
The smaller the parts Aa, ab, be, etc., the closer the approximadon. The true value of the work is the limit of the above quantity as the number of points a, b, e, etc., is increased
indefinitely.
That
is, if
\V
\s
of the work,
W=
^
(9,
y Aa +
ab
/{Pcos
0)ds.
Fig. 155.
corresponding direction of P, s
gration
If s
'
is
some
and the
must be so taken as to include the and s " are the values of j at ^ and at
entire displacement
AB.
B respectively,
w=^\p.
351.
6) ds.
Work
of Central Force.
If
the force
is
always directed
work may be
re-
duced to a convenient form as follows: Let the path. Let O (Fig. 156) be the center of force, and ;-" r' and from measured particle O, of the r be the radius vector Let s be being the values of r at A and B.
AB
the
TV
measured positively
in
direcdon
AB.
is
Drawing
\ji^
MN tangent
{tt
to the path, 6
the
angle
OMN.
Evidendy,
dr
= ds cos
6)
ds cos
work
Pdr.
d.
The above
duces to
value of the
therefore re-
W-.
If
is
known
function of
r,
W may be found by
direct integradon.
304
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
This formula shows that
if a particle moves under the action of a any function of the distance from the center, the work done by the force during any motion depends only upon the initial and final distances from the center.
central force
which
is
Examples.
1.
a particle
by an
attractive force
be the magnitude of the force at any distance r from the Let when r r^. Accenter of attraction, and let P^ be the value of cording to the law of gravitation we have
P
or
P^
r,'
r';
p=P^r;'lr'=^klr\
initial
If the body moves so that the k being a constant. values of r are r' and ;'", the work done is
and
final
IV2.
-rpjr=-r'-=k{^^ r'
-'
r'
"J r'
\r"
In Ex.
I,
let
In this case, if G denotes the weight of the body at the earth's the radius of the earth, we have k surface, and GR^\ hence
[F=
3.
GR\ilr"
i/;-').
body weighs 1,000 lbs. at the earth's surface, how much be done upon it by the- earth' s attraction while it falls to (Take the surface from an elevation of 10,000,000 ft.? 21,000,000 ft.) 4. A particle moves under the action of a central force varying directly as the distance from the center. Compute the work done by the force during an)' motion. [Since the work done depends only upon the initial and final distances from the center of attraction, it is evident that it has the same value as in Ex. 4, Art. 345.]
If
work
will
R =
body describes a straight line 5. lbs. directed of constant magnitude distant h ft. from the line. Determine while the body passes between any two
while acted
upon by a force always toward a fixed point the work done by the force given positions.
lbs.
ft.
,
6.
In
Ex.
5, let
10
ft.,
/'=
14
Compute
starting
the
its
work
done by the
est
body moves 40
Ans.
near577 foot-pounds.
from
352. Work Done by Resultant of Any Number of Forces. The quantity of work done by the resultant of any number of co7iairrent forces during any displacevtoit of their point of application
305
equal
to the
algebraic
sum
;
several forces during the same displacement. Let P be the resultant P^, P,,
. .
.
the angles between P, P,, P^, 0,61,0,, and the tangent to the path of the particle. Since the resolved part of in any direction is equal to the algebraic sum of the resolved parts of
, .
P^, P.^,
in that direction,
--=
P cos
and
Pi cos 0,
P^ cos
0,
-\-
6:)cls
r (P cos
The
tities
first
0)ds
=f
...
P,
member
work done by
member
.
,
work done hy
Pi, P^,
Hence
the proposition
is
proved.
Examples.
1. body weighing 50 lbs. slides a distance of 8 ft. down a plane inclined 20 to the horizontal, against a constant retarding force of Compute the total work done upon the body 4 lbs. due to friction. A/is. 104. 8 foot-pounds. by its weight and the friction.
2.
particles
Prove that the total work done by gravity upon a system of during any motion has the same value as if the entire mass
were concentrated at the center of gravity. Let the system consist of particles whose weights are fF^, JV.,, and whose elevations above a certain horizontal plane are and let their elevations above the same initially Zi, s^, The total work done plane in the final positions be Si, s.',
. ;
.
by gravity upon
all
the particles
is
. . .
= ([r/.",+
But
if
]Viisi-^i'} fr,.^-f
.
+ [F,fe-^;)+
. . .
)-(fr',.v+ ff;-;+
z',
iViSi'
=UV,+ U\+
=(jVi+n\+
is
.
)z;
)z';
therefore equal to
.
){2-~^"), ([r, + IV. which is the same as the work which would be done by gravity on Evidently the whole mass if concentrated at the center of gravity. the same proposition holds for any body or system of bodies.
3o6
353. Total
Initial
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Work Done on a Particle Expressed in Terms of and Final Velocities and Its Mass. Let a particle describe any path under the action of any forces. Let P be the value of the resultant of all the forces at any instant and Q the angle between P and the tangent to the path. Let m be the mass of the particle and v its velocity. The tangential component of the acceleration is dvldi, and the tangential component of the resultant force is P cos 6. Hence there may be written the equation
Its
P cos
But dvjdt
= m(dvldf).
v'
Let s' and s" be the values of s for any two positions and v" being the corresponding values of v. Then
J(P
The first member
ticle
cos 6)ds
mv dv
= ^miv'"^
y''').
of this equation is the total work done on the parby all forces during the motion AB. The last member depends only upon the values of the velocity of the particle at A and at B.
Vis viva.
particle.
The
quantity mv'^
Using
is often called the vis viva of the above equation expresses the propothe vis viva of a particle is equal to twice
it.
This
is
of
Since the development of the theory of energy, the term vis viva has largely given place to another, half the vis viva being called the "kinetic energy." The significance of this name will be explained
below.
The above
lowing examples.
Examples.
1.
is
20
gravity.
How far
body
is
does
it fall
while
per-sec. to 50 ft.-per-sec?
2.
Ans. About 14
ft.
ft,
-per-
307
it
when 20
3.
acted upon by gravity alone, at what rate will ft. lower than the point of projection ?
be moving
body
falls
vertically
earth's surface. With what velocity will it reach the earth, neglecting the resistance of the air? [Use the result of Ex. 2, Art. 351.]
Ans.
16,
100
ft.
-per. -sec.
354.
3.
Energy of a
Particle.
Meaning
of
Work Done by
it is
a Body.
said to
do work
is
opposite to that of the force, the quantity of work done by the body
is
equal to the product of the magnitude of the force into the disIf the
placement.
tive
effec-
line
must be used in computing the work. Thus, a body thrown vertically upward does work against the force of gravity while rising, the quantity of work being equal to the If it product of the weight of the body into the distance it ascends. moves upward along an inclined plane, the effective displacement is the projection of the actual displacement upon a vertical line. A body moving through the air in any direction moves against the resisting force due to the air, and thus does work against that force. A body projected along a horizontal plane moves against the force of fricin moving any distance the body does an amount of work tion
parallel to the force)
;
body moves.
-^
:
Let be the magnitude of a constant force applied to a body at a point y4 (Fig. 158),
x'"
9'-\
';
and
let
AB, makThe
\A
Fig. 158.
effective displacement of
is
AB' AB cos
is
0.
body
against
the force
^px
AB cos
d.
The lies between 90 and 180. is positive when force is, however, to be a against body a done by work conception of is only when so extended as to include negative values although it
This value
;
308
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the effective displacement and the force have opposite directions that the force can properly be said to "resist" the motion of the body.
is
work
against gravity
ative resistance.
in algebraic
is
a neg-
355- Work Done by a Body Always the Negative of Work Done by a Force. From the foregoing definitions it will be seen that whenever positive work is done by a body against a force, negative work is done by the force upon the body and vice versa. The two statements are merely different \^ays of expressing the same fact. Whatever displacement the point of application of a force may receive, the work may be computed as done either by tlie force upon
The two
quantities are
upon a
particle
may be extended
work done by work done by a particle by merely changing the sign of the work in
to
every case.
356.
Energy
such that
it,
of
it
a Body Defined.
When
the condition of a
body
is
may
be applied to
the
body
is
The
work
it
by a body
is
the amount of
can do
in
passing from
its
present condition to
some standard
condition.
The
unit of energy
is
the
same
as that of
work.
357. Kinetic Energy of a Particle. If a particle is in motion, it will continue to move for a time, however great a resisting force may be applied to it. It cannot be brought to rest until it has moved
By reason of being in motion, therefore, a parcan do work against any force or forces which resist the motion
;
that
is, it
possesses energy.
of
its
is
possessed by the
particle
by reason
motion,
is
called energy
of motion or
kinetic energy.
A
When
is
be recognized.
'
In defining the quantity of energy of a body (Art. 356), reference was made to a " standard condition. The full
'
meaning of
'
'
con-
309
is
extended
to systems of particles
particle,
and bodies
in general.
its
In case of a single
capacity to
velocity
the
'
'
is
a standard velocity.
as a particle possesses
any
in
358.
ticle.
It will
To Determine the Quantity of Kinetic Energy of a Parnow be shown that a particlfe of given mass moving
by a
par-
and velocity v, it is necessary to determine how much work will be dorte by the particle in coming to rest. Let it follow any path whatever and be acted upon by any forces. By the principle proved in Art. 353, the total work done ttpon
of mass the particle while
its
is
\in{:o"-^-v'').
The
total
work done by
the particle
is
\m{%'
V
7'
amount of work ^mv"^. That is. The kinetic energy of a particle mass into the square of its velocity.
359. Principle of
ciple expressed by the equations
total
total
is
for a Particle.
The
prin-
work done
th.G.
by
= \m{%'""- = particle =
\ni{ii"'
v"^),
v'"'),
may now
be called
in
principle of work
and energy
for a particle.
Expressed
words,
During any motion of a particle its kinetic energy increases by an amount equal to the total work done upon the particle by all
forces ;
its
an amount equal
to the total
work done by
These two statements are identical in meaning, if the words algebraic sense. crease and decrease are understood in their
This principle
is
310
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
often be written immediately,
The equation of work and energy can the work being expressed in terms of
terms of the mass of the particle and
It
tances through which they act, and the change of kinetic energy in
its initial and final velocities. must be remembered that a kinetic system of units (Arts. 217, 218) must be employed in writing the equation, since it is deduced from the fundamental equation of motion, P mp. From the formula mv'^ji, it is Dimensions of kinetic energy.
MLyT^
This agrees
(Art.
work when
employed
work
must be homogeneous. The following examples should be solved by applying the prinThe value of ^ (the acceleration due to ciple of work and energy.
gravity at the surface of the earth)
is
units.
Examples.
1.
Compute the
1
at the rate of
2.
body of 20
Ans.
6,
If the direction of
if
is
vertically
upward and
upon the body except its own weight, how high will it rise? (That is, how far must it move against gravity in order to do an amount of work equal to the known decrease of
no force
acts
kinetic energy?)
3.
is
constantly equal to 4
lbs.,
how
high
4.
If
is
-per-sec.
how far will it move before its the retarding force due to fricAns. 65.2 ft.
under gravity against
A body weighing
i lb.
10
a constant force of
due
How far
ft.
must
ft.
it fall
in
;
-per-sec.
order that its velocity may change (a) from zero to 20 (i5) from i o ft. -per-sec. to 20 ft. -per-sec. ?
ft.
(3) 5.2
a body is at rest at a distance from the earth's surface equal to the radius (taken as 21,000,000 ft.), and falls under the action of its own weight, what will be its velocity on reaching the surface ?
If
7.
With what
velocity
Ans. 26,000 ft. -per-sec. must a body be projected from the surface
'
31I
of the earth in order that it may never return, no force except the earth s attraction being supposed to act ? Does the direction of projection affect this result
?
Ahs. 36,700 ft. -per-sec. 6.96 miles-per-sec. 8. A particle whose mass is 500 gr. is attached to one end of an elastic string the other end of which is fixed. The natural length of the string is 50 cm. under a pull equal to the weight of 500 gr. Its length becomes 70 cm. The string being stretched to double its natural length, the particle is held at rest and then released. If no force acts upon the particle except that due to the string, what great' '
' ;
it
acquire?
(Take^ =981
C. G. S. units.)
Ans. 297
cm. -per-sec.
4.
Energy of a System.
360. Material
tion.
The
System
definition of
May Possess Energy Not Due to Mo"energy of a body" given in Art. 356 has
When the definition applied to an actual body or to an aggregation of particles regarded as a system, our conception of energy must be enlarged.
thus far been applied only to a single particle.
is
system as a whole
system.*
We
shall
meaning of energy of
veloped
361.
in the
foregoing chapters.
of
Energy
An example of a
elastic string.
body which can do work even if initially at rest is furnished by an Such a string, if not acted upon by external forces,
By the application of equal assumes a certain "natural" length. and opposite forces at the ends it may be stretched, the amount of If elongation depending upon the magnitude of the applied forces. the forces are diminished, it shortens, and unless the stretching has
been too great
length
it
its
original
"natural"
when
312
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
While
in the stretched condition, the string possesses
;
energy
in
accordance with the definition (Art. 356) it can do work against apphed forces.
against the forces applied to the ends
if
its
condition
will,
is
such that
It
in fact,
do work
This energy
is
not kinetic
it
is
body
It is
due
we
do not know, since the ultimate structure of the body is unknown. It can only be said that the particles tend to assume certain relative positions, that any departure from these positions calls into action resisting forces, and that these forces will, if the external forces cease to act or decrease in magnitude, bring the particles back toward these positions. Any elastic body, while deformed and tending to resume its "natural" shape, possesses energy irrespective of its condition of motion. Such energy may be called "energy of position," since it is due to the tendency of the particles of the body to assume definite relative positions.
362.
position
Energy Due
is
to
Gravity.
A body near
the earth
whose
such that
its
forces resisting
move to a lower level can do work against descent. The condition of the body is therefore
it
can
such as to
is,
energy (Art. 356). This energy however, possessed by the system consisting of the body and the earth rather than by the body alone. It is the weight of the body
satisfy the definition of
it to move against the forces which resist its downward The amount of work which can be done against the resisting forces is just equal to the amount of work done on the body by
that enables
motion.
the
name
After the foregoing illustrations of the meaning of potential enit will be well to restate the definition of energy with explicit reference to a system of bodies or of particles.
ergy,
363.
Energy
of a
313
zvhicli
can
it.
may
be
applied
to
The quantity of energy possessed by a system is the amount of work it will do against external forces in passing from its present
condition to
It is
some standard
condition.
important to notice the word "external" in this definition. The distinction between external and internal forces has been explained in Art.
1
19.
"system" of bodies or of particles is a Thus, we may regard a single body as forming a system, or we way regard the body and the earth as forming a system. The body itself possesses kinetic energy if in motion the body and the earth regarded as a system possess energy because
shall constitute a
What
deformed
elastic
;
body
individually
body to assume a definite shape. These cases illustrate the general principle is due to the action of internal forces.
364. Choice of
"Standard Condition."
It is
now
words "standard condition" in the definition of energy refer to some definite set of velocities and positions of the members of the system. The actual value of the energy depends upon what is chosen as the This choice is governed solely by con\'enience. standard condition. In estimating kinetic energy it is convenient to assume rest as the
standard condition for each
for the
it
energy
is
thereby simplified.
is
what
In particular applications
we
are concerned
with the difference between the values of the energy in different conthis difference is the same ditions rather than with absolute values
;
Energy Due
to
Gravity.
Potential
energy due to the weights of bodies near the earth is usually briefly referred to as energy possessed by the bodies themselves although system of which the as above stated it is strictly possessed by the
;
In computing
its
value, a hori-
314
zonta.1 surface or
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
as specifying the
may be shown
particle
is
that the
'
'
gravity
' '
by a
weight into
its
height
and that the total potential enthe same as if the entire mass were
W be the weight of a
energy
If
is
particle
Its potential
equal to the
i.
e.,
to the
and work it has done against all forces except its weight is equal to the work done upon it by its weight (Art. 359). The value of this work is IVs which is thereplane.
datum comes
the particle
is
(strictly,
of the
earth
and the
its
when
it is
at
a height z
above
IV2,
standard position.
let
. .
Again,
.
at heights Si,
2-2,
erence, and let 2 be the height of the center of gravity of the system above the same plane. Then
iW,+ W,+
all
)i
W,s,
is
lV,s,
....
first
of this equation
member
all
is
the potential energy of the system on the assumption that ticles are concentrated at the center of gravity.
Potential energy
tions
the par-
due to the weights of bodies and to their posion the earth is one of the most important forms of energy with which we are concerned practically. In the case of streams of water,
this
kind of energy
The amount
is available for the performance of useful work. of available energy depends upon two factors, weight
fall.
366. Principle of Work and Energy for a Material System During any change of condition of a material system, its total energy {kinetic and potential) increases by an amount equal to the total work done upon the members of the system by external forces ; its total energy decreases by an amount equal to the total work done by its members against external forces.
,ir
accordance with the definition of energy of a Thus, consider the system consisting of the earth and a particle whose mass is pounds. If the height of the particle above its standard position is z feet and if its velocity is v feet per second, the total energy of the system is
in
Ms +
,
,
Mii'l^g foot-pounds.
Suppose the elevation and velocity of the particle change, their initial values being z^ j'l and their final values z,,U2. If no external force (z. e. no force except its weight) acts upon the particle during the change, the principle of Art. 359 shows that
,
M{z,
or
that
is,
M{z,
the
final
v;')l2g,
;
is
equal to
force
its initial
value.
But
if
the motion
is
resisted
by an external
principle
z,)
= M{v.? -
vi'-)l2g,
or
M{,z,
is,
v,'l2g)
-W= M(z, +
v,'l2g).
That
its its
'
illustration, consider a deformed elastic body. Let shape be taken as the standard condition for estimating potential energy, and suppose it to be so deformed that in return'
As another
natural
'
it
can do
units of
work
against external
then (assuming
total energy.
its
particles to possess
no energy of motion)
is its
Now
do
it
can
still
W W
units of
units of
its energy is now E IV. That is, its energy has decreased by an amount equal to the work it has done against external forces. *
that the principle of work and energy for a matevery supposition that potential energy has any definite value, involves the assumption that the total work done by the internal forces during any change of condition has a definite value which is independrial
* The reader
may notice
system,
in fact the
ent of the
way in which
For a rigorous
3l6
367. Machine.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
A machine
is
duction of motion
Stated com-
machine
is
to
forces.
lift
a heavy
does work against the force which the body exerts upon the system
by reason of
its
weight.
is
A
with
the
it
steam-engine
to
move
in
accomplishing
this object
moving
In doing
work
up energy
is
(Art. 366),
it. The work done upon it by one set of external forces must on the whole be equal to the work done by it against another set. Thus, the external force which is doing work upon a steam-engine is the pressure of the steam upon the piston. The external forces against which the engine is doing work are {a) the tension in the belt which connects
and
it
supplied to
it
with the driven machinery, and (J)) the frictional resistances to the motion of the parts of the engine. The external work done by the
is
engine
The
it
efficiency of a
machine
it.
is
work done by
less
The
always
Power
called its
or Activity
The
rate at which a
machine does
work
It
is
power
or activity.
ing to a unit of
would be natural to take as the unit of power that correspondwork done per unit time as a foot-pound per second,
;
Such a
unit
The
is
is
equal to 75
*The energy represented by the work done against friction is "lost" only in the sense of being unavailable for an\' useful purpose. In reality this energy is transformed,-~-prmdx>a\\y into heat-energy. See Chapter XXIII.
317
in electrical
unit of activity
commonly employed
engineering
watt
is
10^"
Examples.
stream of water is 20 ft. wide, its average depth is 3 ft., and 1. If there the average velocity in the cross-section is 3 miles per hour. is an available fall of 200 ft., how much available potential energy is possessed by one minute' s supply of water (or strictly, by the system consisting of the water and the earth) ? Assume the density of water
to be 62.5 lbs. per cu.
ft.
Ans. One minute's supply of water is 15,840 cu. ft. or 990,000 lbs. In falling 200 ft. this water gives up 198,000,000 foot-pounds
of potential energy.
2.
In Ex.
I,
compute the
Ans. 297,600 foot-pounds. by the stream described in H. P. is represented 3. Ex. I? Ans. 6,000 H. P., neglecting kinetic energy. 4. Water is to be lifted 1 50 ft. at the rate of 5 cu. -ft. -per-sec. What effective H. P. must be realized by the engine and pump ? Ans. 85.2 H. P.
of water.
What available
diameter with a velocity is possessed by the amount of water which flows out in i min.? (b) If this energy could all be utihzed by a water-wheel, what would be its power ? {U) 4.93 H. P. Ans. {a) 162,800 foot-pounds. connected with water-wheel drive a 6. In Ex. 5, suppose the jet to If the efficiency of the whole apparaa pump which lifts water 20 ft. tus is 0.48, how much water is lifted per minute? Ans. 62.5 cu. ft. earth weigh7. A well 4 ft. square and 85 ft. deep is excavated in
5.
in. in
of 80
ft.
-per-sec.
How much
kinetic energy
is
done
in lifting
the earth
that the relative values of the units of activity above defollows fined are as i- 01 385 force de cheval. I horse-power 746 watts
Show
I 1.34 horse-power =1.36 force de cheval. energy of the jet be employed in producing the 9. In Ex. 5, let an electric current by means of a water-wheel driving a generator. that of the generator If the efficiency of the water-wheel is 0.75 and
kilowatt =
0.85,
what power
in kilowatts is
3l8
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Virtual Work.
5.
Let a particle, acted 369. Work-Condition of Equilibrium. upon by any number of forces, receive any displacement. The work done by the resultant of the system is equal to the algebraic sum of (Art. 352.) If the quantities of work done by the several forces. the forces are in equilibrium, their resultant is zero and the work
done by it is zero. Therefore, If a system of conairrent forces is in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of the quantities of work done by them during any displacement of their point of application
is zero.
Whatever
forces
may may
particle,
it
may
Its
at
any instant be
its
at rest, or'it
any
direction.
interval
may
is
therefore have
any direction
The
Any
ment.
is
called a virtual
displacement.
may
or
may
Work.
The work
its
done by a force
point of application
The
may
therefore
be stated as follows
sum of their
If a system of concurrent forces is in equilibrium., the algebraic virtual works is zero for any possible displacetnent.
In applying this principle, it is common to assume the displacement to be infinitesimal. This is not necessary, however, if the forces are assumed to remain constant in magnitude and direction through-
may
work.
Let
(Fig.
equilibrium,
and
let
59) be the point of application of several forces in it receive a displacement h. The work
AB =
P, acting in a direction
incHned at
F^,
AB,
is
Fh
cos
6.
forces, F^,
319
.
angles
e,
6^,
6^,
with
AN,
the total
work
is
P,
cose,+
work
)/[.
If
is
zero
therefore
f^ cos ^2
o.
This
is
allel to
AB.
virtual displacements in different directions,
By taking
just as
may be
obtained,
by resolving
It is
For
if
work
is
zero for
for
placement
for
and
if
work
is
zero
parallel, the resultant
must be
The
the
principle
of virtual
work
is
depends,
that
any forces is equal to the sum of is true without restricting the forces to done by the several forces, It may also be seen by This is evident from Art. 352. a plane. applying the principle first to two forces and their resultant (which are coplanar), then to this resultant and a third force, and so on.
lem
Any prob374. Application of Principle of Virtual Work. in equilibrium of concurrent forces may be solved by the principle The method has no advantage over the usual of virtual work. method of resolving forces, so long as only a single system of con
is
current forces
involved.
It
is,
particle, any force In applying the principle of virtual work to a choosing the disby work of equation the from eliminated may be work of that force is In such direction that the virtual
placement
zero
;
that
is,
320
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Examples.
1.
A particle rests
a horizontal force.
on a smooth inclined plane under the action of Required the relation between the supporting force and the weight of the particle.
W = weight
(Fig. 1 60). In order to eliminate the unknown force jV, assume a displacement along the plane. Let its direction be up the plane and its =^ h. The virtual displacement length of /* is k cos a that of J^ is k sin a
AB +
is
virtual
P/i cos
work
a
W/i
sin
o,
P=
at right
angles to P.
lar
2 A bead whose weight is JV is free to slide on a smooth circuwire in a vertical plane. A string attached to the bead passes over a smooth peg at the highest point of the circle and sustains a weight P. Determine the position of equilibrium.
In Fig. 161, represents the vertical diameter of the circle, the bead, the center of the circle. Let
AB
The bead IV vertically downward, P in direction CA, normal pressure IV in direction CO. Take a displacement A upward along the circle. The equation of virtual work is
is
Pk
Solving,
sin
W/i
sin 2(9
o.
cos 6
= P;2 W.
This and the preceding problem both exemplify the statement above made, that the equation of virtual work possesses no advantage over the equation obtained by resolving Fig. 161. forces. After canceling the displacement, which is a common factor in every term of the work equation, this becomes identical with the equation obtained by resolving forces in the direction of the displacement.
Part
III.
XVIII.
I.
In Part II we have been con375. Material System Defined. cerned mainly with the motion of a single particle. An important
part of the discussion has related to the problem of determining the
forces applied to it are known. In the and 212) the fact was emphasized that a force is an action exerted by one particle upon another so that the mass X acceleration) for any particle dynamical equation (force always implies that the motion of that particle is influenced by other But the attention has usually been directed particularly particles.
motion of a
particle
when the
to a single particle.
It is
Any number
of particles thus
treated as a group
It
is
may
The
following analysis
which the motion is out at the end of the chapter that most of the principles deduced are
true without this restriction.
Two coordinates sufftce to specify 376. Coordinates of Position. Rectangular coordithe position of any particle in a given plane. nates will be employed in the following discussion.
Let the system consist of any number of particles, their masses and their coordinates of position ix^, y^^ being m^, m.^,
,
322
(jr^,j/J,
. . .
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the coor-
The
is
center of
mass
plays an
particles.
important part
If its
(;,
in the
position
{m^
+ +
If
+ ;2 +
2
)^
= m^x^ + m.,x^ +
-"i^yi
(i)
(2)
)}'=
^n.,y^
as in Art. 152.
time,
X and y
tion of the
known functions of the known functions of the time that is, the momass-center is known from equations (i) and (2) as soon
are also
;
as the
motion of every
particle
is
known.
By differentiating these equations, the velocity of the mass-center may be determined. Its x- and j'-components are dxjdt, dyjdt, given
by the equations
(;, (;i
-f-
+ + ?, +
;2
'){dxjdt)
.
(3)
(4)
components of the accelei'ation of the mass-center are The d'^xjdt'', d''yidt'\ given by the equations
axial
(7j -f 7j
(m,
;.,
+ +
){d''xldt'')
^ m^x^^ ){d^yldr') = ; J, +
the forces acting
7n,x,-\in.,y.^
(5) (6)
If
P de-
upon a
particle of
mass m,
and/
P=
all
mp.
every particle of a system.
for
Let
forces acting
upon the
particle
whose
mass
;i,
sultant force
nij^
;
and/j its resultant acceleration; let P^ denote the reand/2 the resultant acceleration for the particle of mass
;
then there
may
^i
= 'iA.
P,
= m.,p,,
(i)
Each of these
is
323
(
i
the motion
is
yields
two
directions.
x and _y,
the
equations
may
be written as follows
X
and
.---
iiL^'x.^,
Y.,
yi,v,;}
(2)
axial
components of P^
a\
etc.
The complete
tions.
may be possible, the forces acting upon known functions of the coordinates and the
particle are in general part external
The
(e.xerted
forces acting
upon any
by
The
values
forces,
and of their axial components include all In many cases it is possible to both external and internal.
P.^,
But
only
in
exceptional
resulting
It is
equations sufficiently
possible, however,
by
properly combining equations (2), to derive certain general equations which throw light upon the motion of the system as a whole.
If the equations obtained 379. Elimination of Internal Forces. result is the be added, the ,r-axis by resolving along
X,
+
+
a;
+ +
--
/, x\
m,x.,
+ +
(3)
F,
F,
= mo\ +
m,'y,
(4)
The
of
first
members
all forces,
system.
third law, the two forces which any two particles other are equal and opposite their components in each upon exert equal and opposite, and the sum of these therefore are any direction sum the In is zero. components
By Newton's
324
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
-V,
-r
A\
+
may
therefore be omitted,
is
sum
for the
The same
all
true of the
j-components.
the vector
sum
may be
written
. ;
X = m,x,
y=
of the axial
I'hy,
-\-
7,.r,
m.,y^
+ +
Using the
;
^-alues
given
in
components of the acceleration of the center of mass, Art. 377, the above equations may be written
X=
the system
is
+ in, -f ]'=(w^ + ;, +
{in,
){d'xldt'')
)
(
(6)
){d\vdt').
in,
-,-
acted upon
by forces whose
V.
In other words,
to
the total
mass of
and parallel to the external forces applied acceleration would be equal to the actual accelerait
tion
know
Ex.\J[PLES.
a certain instant
masses 50 lbs. and 40 lbs., are acted upon at by parallel forces of 75 poundals and 60 poundals respectivel)', whose lines of action are 4 ft. apart and perpendicular to the hrie joining the particles. Determine {a) the position of the mass-center and {b) its acceleration at the instant named. Ans. (b) 1.5 ft.-per-sec.-per-sec, if the forces ha\e the same
1.
Two
particles, of
direction.
2. If the two particles of Ex. i attract each other with forces of 40 poundals, the remaining data being as before, compute {a the acceleration of each particle and {b) the acceleration of the masscenter. Ans. {b) 1.5 ft.-per-sec.-per-sec.
)
3.
Two
b>'
nected
bodies of masses 12 lbs. and 8 lbs. respectively, conan elastic string, are projected in any manner and' left to
,M(JTIOX
325
the action of gra\ity. At a certain instant the bodies are moving horizontally in opposite directions, each at the rate of 20 ft.-per-sec. Determine the subsequent motion of the mass-center. Its motion will be that of a projectile having initially a hori/IS. zontal \'elocity of 4 ft. -per-sec.
A
4.
Take data
20
12
lbs. is
sec. in
3, except that the velocity of the mass of and that of the mass of 8 lbs. is 30 ft.-perthe opposite direction. () Determine the motion of the
as in E.\.
ft.-per-sec.
mass-center, (d) If the velocities are vertical instead of horizontal, how will the solution be changed? Ans. (a) Its motion will be that of a body falling from rest.
move
Show that the center of mass of any system of particles will uniformly in a straight line if no external force acts upon any particle, or if the vector sum of all the external forces is zero.
5.
2.
From the
:
first
may be
- A\j', ==
7,(-i-iJ'i
J'l-*"!)-
(0
in the equi\--
of this equation
may be written
at
as
may
be verified by
Since
differentiation.
meaning.
iiiyX^
components of the
momentum
this
moment
is
of this
momentum
is
with re-
mS.x\)\
~ Jv^J-
Representing
resultant of
by
//,
the second
member
of equation (i)
equal to dH^.dt.
all
is
Since A", and Y^ are the axial forces acting upon the particle, the
components of the
first
member
of equation (i)
equal to the
sum
of the
moments
origin of coordinates.
Representing
be written
in the
form Zi
= dH^
Ult.
then by
addition,
Z,
+ Z,
-I
= dH,
dt -f dH,^dt
(2)
326
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
382. Elimination of Internal
Forces.
of
The
all
first
member
of
equation (2)
the
is
the
sum
of the
moments
forces, external
and
internal, acting
upon the particles of the system. But the sum of moments of the internal forces is zero, because the two forces
acting between two particles are not only equal and opposite but are
collinear, so that their
in sign.
is
If,
moments
and opposite
therefore, the
sum
of the
moments
denoted by L,
Let
of the
the
moment
Then
of
momentum
of the system
(z. e.,
the
particles)
mobe represented by
sum
H.
H=H, +
(2) reduces to the
H.,+
form dH.dt.
.
and equation
L
the origin of coordinates the motion.
:=
(3) at
but this
may
be any point
plane of
Momentum.
The sum
of the
mo-
ments of the momenta of all the particles is called the angular inoinentiim of the system (Art. 327). Equation (3) expresses the
proposition that
The rate of change of the angular inomentnm of a system about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the external forces
about that point.
The
ciple
:
If no external force acts upon any particle, the angular momenof the system about every point remains constant. If the restiltant of the external forces acts always throtigh a fixed point, the angular momentum with respect to that point ?-emains
tum, constant.
mmed
motion of the center of mass, express all that can be deturregarding the motion of a material system from the external
forces alone.
327
3-
Effective Forces;
D' Aleinbert' s
Principle.
385. Effective Forces Defined. The resultant of all forces (both external and internal) acting upon any particle is called the effective force for that particle. Such resultants for all the particles
make up the effective forces for the system. For a particle of rAass m and acceleration /, the effective force has the magnitude mp, its direction being that of the acceleration/.
of a system
Therefore, if the position, mass and acceleration of every particle of the system are known, the effective forces are completely known.
They
oi p^, p.^,p.,
and
The magnitude,
acting
direction
and
If all
may be
For coplanar
387. Relation
and
upon
may
be found by combining
all
external and
But the
re-
sultant of
is
all
zero, since
It
made up
to
of
stresses.
follows that
effective forces is
the
restdtant of the external forces. It should be observed that the word resultant
arbitrary sense.
is
here used in an
To
is
means stricdy
that
it is
equivalent to them in
Two
or
more
forces applied to different free particles are not equivalent to any It is, however, convenient to use the term resultant single force.
whenever
it
is
328
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
to the
combined according
body.
same
is that the system external forces and the system of satisfy exactly of the same conditions which are satisfied by two equivalent systems of forces applied to the same rigid body. This principle leads immediately to algebraic equations of two Thus, forms: resolution equations and moment equations. (a) The sum of the resoh'ed parts of the external forces in any
The meaning
effecti\'e forces
direction
is
equal to the
sum
forces in the
(h')
same
direction.
The sum
of the
axis
is
equal to the
the motion
sum
is
of the
moments of the external forces about any moments of the efifecti^'e forces about
independent equa-
that axis.
If
tions
tion.
may be
written, of
in
For motion
be written.*
388. Equations of Linear and
ciple that the external forces
and the
systems leads immediately to the equations of motion of the masscenter given in Art. 380, and to the equation of angular motion given in Art. 383. The former are obtained by resolving along the coordinate axes, the latter
dinates.
origin of coor-
The
axial
components of the
sums of the
axial
m^ components
;,.r.,
m,'y^ ^- m,y.,
Equating these
axial components of the resultant external force, the resulting equations are those before found for the motion of the mass-center.
;,
){d'xldf''),
){d^yjdt'').
(;,
Again, the
moment
is
in Arts. 104
to that
employed
329
is tlie
shown
of
in Art. 381,
is
equal to dH^i/t,
;
if
H^
angular
momentum
all
in^
therefore
tlH
dt, if
is
the angular
mo-
mentum
f the system.
Equating
is
this
to L, the
moment
of the
System
of Particles
Rigidly Connected.
In
But
general the
may be
ticles
the par-
certain
may
suffice to
every
particle.
An
important case
is
that in
which the
nected, so that the distance between any two particles remains inA'ariable.
It will
is
be seen
in the following
such a svstem
tions, so that
may
be determined from
known
D'Alembert's
discussion
principle.
It is
moit
such bodies.
is
The foregoing
makes
it
clear that
the principle
is ojily in
But
the case of a rigid system that the principle suffices for the
Although much of the 391. Motion in Three Dimensions. foregoing discussion has referred to two-dimensional motion, most of tlie results may easily be extended to the case of motion in three
dimensions.
The
and the
From
this follow at once the equations of motion for the mass-center, which will be three in number in the general case, and which are equivaThe lent to the general proposition stated at the end of Art. 380.
equation of angular motion is also true for three-dimensional motion, and m:\\ be written in the same form as in Art. 383 but moments
;
330
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
must be taken about an axis instead of a point, and by taking moments about three axes three independent equations may be obtained. Thus, for three-dimensional motion three independent equations of resolution may be written, and also three independent momentIn the case of a rigid body these six independent equaequations.
tions suffice to completely determine the motion.
392.
rigid
Moment
of Inertia.
In
the
body a
moment of
inertia plays an
important part.
The
CHAPTER
MOMENT OF
XIX.
INERTIA.
Body.
I.
The moment of inertia of a body with respect sum of the products obtained by multiplying- every elementary mass by the square of its distance from the axis. The value of the quantity thus defined is seen to depend upon
'393- Definition.
axis
is
to
any
the
its mass, and the For a given body the moment of inertia with in the body is a definite constant for different
;
moment
394.
Moment
of inertia
/"=:
System
of Discrete Particles.
For a system of
moment
may be computed by
;,;',^
the formula
.
+
.
/./'/
-f
Sw/-',
particles,
axis,
d)
;-,
in
which m^,
,
m.,,
and
/ the moment of
395.
Continuous Mass. In computinc^ assumed to consist of matter distributed continuously throughout space, so that any finite mass occupies a finite volume, and the moment of inertia is in general found bv
of Inertia
of
Moment
moments
integration.
An approximate value of the moment of inertia of a continuous mass may be obtained as follows Let J/ denote the whole mass of the body, and let it be divided AJ/^, into small portions whose masses are AJ/, denote the distances from the assumed axis to Let;'!,;'.^,
,
The
value of the
mo-
/=;fA.l/,
taken.
;'./AJ/,
,-
the approximation being closer the smaller the elements of mass are
332
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
An
made
moment
of inertia
all
is
found by determining
If the \'ariable
approach zero, their number being increased without limit. ;' denotes the distance of the differential element of
axis, the
moment
.
of
r=fr'd.U,
body.
Choice of element of mass.
(2)
be of the
first,
in equation (2)
may be
points in
differential element.
it
have a
common
The
radius of gyration of a
body
in
is
must be located
M denotes the
moment
of inertia
may be
total
moment
of inertia
we have
/
= Mk'
k'
^ IjAI.
parts
J/,,
,
the
,
whole
J/,,
whose
k.,,
the mo-
ment of inertia of J/
It may be possible to choose a differential element of Af which has one or two finite dimensions, but whose radius of gyration about the given axis is known. U is such an element and r' its radius of
dM
gyration,
/=/;.' VJ/.
This agrees
in
(3)
when
case
all
;''
and in fact reduces to (2) points of dAIare equally distant from the axis, since in that
(2),
r.
397. Units
Involved
in
sum
is
equal to the
MOMENT OF
of a mass into the square of a length.
inertia
is
INERTIA.
333
The
unit in
which moment of
In usin^ the
expressed
is
value of the
moment
tliat
be observed
puting
it.
must com-
The proper
moment
may
be understood.
mind
to express
ol
the
moment
The
latter quantity
is
obvioush' a simple
Body of Uniform Density. Let Fdenote Jf the whole mass of a body, and let p be
Then
the whole
\f)l-
the density at
any
point.
diU= pdV
If the
density
is
r--^pJrdV.
(4)
in the solution of some
The
method of applying
this
formula
is
shown
EXAMIM.KS.
I.
inertia
homogeneous
Let
axis of figure.
denote the length of the cylinder, a the radius of the base, Taking any right section, let r, 9 be the polar coorp the density. dinates of any point in the cross-secdon, the pole of the system of If dA is a differential element of coordinates being at the center. mass a the area of the cross-section, we may take as the element of general The and length /. dA cross-section of prism differential
formula for the
----
plfr'dA.
r,
Expressing
dA
0, its
value
is
rdOdr;
whence
/"
Either integration
are constants.
may
The resuk
is
be performed first, since the hmits for each of the double integration between the
designated limits
'iTa*/p:2
= Ahf
2,
J/ is
equal to
ird'/p.
334
If
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
k
is
Mk^
= Ma'/2
k-'
rt72.
The
^'alue
is
density.
The
differential
is
tegration
element may be so chosen that only a single inneeded. Thus, if the element is taken as the mass
-|-
included between two cylindrical surfaces of radii r and r 2lp'jr r dr, and
dM =
dr,
/ r^
as before.
"
r^dM =
I
C7r//3
r''
dr
Tra*'/p,'2,
Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a 2. homogeneous parallelopiped with respect to an axis of symmetry.
Ans.
axis,
3.
k^=
^0/i2-
whose dimensions
the radius of gyration of a homogeneous square prism in inches are with respect to an axis through the centroids of the square sections ? How does the value How upon the of the radius of gyration depend upon the density ?
What
4X4X8,
Ans. 1.633 ins. Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a 4. body composed of two coaxial homogeneous cylinders, the diameters of the circular sections being 4 ins. and 8 ins. respectively, and the masses 8 lbs. and 6 lbs. Ans. M' '= 32/7, I 64, the inch and pound being the units of length and mass.
length?
k=
body is made up of two portions of masses j^/, and M^, 5. their radii of gyration with respect to a certain axis being k^ and k.^
Determine the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration of the whole body with respect to the same axis. Ans. I M,k^ J///, k' {M^k,' M,}. M,k.^)l{M, 6. Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a homogeneous sphere with respect to an axis through the center. Let a be the radius of the sphere and p its density, and let v denote the radius of a circular section perpendicular to the axis and distant z from the center. Let be the mass of an element included between this section and one parallel to it at distance da. The moment of inertia oi is (by Ex. i)
dM
dM
\v'dM=
and the moment of
differential expression
iz'\Tr v'pdz)
= lirpv'ds,
a and =
.s
inertia of the
between
limits
sphere z ^^
is
found by integrating
-|-
this
That is,
=C ^
^-rrpv'dz
\irp
n.
*^ /I
{a'
z'fdz =
Sirpa'/is.
MOMENT OF
moment
7.
INERTIA.
335
Since J/, the mass of the sphere, is '^Trpiflj,, the vakie of the of inertia is 2Md'l^, and therefore
k'
2V5.
Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a homogeneous right circular cone with respect to its geometrical axis. Let a be the radius of the base, h the altitude, the mass and Let v be the radius of the circular section distant c p the density. h-om the vertex, and let dAT be the elementary mass included between this section and another distant ds from it. The moment of inertia of this element is (by Ex. i)
dl^
Integrating,
WdM= W{irv\{z)p ^
7''cfe
\iTpv'dz.
/=:
Since
\iTp
^jrp
{a'.z^lh')th
'rra'hpiio.
M=
ird'/iplT,,
we may
write
8. Determine approximately the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a homogeneous circular lamina of small uniform thickness with respect to an axis through the centroid parallel to the circular
faces.
Taking a
let r,
circular section of the lamina through the inertia-axis, be the polar coordinates of any point in this section, the pole
being at the center and the initial line coinciding with the inertiaaxis. Let a be the radius of the circle, h the thickness of the lamina and p its density. Take as element of mass a differential prism of
altitude
/<
element
is
and cross-secdon rdddr\ the moment of inertia of this The required moapproximately {7' sm dyiphrdO dr).
is
ment of inerda
therefore, approximately,
/"
:=
I
phr'
sin'
6 dd dr
-'- Trtr'//p 4.
If
is
-=
li'Trd'hp
= d'i4
/t
, 2.
Determine the radius of gyration of a spherical shell of uniform small thickness and uniform density with respect to a diameter. |'. Ans. U a is the radius, A'
9.
spherical shell of uni10. Determine the radius of gyration of a to a diameter. respect with thickness any of and form densiiy a and I?, k' Alls. If the outer and inner radii are
399.
Body
of Variable
Density. If
the density
is
not uniform
placed before the sign throughout the body, the factor p cannot be form the takes for / The formula cf inteo-ration.
336
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
J= rr'dM=
The
throughout the body
is
Ir'pdV.
(5>
p'
known.
Examples.
I.
Compute
its
/J
respect to
equation
constant.
the radius of gyration of a right circular cylinder with axis of figure, assuming the density to be given b)' the p -|- cr, r being the distance from the axis and c a
in
Proceeding as
Ex.
pr-
i,
Art. 398,
we may
I
write at once
/=/
'
d6 dr
/
I
Cpo
cr)7-'
dd dr.
7r/(5prt*
i,ca')l\o
7rrtV(4/3,
+
;
pj 10,
being the density at the outer surface. may be found by integration The value of
M
p,
Hence
If
k^
= I[M =
[(4jo,
/3)/(2p,
Pj](3' 10).
p^^
p^=^
of uniform density.
2. Determine the moment of inertia of a sphere with respect to a diameter, assuming the density to vary directly as the distance from the center, being zero at the center and p, at the surface. Tra'p^; 4^^ 9. Ans. k^
M=
The
any axis is equal to its axis through the center of mass plus the product of the whole mass into the square of the distance between the two axes.
Moments of Inertia With Respect to moment of inertia of a body with respect to moment of inertia with respect to a parallel
body by
a plane perpendicular to
axes,
the assumed
the point
rep-
O
Fig. 162.
-X
distant
axis.
Let 0'
OXhe
'
i''
the
OA'.
Let
x,
be the perpen-
dicular distances of
OY
MOMENT OF
and and
INERTIA.
,,7
OX
O'X
being therefore
;r
rt
and y.
Then
moment of inertia of the body with respect to moment of inertia with respect to the axis O'.
I
= f{x' +
y)dm;
rt^
r =f{{x + af + f^dM=f(,x' + f +
2ax)dM
2afxdM,
the Hmits of integration in every case being so taken as to include the whc^e body.
In the final expression for /', the first term is equal to / and the second to a'M. The third term is equal to zero, since the plane (from which x is measured) contains the center of mass. (See
OY
Art. 159.)
Hence
r
and the proposition
of gyration of the
ively,
is
= 1+
Md\
(I)
proved.
Relation between radii of gyration. If k and k' are the radii body with respect to the axes O and 0' respect-
1= Mk\
= Mk'\
and therefore
k"'
= k^ ^ a'
(2)
Examples.
1.
homogeneous right
ciding with one
2.
inertia and radius of gyration of a circular cylinder with respect to an axis coinof the straight elements of the surface. Ans. If radius of circular section, k'' 3^72.
inertia
homogeneous square prism with respect to an axis coinciding with one of the edges. Apply the result to a prism whose mass is 1 2 lbs. and whose linear dimensions in inches are Ans. If the axis coincides with one of the longer edges, i
4X4X8.
(8i/6)/3.
3.
Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a circular cone whose altitude is 6 ft. and the radius
ft. ft.
,
from
with respect to an axis parallel to the geoit the whole mass being lbs
;
Ans.
4.
k^=
5.2
ft.'
and radius of gyration of a homogeneous right circular cylinder with respect to an axis through the center of mass coinciding with the diameter of a right section.
inertia
338
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Let / be the length of the cylinder, a the radius of the base, and be the mass included between two circular p the density. Let sections distant x and x dx from the center of mass. The radius of gyration of with respect to a diameter is /2 with respect to a parallel axis through the centroid of the cylinder the square of its
dM
dM
radius of gyration
is
therefore
x'^ -|-
a74> ^""i
(x'
'^^^
moment
I/2,
of inertia
is
dl=
(x'
+
f
d'/4.)dM=
;r
ay4.)(7rd'pdx).
/&^=(3a^
5.
radius of gyration of a right circular cylinder with respect to an axis coinciding with a diameter of the base. Ans. k^ (3^ -f ^r')ji2.
inertia
n/i2. and
homogeneous
6.
Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a homogeneous right circular cone with respect to an axis through the
vertex perpendicular to the geometrical axis. Ans. If h is the altitude and a the radius of the base, /^
h'
V4.
401. Product of Inertia. The sum of the products obtained by multiplying every elementary mass of a body by the product of its distances from two planes perpendicular to each other is called the product of inertia of the body with respect to those planes. For a system of discrete particles, let 2j, m^, be the
. .
.
masses of the
plane and
particles, x^,
.
x.^
their
y,, jKj,
their distances
and
let
='Lmxy.
(i)
element of mass
For a continuous mass, let x and y denote the distances of an from the two planes then
dM
H = fxydM.
Examples.
I.
(2)
the product of inertia of a homogeneous rectangular parallelopiped with respect to planes containing two intersecting
faces.
Compute
The three linear dimensions of the body being product of inertia be found with respect to two parallel to the dimension c. The traces of these sented by and (Fig. 163). The density ment of mass may be taken equal to pcdxdy,
a,
b and
c,
let
the
OX OY dM
being
p,
the ele-
and
MOMENT OF
INERTIA.
339
H =J
Ans.
altitude,
3.
pcxydxdy
pd't'cj/^
= Mab\\.
2. Compute the product of inertia of a homogeneous right circular cylinder with respect to a plane containing one of the bases and a plane tangent to the cylindrical surface.
H = Malli.
If
(J
dM
X
y
'
Ans.
H=
q
Fig. 163.
^f
of
o.
metry.
For,
The
X
Symzero.
and y its distance from the other plane. Corresponding to any element of mass for which x a, y b, there is an equal element for which X a, y b. The sum of the products of inertia of such a pair of elements is zero, hence the product of inertia of the whole mass is zero.
2.
403. Definition.
elasticity of
for the
moment
and
its
The importance
It
of this quantity,
analogy to the
it
moment
make
it
desirable to give
attention here.
may be
defined as follows
The moment of inertia of a plane area with respect to any axis is the sum of the products obtained by multiplying every elementary
area
by the square of its distance from the In the most important applications the
axis.
axis
is
taken either
in
the
The moment of inplane of the given area or perpendicular to it. perpendicular to its plane an axis respect to with ertia of a plane area
is
called Z-polar
moment
of inertia.
is
The
340
in
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
which /
tion
and
is
the
moment
its
radius of gyra-
It is
moment
of inertia of a
plane area
must be used
may be
moments of
Examples.
1.
Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a an axis through the center perpendicular
[Follow the method employed in solving Ex. i, Art. 398, but use the element of area r dd dr \vis,\.&2A of the element of mass plrdd dr. The radius of gyration of a circular section of the cylinder has the same value as that of the cylinder.]
2. Show that the radius of gyration of a circular area with respect to a diameter is half the radius of the circle.
3. If b and h are the sides of a rectangle, prove that its moment of inertia with respect to an axis containing the centroid and parallel From this result and the proposition of Art. to the side b is bW'lii. 400 deduce the value of the moment of inertia with respect to an axis coinciding with a side of the rectangle. Ans. k^ ^73-
= =
the moment of inertia of a triangular area of base b 4. and altitude h with respect to an axis containing the vertex and parallel to the base. Ans. I b/i'/^ k^ h^l2.
Compute
From the result of Ex. 4 and the proposition of Art. 400, determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a triangular
5.
area with respect to an axis parallel to the base and containing the centroid also with respect to the base. Ans. With respect to central axis, I bh^l:i,6, k'' /i^iS. With respect to base, b/i^/12, k^ ft jb.
;
/^
6.
axes a and
elliptic area of semiwith respect to the diameter whose length is 2a, is 1^/2.
of the prod-
product of
its
called the
product of inertia of the whole area with respect to those planes. The most important case is that in which the two planes are perpendicular to the plane of the given area.
In this case the attention
MOMENT OF
INERTIA.
341
lines in which the two assumed planes intersect the plane of the given area, and the definition may be stated as fol-
The product
plane
is
the
sum
by multiplying every element of area by the product of its distances from the two axes. Reasoning as in Art. 402, it is seen that if one of the axes is an axis of symmetry of the given area, the product of inertia is equal to zero. It will be shown presently that, for any area whatever, there
is
a pair of axes through every point with respect to which the prodis
uct of inertia
zero.
With Respect
Point.
to Different Pairs of
Axes Intersecting
in
in the
Same
with respect to
O Y,
and
H
Fig. 164.
OX and
gles
rectangular axes
XOX'
6.
Take a second pair of OX', OY', the anand YOY' being each
Let
equal to
this
H'
new
If X,
,
pair of axes.
OX and O Y,
;
coordinates referred to
X co^O
xy
Hence
-=
^ y ^\n6, j' = sin ^ + cos ^ x'' sin ^ cos ^ + xj/(cos' d sin' 0) + y' sin
-'''0 sin iQ.
d cos 6
xy cos 2Q 4- K/
H' ^fx'y'dM
= cos = ff cos
If
2(9
-fxydM +
26
\ sin 26
[fy'dAffx'dM]
20.
+ K-B A) sin
the
moments
to
of
OX and
61.
Y are
of inertia and the product of inertia with respect known, H' can thus be computed for any value
342
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
406. Product of Inertia Zero for Certain Axes.
The
axes
OX'
and
H'
is
zero.
above value of
H'
to zero gives
tan 26
2HI{A
B^.
B
and
is but one pair of axes any two values of 26 having the same tangent differ by some multiple of 180, so that any two values of 6 satisfying the above equation differ by some multiple of 90.
product of inertia
zero.
:
Moreover, there
for
407. Moments of Inertia With Respect to Different Axes Through the Same Point. The moment of inertia of a plane area
with respect to each of two rectangular axes through a given point, and the product of inertia with respect to the same axes, being known, the moment of inertia with respect to any other axis through
that point
may be
determined.
let
/be
the
moment
of inertia with
OX'
Its
value
is
I=fy'-'dM=f{xs\n
sin^
+y cos QydM
2
. . .
= e -fx'dM + cos' e -ffdM sin ^ cos 6 -fxydM = Ai\n^ e ^ Bco^^ e 2Hs\ne cosO. (i)
If
ertia is zero,
^ B cos' Q.
(2)
Examples.
1. Find the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a rectangular area of sides a and b with respect to a central axis inclined 30 to the side a. Ans. k" {a' 3l>'')/^8.
Prove that the moment of inertia of a square area has the same value for all axes through the centroid. 3. Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a square, the length of whose side is 4 ins., with respect to an axis throughthe intersection of two sides and inclined at an angle of 60 to one side. [Take the axes of ;ir and y coincident with two sides of the square and compute A, B, H. Since is not zero, equation (i) must be
2.
used. ]
MOMENT OF
Show
_
INERTIA.
343
that the sum of the moments of inertia of 4. a plane area with respect to two rectangular axes lying in its plane is equal to the moment of mertia with respect to an axis perpendicular to the plane of the area and containing the point of intersection of the rectangular
It follows that this sum has the same value for every pair of rectangular axes drawn through the same point.
axes.
Moments
of
Inertia.
If
axes through a given point be compared, the greatest and least values are found for the axes with reference to which the product of inertia is zero. Thus, the value of I given by equation (2) of Art. 407 may be
all
moment
of inertia for
expressed
in the
form
I={A B) sm'd + 5.
Suppose
(3)
As 6 increases from o to 90, the value of /increases from B to A. As 6 increases from 90 to 180, the value of / decreases from A to B. Hence A is the greatest and B
greater than B.
/.
values of the moment of inertia for axes through a given point are called principal moments of inertia The corresponding axes are called principal axes for for that point.
that point.
If the two principal moments of inertia for axes passing through a given point are equal, the moments of inertia for all axes through that point are equal. This is obvious from equation (2).
409. Axis of
If
Symmetry a
Principal Axis at
it is
Every Point
point.
it
That
is,
in the plane of the area are principal axes at their point of inter-
section.
as rpay be proved
For the product of inertia for such a pair of axes by the method used in Art. 402.
is
zero,
Examples.
1.
sides
side.
2.
Determine the principal moments of inertia of a rectangle of ins. and 6 ins. for axes through the middle point of the longer Determine the principal moments of inertia of an
isosceles
tri-
sisting of a square
Determine the principal moments of inertia of an area conand an isosceles triangle whose base coincides with
344
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
a side of the square, with respect to axes passing through the vertex of the triangle. 4. Determine the principal moments of inertia of the area described in Ex. 3 with respect to central axes.
5.
For what
is
axis,
of a rectangle,
the
moment
coinciding with the two sides of the and /f to be used in the A, The result is tan 2O formula of Art. 406 for determining 0. 3ad/2(a' b').
Taking axes of
and
6. Determine the greatest and least moments of inertia of a rectangle with respect to axes passing through the intersection of two
sides.
a Given Point.
Let OX and OY
With Respect
to
moment
OY and B the
OX,
radii of gyra-
moment
tion,
and
Ma\ B
Fig. 165.
= Mb\
Let
/ be
the
moment
of inertia and
k the radius
of gyration
OX at an angle 6.
.-.
Then
I
(Art. 407)
^A
sin=^
k'^a'sm'e
in
+ B cos'e-, + b'cos'd.
(4)
411. Inertia-Ellipse.
that the distance
If in Fig.
be so taken
the
If this
OP depends
will
value of
k,
the point
describe a curve as
curve is known, the value of k for any axis can be determined. The most convenient representation results from the assumption that OP
is
inversely proportional to k.
OP be
represented by
r,
and assume
r =^ abjk,
From
b'
equation (4),
'0,
= a^s{n'e +
which
If
is
(5)
X and
MOMENT OF
rsind
INERTIA.
r cos 6
345
= y;
= x;
is
^+i^=^
the following property
If
(^)
which represents an elHpse of semi-axes a and b. The most convenient method of using the ellipse depends upon
a tangent be drawn to the
ellipse, inclined at
angle 6 to
OX,
sented by /)
is
/ = a'sin'^ +
p
That
is,
b' cos' 6.
= abjr =
k.
is
equal to the perpendicular distance between this axis and the parallel
tangent to the
ellipse.
is
This ellipse
seen that
(Art. 408)
its
;
of inertia
It is
principal diameters
lie
OX
is
OV;
OY
is
Central
is
ellipse.
OX.
in the
is
at that point.
is
The
ellipse
whose center
ellipse.
at
called
the central
Examples.
1.
Determine the
2.
Show
a sim-
ilar ellipse.
3.
What
are
its
semi-axes ?
ellipse for
Ans. /2 and
an isosceles triangle.
^/2.
4.
Show
and
circle,
that the central ellipse for an equilateral triangle is a determine its radius. Ans. (i/6)/i2, if a is the side of the triangle.
for a regular hexagon. 5. Determine the central ellipse Ans. A circle of radius equal to half the side of the hexagon.
CHAPTER XX.
MOTION OF A RIGID BODY
:
TRANSLATION
ROTATION ABOUT A
FIXED AXIS.
I.
412. Coordinates
Position.
Any
quantities
coordinates of position.
It
may
position of a rigid
space.
body which is free to move in three dimensions of These six quantities may be chosen in various ways. To show that six coordinates are sufficient, notice that if three
is
points in the body, not lying in a right line, are fixed, every point
fixed.
Let A, B,
is
Che
its
The
The
position of
-X^,
any one,
is
as
given by
position of
then
its
its
distance from
is fixed.
When
the posi-
tions of
and
B are
given, that of
C is
one of its three rectangular coordinates, since its distances from A and B are fixed. Thus, to completely specify the positions of A, B and C (and therefore of all points of the body) it is sufficient to
assign values
Xi y^
1 J
to six of
the nine
quantities
jr,,
y^, z^,
X.^,
y^,
s.^,
S'3
The
remain constant.
one may be varied while the other five Such a variation causes the body to move in a particular way. This is often expressed by the statement that the body possesses one degree of freedom for every coordinate. A rigid body whose motion is unrestricted possesses six degrees of freedom. By imposing restrictions on the motion of a body the number of degrees of freedom may be artificially reduced. The following disone another
;
for example,
cussion
v/ill
347
a body are
at
body
is
any path
the
in space.
If
no additional
restriction
is
The coordinates of position of body may, for example, be the rectangular coordinates of any one particle. The paths of all particles are alike in all respects.
415. Rotation About a Fixed Axis.
in
If all particles
of a rigid
line,
body describe
motion
circles
If
is
circles
whose centers
lie
a certain fixed
the
a rotation.
The
restricted
to a rotation
about a fixed
axis, the
body possesses only one degree of freedom. The position of the body is completely specified by the value of one coordinate, which
may,
for example,
which
is
fixed in space
in
the body.
dicular to the axis of rotation, and let
Let Fig. 166 represent a section of the body by a plane perpenand OA be the traces of
OX
OX
being
while
OA
The
is
position of the
body
at
any instant
is
angle
A OX.
Call this Q.
If
known
is
Angular
motion.
All
it turn through equal angles during any hence the angular motion of any one of them as OA definite time angidar motion of the body. This angular motion the may be called
;
in
any
definite time
is is
The
the
angular
acceleration.
348
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
A0
if ^1
e,
e,,
6.
and
and
final
values of
If CO
body and
(p its
angular
in Art.
acceleration at
any
co
may be
expressed as
^^ ^
= deidt
= dtoldt = d^eidf.
of a rigid
Plane motion
\.
body
is
is
a motion
which
all
particles
move
in parallel planes.
This
also called
uniplanar motion.
17
X
/^
Q\
i-f
This
jion
may
^^^'
Let
OX, (9F
X
Fig. 167.
X,
Let
and
B be
body lying
in the plane
XO
tween
if
AB and
OX. The
position of the
body
is
completely specified
and
0.
The XXI.
shown
this
forces.
To
determine
conceived to be concenat
mass and
to
upon the
projectile.
As an example
motion of a
a body
its
is
thrown
in
is
then
which were deFor the resultant of the external forces is constant in magnitude and direction during the motion. The same will be true of two or more bodies connected by cords or otherwise or of any set of bodies whatever, regarded as a system.
;
AXIS.
349
a Translation If the motion of a rigid system throughout any interval is known to be a translation, the equations of motion of the mass-center suffice to determine the motion of every particle, since the paths of all particles
are alike in every respect.
ditions the
It remains to consider under what conbe a translation. This question may be answered by applying D'Alembert's principle (Art. 390) that the
May Be
motion
will
external forces
and the
Resultant
erations of
all
effective force.
In
equivalent systems:'^
particles of the
body are
magnitude and direction. The effective forces feach being equal to the product of the mass of a particle into its acceleration) form a system of parallel forces whose magnitudes are proportional to the
masses of the
in a line
is
particles.
The
value
is
]\Ip if
Since the resultant external force and the resultant effective force
are at every instant equal in
line of action),
it
all
external forces
may
continue translatory.
is
The converse
at
of this proposition
not necessarily
true.
But
if,
any motion
continue to be translatory
2.
Any
it
Forces.
If a
body
is
constrained to
is
if all
The method by
(Art. 42) or
*
something equivalent.
in
The force
387 as to the
meaning
3SO
the
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
body by the hinge are in general unknown, and are to be determined by means of the dynamical equations. D' Alembert' s principle yields three independent equations for plane motion (Art. 388), and these suffice to determine the motion and the restraining forces in At least one of the three equacase of rotation about a fixed axis.* For the other two, equations tions must be an equation of moments.
of resolution will usually be preferred.
420.
Moments
of Effective
The sum
a particle.
moments of the
:
effective forces
about
this axis
may be computed
as follows
Every
particle of a
body
rotating
circle
any
may
be specified by
If
its
its
For comis
ponents along the tangent and normal to the circle. distance of the particle from the center of rotation and v
the two components are as follows (Art. 284):
the
velocity,
Normal component,
If CO is
v'jr,
is
constant,
dvjdt
v'/r
If
= r{dwjdt) = = =
r'-w^jr
is
rep
rod^.
m, the
effective force
is
equivalent to
directed along the tangent to the circle directed toward the center.
mrw'\
*
If
body motion parallel to the axis of must be such as to counterbalance this tendency, and the restraining forces will have components parallel to the axis.
the applied forces tend to give the
rotation, the
method
of constraint
Again, the inertia of the particles will in general tend to cause a departure
from the prescribed plane motion, which tendency must be resisted by the constraining forces. In the most general case, six dynamical equations are needed in order to completely determine the constraining forces. The following discussion is restricted to the case in which the applied forces and the distribution of mass are such that there is no tendency to depart from a condition of plane motion, so that the three dynamical equations for plane motion are sufficient to determine the constraining forces as well as the
motion.
AXIS.
35
axis of rotation
zero, the
moment of the latter component about the moment of the effective force is equal to
mr'^i^.
If
w
.
and
Tj, r^,
the
sum
of the
moments of the
iu.f^'
)(/)
/</>,
/ being the
of rotation.
moment
The equation of angular sum of the moments of the effective forces to the sum of the moments of the external forces. Let L denote the algebraic sum of the moments of the external forces
motion
is
then
If
line in the
system and a
member
:
of the equation
may
.
be writ-
L
If
=
/,
I4)
= lidcoldt) = lid^ejdt^).
(i)
is
known
point
(Art.
The
a case
of constrained
motion
is
303); a certain
condition
im-
specifi-
the constraint
must be
by some-
the
tion
body
is
to depart
Fig. i68.
resisted
by
forces equivalent to a
may be
352
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Suppose the hinge
to consist of a fixed cylindrical pin fitting into
If the surfaces
were smooth at the point upon the body would act in a line
In reality
it
will
depart from
because of the
;
friction.
and
then the
axis of rotation
zero, so that
does not
affect the
value of L.
The moment
site to
of
F must be
assumed
is
to
moment
L.
The
The value
all
of the
may
is
the vector
sum
of
external forces
and/
the
P=
Mp.
whether rigid or
about a fixed
Fig. 169.
In the case of a
axis,
body
rotating
p may
be ex-
body by a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation, containing the mass-center G OG =^ a perpendicular from mass-center on axis of rotation 6 angle between OG and a fixed plane OA. Then/ is equivalent to the two components
; ;
a{d''6ldf) perpendicular to
OG,
a{d6ldff
in direction
GO.
Let
all
GO.
Let T,
N be the components of
Pn
;
The
must agree with they are shown by the arrows in Fig. 169.
as
if
The
figure
shows
/"
and Pt
applied at G, but
it
is
not to be
AXIS.
353
we
The equations
forms
may
.
P,
+ T=
Maid-'e'dty,
Pn+
plete solution of the
(3),
N= Ma^dddtf.
is
(2)
(3)
The com-
problem
will
which
for
convenience
(i)
(2)
(3)
N = Maidefdtf.
Equation (i) does not involve the hinge-reaction, and if all other external forces are known, the motion is determined by integrating
this equation.
T and
is
N,
known.
not neces(3).
may
Examples.
rotates about a fixed axis distant a from the of mass no force acts upon the body except the hinge-reaction, and if its angular velocity at a certain instant is a)j determine {a) the subsequent motion and (Jf) the hinge reaction.
I.
body
mass-center.
If
() In equation (i),
o,
hence
;
= do) dt = o := constant ^ dOjdt = e = w,t 4 The angular velocity thus re6 when =
d'Ofde
cB
cOj
0,
^"
o.
(b)
The
is
aa)\ directed
toward the center of rotation the resultant effective force is thereSince the hinge-reaction R is the only fore Maw'' in that direction. external force, it must be equal in all respects to the resultant effective
force.
evident that this result is given by equations (2) and (3). o, and (3) reduces Since Pt and P are both zero, (2) becomes Maa>\ i\^ to
It is
T=
354
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
2. A body of mass lOO lbs. rotates about a smooth hinge 2 ft. from the mass-center, being acted upon by no external force except
the hinge-reaction.
2 rev. -per-sec.
,
If at a certain instant
is
what
it is rotating at the rate of the subsequent motion, and what is the value
= IV ^
,
3,
200
tt'/^
pounds-weight.
acted upon by gravity, rotates about If at a a smooth horizontal axis passing through the mass-center. certain instant the rate of rotation is 3 rev. -per-sec. determine the
lbs.
a :=
[Notice that if the axis of rotation contains the mass-center, o, and equations (2) and (3) simplify.]
homogeneous cylinder of mass 200 lbs. and diameter 2 ft. 4. rotates about its axis of figure (horizontal) under the action of a constant pull of 5 lbs. applied to the free end of a string which is wrapped around the cylinder. At a certain instant it is rotating at the rate of 200 rev.-per-min. against the pull. Determine the subsequent moWhen will the body come to rest ? Determine the hingetion.
reaction,
to be vertically
downward.
Ans.
5.
come
to rest in 13 sec.
Hinge-reaction
= 205
lbs.
In the preceding example, let the tension in the string be due to a suspended weight of 5 lbs. the remaining data being as before. Solve the problem completely. [Write the equation of angular motion of the cylinder and the equation of linear motion of the susjjended weight then eliminate the tension in the string. ]
,
Ans.
204.
1
It
will
come
to
rest
in
13.7
sec.
Hinge-reaction
lbs.
6. wheel-and-axle of total mass 60 lbs. is set rotating by a constant tension of 7 lbs. -force in the rope which unwinds from the axle. The radius of gyration of the body with respect to the axis of rotation
is 10 ins. and the radius of the axle is 6 ins. Required (a) the angular velocity after 2 sec. {b) the angle turned through in 2 sec. and (<:) the pressure on the hinge. (Assume no friction.
,
,
(1^)
0.168^ rad.
(c)
67^ poundals.
In the preceding example, instead of a tension of 7 lbs., assume a tension due to the weight of a suspended body of 7 lbs. mass solve the problem completely.
;
In example 6, what weight suspended from the rope would produce a tension of 7 lbs. -force? Ans. 7.31 lbs.
8.
425.
Compound Pendulum.
reaction,
let
is
rigid
body
rotating about a
called
In Fig. 170,
355 Let
Let
AOB =
AO =
M=
The only
hinge reaction,
its
external
is
force,
except the
body,
its
Mg and
direction vertically
downward.
The mo-
ment
tion
is
^ Jllga
L
sin 6,
because, in
for 6.
Equation (i)
dWIdf'
= {galk') sin
e.
(4)
The
equation of motion of a simple pendulum (a particle suspended freely from a fixed point by a flexible string without weight) was found in Art. 309 to be
d-'oidf
I being the
The
= igji) sin
e,
This
is
compound
pendulum
k'la.
is
The motion of the compound pendulum that of a simple pendulum of length li^la.
Let
therefore the
same
as
00'
= I=
OA
(Fig. 170) be
k'ja.
The
point
of suspension
The following
considerations
show
that as O approaches the mass-center 0' recedes from it. Let k be the radius of gyration with respect to an axis through
the mass-center
k'
.-.
then
;
rt^
= /^7 = + k^ia
{la~)a
= K\
or
OAY.O'A=k^.
356
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
is,
That
If
center
is
O
if
is
from
a.
From the above relation between 0' be made the center of suspension,
lation.
and of determining
be made to Art. 309. All the results there found for a simple pendulum may obviously be applied to an equivalent compound pendulum.
the time of a small oscillation, reference
may
The
first
{dejdty
= (2^a/^')(cos e cos
e^).
(5)
The
But for the case of a pendulum oscillating through a small angle, an approximate solution is obtained by putting 6 for sin 6. With this
substitution,
ditions
ddjdt
the integration of equation (4), subject to the condio when 6 =^ 6, 6 o when t o, gives
6'
i9sin
{tVgajk').
(6)
Examples.
1. If the center of suspension of a homogeneous circular disc of uniform thickness is in the circumference, determine the center of oscillation (a) if the axis of suspension lies in the plane of the disc and (d) if it is perpendicular to that plane.
of center of oscillation, the axis being perpendicular to the plane of the rectangle. Ans. {a' d^)/j2r distance from center of mass.
;
5(1/4.; {b) 00' 3^/2 a being radius of disc. The center of suspension of a homogeneous rectangular plate sides a and d is distant r from the center of mass required the
;
the preceding example, 2 ins. and 40 ins., (^ r 18 ins., determine the center of oscillation and the time of a small oscillation. Ans. Time of oscillation ^0.81 sec, nearly.
3.
If,
in
4.
homogeneous
its
straight bar,
is
in
comparison with
length,
is
AXIS.
357
of the point of suspension from the end has each of the following values o, I ft., 2 ft, 3 ft. For what position of the point of suspension will the length of the equivalent simple pendulum be 20 ft. ? /IS. In first and third cases, / :^ 4 ft.
:
6.
in case of a
compound pendu-
lum.
and
Substitute in equations (2) and (3) (Art. 424) and solve for 7' IV. The only external force aside from the hinge- reaction is the weight of the body its components are
;
Fi
= i/^ sin
9,
= Mg cos
.
6.
Equation (4) gives the value of d'^Oldf, and (5) the value of (dOldty.
Hence
T = Mg{i
djk') s\nd;
6,)
N = Mg[{2a'lk'){cos e cos
=
(7)
cos
61
(8)
90. Determine 7. With data as in case (a) of Ex. i, let ^ 0, 90 the magnitude and direction of the hinge-reaction when 6 and 45 respectively. o, Ans. When 6 0, T i^Mgl^.
N=
In what position of the body has the angular velocity its greatShow that if this greatest value exceeds a certain Hmit est value ?
8.
6^
is
imaginary.
the constant by 9. Get a first integral of equation (4), determining =^ o. eo' when the condition that dQldt
Ans.
(o'
6).
The resultant of a system of 426. Resultant Effective Force. If a single force, its is a single force or a couple. magnitude and direction are determined if its resolved parts in two directions are known if, in addition, its moment about any point be
coplanar forces
;
is
determined.
easily
body rotating about a fixed axis, the resultant effective determined when the angular velocity and angular
known.
If
acceleration are
is
the mass, I
= Mk'
the
moment
the acceleration of rotation, of inertia with respect to the axis of dcojdt and </> velocity, angular dejdt the mass-center, w
the
force
as follows
Its
magnitude
is
Mp
its
direction
is
that
of/
its
moment
with
is Mk'4>, hence its line of respect to the axis of rotation (Art. 420) This result of rotation. axis the from action is at a distance k'fjp follows as form, another be put in
may
conveniently
358
In Fig. 171, let
center,
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the mass-
which the
Let
OA
a,
'',
00'
h.
Let
in the
acting at
one acting
O'O, the other perpendicular The components of p in these directions are auP' and a^ hence the components of Mp are
direction
to that
direction.
;
Maw"
The sum
of the
and
Ma^.
of these com-
moments
is
ponents about
Fig. 171.
Mah<^,
which must equal the moment of the But (Art. 420) this is also equal to
Mk'^
hence
ah
point
= ,
or
//
^=
k'ja.
The
oscillation in case of
compound pendulum.
of rotation contains the center of
effective forces
is
Resultant
couple.
mass,^
Their
If the axis
is
o,
zero.
moment
is
Resultant zero.
If
and the angular velocity is constant, the moment of the resultant couple is zero and the resultant is therefore zero. Motion under no external forces. By D'Alembert's principle,
is
zero
if
is
Hence
if
this result-
ant
is
zero.
In
it
has been
true that,
While
it is
about a fixed
axis,
MOMENT OF
parallel planes,
it is
INERTIA.
359
In certain cases,
however, they
may
This will be true if the body is of uniform density and has a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the axis of rotation. For if the mass be regarded as made up of prismatic elements whose axes are parallel to
the axis of rotation, the resultant effective forces for every element
will lie in the
plane of symmetry.
Even
if
there
is
no plane of symplane.
may be
The
true
may be
among the
external forces.
The motion
(i) of Art.
may, however,
421.
in all
cases
CHAPTER
XXI.
I.
It
body completely.
it is
sufficient to consider
a single plane
is
determined
if
known.
use
is
made
of coordinates of
When
416) as the rectangular coordinates of some particle A, and the angle between some fixed line and the line joining two particles. The
point
A may be
;
chosen
arbitrarily,
mass-center
429. Displacement.
rigid
The
body (restricted to plane motion) is determined if the displacements of two particles are known. The simplest displacements of a body are translation and rotation. The displacement is a translation if all particles receive equal and parallel displacements. The direction of the straight line joining any two points is left unchanged by a translation.
The displacement
of a circle
;
is
a rotation
if
of
rotation.
body by a plane of
parallel to the
it
is
This point
rotation ;
and
The
any
interval
initial
is
called a translation
or a rotation
361
manner
whatever the series of intermediate positions through which the particles actually pass.
possible
430. General Plane Displacement of a Rigid -Bo&y. Every plane displacement of a rigid body is equivalent either to a
is
rotation or to a translation.
The displacement
two
particles are
completely
known
if
the displacements of
known. Let two particles initially at A and B (Fig. 172) be displaced into the posidons A' and B' Bisect A A' at C and BB' at D, and draw from C a line perpendicular to and from a line perpendicular to BB'. If these lines are not parallel, let O be their point of intersection. The
.--
AA
triangles
all
OAB and
OB
OA'B'
are equal in
OA',
by construction OA OB', AB A'B'. Therefore the angles A' OB' are equal, and the angle
A OB and AOA' is
BOB'
It is
evident that
/
/
/
..
OAB
incidence with
A
FiG. 173.
and A'B' are related as shown in Fig. 174, and AB may be brought to coincide with A'B' by a roa translation, or else
tation about their point of intersection 0-
AB
The
proposition
is
all
cases.
translation
may be regarded
infinitely
as a
axis.
rotation about
an
distant
Thus, Fig. 173 represents a limiting case of becoming Fig. 172, the lines CO and
DO
parallel
falling at infinity.
Fig, 174.
at
any
instant
it
does
362
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
finite
time.
axis,
may
at
even though
this condi-
The
instantaneous motion
translatory
if
the velocities of
all
magnitude
rotational
and direction
histantaneous rotation.if,
is
This axis
instantaneous axis.
to the perpendicular
velocities
Every particle must be moving at right angles drawn from it to the instantaneous axis, and the of different particles must be proportional to their distances
of
from the
axis.
432. Nature
Instantaneous
Motion
is
in
General
Case.
eitlier
at every instant
a translation or a rotation. Whatever the motion of the body, let MM' and NN' (Fig. 175) Let A, B he the positions be the paths described by two particles. of the particles at a certain instant, and A' B' their positions after a
,
short interval.
is
equivalent to a
lar bisectors of
430).
with
val
Draw circular arcs AA' BB' common center O. If the interbe made to approach zero, these
,
circular
arcs
approach
coincidence
BB', which
and
B
stantaneous motion
approaches a
limiting
Q, determined by
and B.
The
inis
This point
perpendicular to the
plane of motion
is
and
B may be
at infinity.
if
is
and
B are
363
is
trmislatory.
Translation
thus a special
and
B are
of intersection
is
indeterminate.
This case
may
occur
if
the motion
and AB is perpendicular to the direction of the instantaneous motion or if the motion is a rotation about a center lying in AB. This case may be avoided by replacing one of the points B by another C such that AC\?, not parallel to AB. (Compare the
translatory
;
As
space.
the
body moves,
Q
in
body and
The curve
is
is
described by
it
is
traced in space
moving body
It is
two
particles are
Angular Displacement.-
hues fixed
in the
all
interval of time.
line is called
is
the angle between a line fixed in the body and a line fixed
Q"
space (as in Art. 416), the angular displacement is equal to Q' 6' being the initial and d" the final value of 6. The angular velocity is the angular displaceAngular velocity.
ment per
formula
unit time.
Representing
its
value by
&), it is
given by the
acceleration.
is
^ ^^/^^_
increment of the angular velocity
Angular
per unit time
value
is
The
Representing
it
by
<^, its
^ ^^i^i ^ d'eidt\
motion have the same form
in the
in the particular case of rotation
These formulas
364
of every particle
particle
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
known.
If
is
rw
at right angles to
and
that of a particle B,
AB
are equal at
every instant.
constant.
AB
Examples.
1. The ends of a straight bar slide along intersecting lines at right Determine the instantaneous center at any angles to each other.
instant.
2. If, in Ex. I, the length of the bar is a and its angular velocity determine the velocity of each end and of the middle point at the instant when the length of the bar coincides with one of the guiding
<B,
lines.
3. Let the length of the bar be 1 2 ins. and its angular velocity constantly 500 per sec. Determine the velocity of each end and of the middle point when the bar makes an angle of 60 with one of the
guiding
lines.
= 4.36
ft.
-per-sec.
directed at
One end
moves along a
In Ex. 4, let a length of bar, r radius of circle, v velocity of the point describing the circle. Determine the angular velocity of the bar when it makes an angle 6 with the guiding straight * sin^ Oy^vjar cos 6. line. Ans. us {r"^
^
A
In Ex. 5, let be the point describing the straight Hne, the point describing the circle, C the center of the circle. Determine the velocity of the point when CB is a right angle. Determine the velocity of the middle point of the bar at the same instant.
6.
7.
Where
when
is
velocity,
the instantaneous center, and what is the angular the bar is in the position described in Ex. 6 ?
2.
Composition
and
Just
System
of
it
of
Par-
as
it is
motion of a
actual velocity as
made up
compo-
may be
365
any actual instantaneous motion as the resultant of two or more component motions. The meaning of component and resultant motions of a system may be defined as follows
Any
definite instantaneous
M\ M"
V,",
.
.
let
<,
V,',
7',',
Jll',
and
7'j
z\",
v.",
v.",
their
v^'
motion M".
Let
7',",
the vector
. ;
sum
of
v.^
and
and designate hy
v, the vector
sum
.
of
v,'
v.^
,v^,
Then
the
motion
The
particle is determined if the velocities of two particles are assigned, and even these two velocities cannot be assigned arbitrarily, but must
satisfy
the condition that their resolved parts along the line joining
them are equal (Art. 434). Using the same notation as above, let M' and M" be two possible instantaneous motions of a rigid body then it may be shown that the resultant motion Jll is a possible
motion of the rigid body.
In order to prove
this, it is sufficient
,
to
.
show
may
possess velocities z\
;
i'^
,v,,
distances apart
in
two particles are equal. That this condition is satisfied by the velocities 7\, v.^ follows at once from the fact that it is satisfied by 7',', 7'./, and also by z\ v.!' and the fact that Vi is the vector sum of z\, i\ and v.^ the vector sum of
velocities i\, v^ along the line joining the
,
7'./,
is
any two instantaneous motions of a rigid body a motion consistent with rigidity. Any actual motion of a rigid body may therefore be regarded as
resultant of
v^ The
.
In general, therefore.
It
remains to
rigid-body motions.
437. Resultant of
Two
Instantaneous Motions.
rigid
It
is
has been
at
shown
that
body
every
366
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The
:
resultant of
may be
deter-
mined
as follows
resultant motion
and C" with angular velocities a>' and &>''; and be a rotation about an instantaneous center
,
let
the
angular velocity
a>.
It is
C with position of C
&)'
and the value of o). Consider separately the cases in which a>" have () the same and {b) opposite angular directions.
(a)
and
The
;
C is
zero
two components due to the two given rotations are therefore equal and opposite. But the two component velocities are not parallel for any particle not in the line C' -^"VILy z' \J_y C" hence C must lie in that line. Again, if w' and ta" have the same Fig. 176.
its
j
angular direction
only for a particle between
velocities
(Fig.
176),
it
is
and C" that the two component have opposite directions C therefore lies between
;
and C".
Let
ticle
z'
C C,
C" C
respectively.
A
,
par-
at
Chas
and an
its
C"
and since
zero,
z'ai
z"(ii'
or
z' jz"
=
C
(o" Iw
The value of a), the angular velocity of the resultant motion, may be found by determining the velocity of any particle not at C. The two components of velocity of a particle at are o and {z' z")o>"
its
resultant velocity
is
is
therefore {z'
z"")<i>" ,
CC
o)
= ai{z'
u)
-(-
z")lz';
00'
-\-
as"
{b)
C and
let it
<' and <t>" are opposite, let C" (Fig. 177) represent the two instantaneous centers, and be assumed that &)' is greater than as"
367
As in the former case, it is seen tliat must lie on the line C" position being such that the components of velocity of a particle at due to the two rotations shall be equal and opposite. The components will not have opposite directions for particles between
its
since w'
is
greater than
if
to",
CC
is
than CC".
The
point
C there-
the direction of
C
or
C C" in
must
V
ay" 'Iw.
'*'"
"j'
Its position
/^C^
be such that
s
, ,
\J
(i>
^z
(n
z Iz" ^=
'
determine the angular velocity of the resultant motion, notice that the resultant velocity of is the sum of components o and {s" s')^' the angular velocity of the
To
line
CC
is
therefore
<W
ft)"
(5'"
Z'')lz'
ft)'
ft>".
in
Case of tzvo equal and opposite angiclar velocities. If, in the case which co and &)" have opposite directions, their magnitudes are
to approach equality, the point
made
limit,
is,
when
ft)'
C recedes
from
and
in the
ft)",
C passes
to infinity.
In this case
a>
= o;
that
is
a transla-
tion.
is
as
that
is, it is
perpendicular to
iz"
z')m
The
results
of the above
show a
Thus,
if
C and
C"
Fig.
176 or Fig. 177) are the points of application of parallel forces of magnitudes ft)' and ft)', their resultant is a force of magnitude &) apft)", according as ft)" or to ft)' plied at C; and &) is equal to ft)'
same
The
analogous to that
of a couple
thus a translation
may
be regarded mathematically as a
be shown to hold for any
identical with the
rotation couple.
difficulty
The
368
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
The lines
of action of the
magnitude of any one of the forces is equal to the angular velocity of the corresponding motion and opposite rotation-directions are rep;
By reversing
instant
body
at
any
may
Examples.
1
What
single
motion of a rigid body is equivalent to rotational and 4 rev. -per-sec. in the same direcft.
apart ?
rotations of 5 rad. -per-sec. and 8 rad. -per-sec. in opposite directions, about instantaneous centers 4 ft. apart, are equivalent to what single rotation ?
2. 3. What is the resultant of two rotations of 10 rev. -per-min. in opposite directions, about centers 2 ft. apart?
Two
4.
C is
ft.
from
equivalent to C on op-
5. A rotation of 5 rev. -per-sec. about a center C is equivalent to what two rotations about centers distant 3 ft. and 2 ft. from C in the
same
6.
direction?
is
A translational velocity of 20 ft. -per-sec. angular velocities about two points 8 ft. apart?
Show how
equivalent to what the direction of the line joining the proposed centers in order that the resolution may be possible?
What must be
7.
components
components
is,
is
a translation.
An
independent treatment of
however, desirable.
Composition.
Let
body
at a
is
certain instant be
made up
CM.
369
lie
on a hne
through
C perpendicular
zw
CC, we
or
z demust have
If
CM.
V,
z ^= vjw,
Resobition.
process,
By
,
reversing
the
above
any given motion may be resolved into a translation and a rotation. As a special case, any motion may be J resolved into a translation and a rotation
1
Fig- 178-
r-
about an instantaneous center chosen at pleasure. To accomplish this, it is only necessary to select as the translational component of velocity for every particle tlie velocity of the point which is to be
made the instantaneous center. This will be illustrated in treating the dynamics of plane motion of a rigid body.
Examples.
1. rotation of 100 rev.-per-min. is to be resolved into two components, one of which shall be a translation equal to the actual velocity of a certain particle 4 ft. from the center of rotation. Determine the two components completely.
rotation of 100 rev.-per-min. about a center C and a trans86 ft.-per-min. in a certain direction are equivalent to what resultant motion ?
2.
lation of
3. Resolve a rotation of 50 rad. -per-sec. into two components, one of which shall be a translation and the other a rotation about a center 6 ft. from the center of the given rotation. Ans. The translational velocity is 300 ft. -per-sec. at right angles to the line joining the two centers of rotation.
If,
in
two
motions AI'
M" of
p\ p"
tor
respectively,
is
the vec-
This follows from Art. 436, since acceleration A particular case of the resoluis change of velocity per unit time. tion of accelerations is important in the application of D'Alembert's
principle to the general case of plane motion (Art. 443).
*
lation
It will
is
be noticed that the process of combining a rotation and a transexactly similar to the process of combining a force and a couple,
94.
explained in Art.
24
370
If
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and
the acceleration of
B is
is equal to the acceleration of A, the other component is equal to the acceleration which B would have if the body rotated about a fixed axis through A with its actual angular
motion.
and
its
acceleration
by considering
is
with the
gular motion
p, the
compounded
3.
The way
body
is
changing
at
upon the shape and size of the body, the distribution of its mass, and the forces acting upon every particle. The influence of these several elements may be expressed by algebraic equations, derivable from the general principle known as "D'Alembert's principle."*
The
rigid
443. Effective
One
^mru}'
is
and angular
is
acceler-
a transla-
^
-^
P
and
let
Fig. 179.
fixed axis.
The
(Fig. 179),
may be
chosen
at pleasure
*See
371
tide of the body which instantaneously coincides with A. Let 6 be the angular coordinate of the body (Art. ddidt its angu433), a
and <^ dwjdt d'Oldf its angular acceleration. The two components into which the actual motion of the body is resolved
lar velocity,
are then {a) a translation with velocity v and acceleration / rotation about a fixed axis through with angular velocity
(/5)
&)
and
angular acceleration
(/>.
Consider the
effective force
on any pardcle
due
component motions. Let sent the position of a particle of mass in, and let
()
in
to each of these
AB =
Corresponding to the translation, the eiTective force is equal magnitude and direction to mp. (3) Corresponding to the rotation, the effective force is made up
of a
component
iftro)' in
direction
BA
at right
angles to
BA.
common
a force
JIffi
M being
may
the whole
The
tion
be determined
as in Art. 426.
is /(/>,
The
The
rotational
/being the moment of inertia about that a.xis (Art. 420). component of the motion takes place about an
In order to simplify the system of effective
Then, as shown
in Art.
moment of this couple about any axis whatever is equal the moment of inertia with respect to the central axis. The results of the discussion may be summarized as
In any plane motion
forces
is
to /<^
if
The / is
follows:
of a rigid
equivalent to a force
Mp
couple of
moment
/<^
moment of inertia with respect to a central axis perpendicular to the plane of the motion,/ the acceleration of the mass-center, and ^ the
angular acceleration of the body.
444. Determination
principle, the
axis
that
By D'Alembert's of Angular Motion. moments of the external forces about any about is equal to the sum of the moments of the effective forces axis. Let the axis of moments contain the center of mass then
sum
of the
the
moment
is
372
zero,
Id), if
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
and the sum of the moments of the
/
is
effective forces
is
equal to
then
This
is
Any actual
two motions
that these
this
statement
may be
T/ie acceleration
mass were
in
of the mass-center is the same as if the whole and acted upon by forces equal
magnitude and direction to the actual external forces. (2) The angular acceleration is the same as if the mass-center were fixed and the actual external forces applied.
446. Complete Determination of the Motion.
In
the general
may be be the equations of motion of the masscenter, the third the equation of angular motion. In any determinate
case of plane motion, three independent dynamical equations
written.
Two
of these
may
for
problem these three equations, together with the initial conditions determining constants of integration, and the geometrical relations (if the motion is constrained) serve to determine the motion and the
unknown
forces.
in Art. 428. Choosing a pair of rectangular axes lying in a plane parallel to the motion and
y^
AI
coordinates of mass-center
= total mass of body / = Mk^ = moment of inertia with respect to central axis P = vector sum of external forces X, Y = axial components of P L = sum of moments of external forces about central
; ;
axis.
373
X = YMidyidf) I{d^eidn = L.
M^d'^xidf) ^447.
Applications. The
ciples will
(i)
(2)
(3)
be
illustrated
methods of applying the above prinby the solution of the following- problems
:
L Determine
which
rolls,
the motion of a
homogeneous
circular
cyUnder
gravity.
Solution.
Let =
/S
of cylinder
M=
;
= radius
its
its
mass
^ radius of gyration
about
geo-
metrical axis
Ex.
as
;)
X,
J/,
\d''
sition,
upon
re-
its
equivalent to a force
tically
Fk;. 180.
in
downward
at the mass-center.
The
but
unknown
may
be replaced by
its
normal and
tangential
T, as
shown
in the figure.
is
Noticing that the j)/-component of accelzero, since jr is constant, the three equa:
may
be written as follows
M{d-'xlde)
= Mg ^v^ ^ T
(i)
(2)
= Mg cos
iMaXd'0/dt')
Since the cylinder
equation
rolls
13
.
N;
is
=Ta.
(3)
X
from which
= a6
-\-
constant,
.
d'xldf'
= a{d'eidf'r
as follows:
(4)
(2^
sin /3)/3^7.
374
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
when t^o,
.
[(^sin/3)/3>l
If the origin is
(5)
so taken that
x^
.
when ^
o,
x=ae = \g,sxn^ r
the solution the values of
(6)
N and
T must
.
be found.
.
T = M{g sin ^
x) = Wg sin
y8.
(7)
N = Mg cos ^.
(8)
II. A homogeneous circular cylinder is placed with its axis vertical on a smooth horizontal plane, and is set in motion by a con-
end
its
of a flexible
cord
wound upon
eK
in the usual
surface.
Q\\
Solution.
X
^
inder
its
/^
its
y
Fig. 181.
its
i-Ma'
T=
= Mk' =
geo-
tension in string; x,
Since the only external force acting on the cylinder in the plane
of the motion
tion of T.
is
The dynamical
equations are
M{d'xldt')
\Ma\d-'6ldt^-)
If T' is a
T;
(i)
(2)
=Ta
T is
be determined by the inteunknown, the motion cannot but in any case the elimination of T be completely determined shows that the angular acceleration and the linear acceleration bear a
constant, the motion can
If
known
that
is,
d^xldf
= \a(^d'eidf%
Examples.
I.
down
homogeneous cylinder 2 ft. in diameter roll? without sliding {ci) Determine the disa plane inclined 30 to the horizon,
375
tance moved by the mass-center in 2 sec. starting from rest, {b) If the mass of the cylinder is 40 lbs. determine the normal and tangential components of the reaction of the plane on the cylinder.
,
ft.,
nearly,
(d)
T ^=
body.
2. Solve the problem of the motion of a cylinder rolling on an inclined plane, assuming that the body has initially a motion up the plane. Apply the results to the case described in Ex. i, assum-
ing an
plane.
initial
ft.
-per-sec.
sec.
up the
and
will
A ns.
The body
come
i
to rest at the
end of 6olg
3. Determine the motion of a homogeneous sphere which rolls without sliding down a rough inclined plane, and apply the results to a sphere of 10 lbs. mass and 2 ins. diameter rolling from rest down a plane inclined 5 to the horizon. Ans. The acceleration of the mass-center is 5/7 that of a body sliding on the plane without friction.
4.
face of a hemisphere.
force
homogeneous sphere rolls, without sliding, on the inner surIf it moves from rest under the action of no except gravity and the reaction of the surface, determine the
that of the that radius of the sphere
motion.
^^,
AE
which Let a
is
vertical
when
A A'
is
vertical.
and vertical. angle between In writing the equations of motion of the mass-center, let the acceleration be resolved along the tangent and normal to the circle described by A. The
components are {a
('
Fig. 182. Let the pressure on the sphere at the point of contact i? be and a tangential component T, resolved into a normal component force is the weight Mg. external other only The unknown. both The equations of motion are
a){d(^ldty.
a){d'^<^ldt''')
and
(i)
.
(2) (3)
The
arcs
ED
a simple manner. angles B and 4> e 4>, are equal, and angle and
are related in
CD
DAE = +
<}>)
Since the
a'cj}
= a(d +
(4)
376
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
From
equation
(4),
reducing,
^_ df
qia'
5^
a)
<^
and
(i),
sin
<^.
...
. .
and
(5)
This equation is identical in form with that for the motion of a pendulum. The complete solution involves an elliptic integral, but one integration can be performed as in Art. 425. If the sphere is at rest
when
(p
(j)^,
(?) \dtl
From From
5.
{a
<^).
(6)
a)
(i)
(2)
and
(5),
T=(2M^sin4>)f7.
and
(6),
(7)
JV
(^o)/7-
(8)
In Ex. 4, how great must the coefficient of friction be in order that the assumed rolling without sliding may be possible ?
The
of
coefficient of friction
in the
TjN found
/x
must be not less than the greatest value above solution. Let
(2 sin <^)/(i7 cos
(\)
TjN ^
/x
its
10 cos
</>).
The
(j)
value of
<pi^;
greatest value
when
6. In Ex. 4, if the sphere oscillates through a small angle about lowest position, determine the length of an equivalent simple penAyts. 7(' dulum. (i)/5-
sphere rolls, without sliding, on the outer surface of a 7. If it starts from rest at the highest point, where will it leave sphere. (Put the normal reaction equal to zero. the surface ? angle between vertical and line joining centers Ans. Let (j) then the spheres separate when cos (f) 10/17 4' =^ 53 S^'-
''
In Ex. 7, if the spheres are smooth, arate when cos <^ 2/3.
8.
show
is
9.
circular cylinder
whose mass-center
not in
its
geometrical
axis rolls, without sliding, upon a horizontal plane. distance of mass-center of circular section, c
axis,
Let a radius from geometrical radius of gyration with respect to axis through mass-center, k angular displacement from position of stable equilibrium at time A
Show
that
Ig
-Y a(id6ldty']{d'
c"
k'
2ac cos 6)
377
A
9,
circular cylinder
rical axis is
whose mass-center is not in its geometplaced on a smooth horizontal plane. With notation as
that
in
Ex.
show
2gc COS e
How
The
three equations of motion are not necessarily written as in Art. 446, although this method furnishes the simplest solution of many problems.
The
kinds,
The sum of the resolved parts of the effective forces is equal sum of the resolved parts of the external forces, for any direc-
tion of resolution.
the
The sum of the moments of the effective forces is equal to sum of the moments of the external forces, for any axis. By reasoning analagous to that used in Art. 104 in discussing the conditions of equilibrium of coplanar forces, it may be shown
{b)
by
bert's principle
mind.
The statement
fact that the
two sys-
same conditions which are satisfied by two systems of external forces which would be equivalent in effect if aptems
satisfy exactly the
systems
is
under the
in
above general forms {a) and {b). The three independent equations may therefore be written
three different ways, as follows
(i)
:
By
moments
in
about any
(2)
By
378
(3)
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
By
taking
one plane.*
449.
Center.
Equation
of
Moments
for
regards the
effect;
ive forces,
the translational effective forces are thus eliminated, since their resultant
is
But
it
may be advantageous
to take another
moment
Mp,
To
illustrate the
mo-
plane (Art. 447, Problem I). If moments are taken about the element of contact of the cylinder and plane, the forces and are
eliminated.
The
moment
sin
/3.
is
not zero
is
moment
is
is
Mga
The sum
of
moments of
Ma{d'xldf')
Mk\d'ejdt')
is
= i2,Md'l2){d'eidt').
/S,
The
equation of
moments
therefore
{zMd'l2){d^eidt')
= Mga sin
Examples.
A uniform bar is placed in a smooth hemispherical bowl in 1. such a position that a vertical plane through the axis of the bar contains the center of the sphere. Determine a differential equation for the motion. If a is the length of the bar and c its distance from the center of the sphere, show that its motion will be the same as that of a simple pendulum of length c d^jizc. Interpret the limiting cases c
2.
o,
o.
straight bar
izontal plane
is placed at rest with one end on a smooth horand the other against a smooth vertical plane which is
at right angles to the vertical plane containing the axis of the bar. Write three independent equations for the motion, one of which shall be independent of the unknown reactions.
*
It is
of course
understood that the axes of moments are all perpenand the directions of resolution parallel
PLANE MOTION
OI'
A RIGID IIODY.
jyc,
4.
Statics of a
Rigid Body.
450. Balanced Forces.- A set of external forces which, applied produces no effect upon its motion, constitutes a balanced system or a system in eqnilibrinm (Art. The condi57). tions which such a system must satisfy have been considered in Part I
to a rigid body,
under the head of Statics. It may now be shown that the conditions of equilibrium are deducible from the general equations of motion of
a rigid body. 451- Equilibrium of Rigid
acting upon a rigid
Body.
If all
the
external
forces
body
body
is
said to be in equilibrium.
Equilibrium
external force.
is
could have
acted upon by no
upon by no force or by balanced forces is moving uniformly in a straight line. The possible motion of a rigid body acted upon by balanced forces will be considered below. It will be shown that the individual particles of such a body are not necessarily in equilibrium.
single particle acted either at rest or
of a rigid
452. Equivalent Systems of Forces. The equations of motion body show that two systems of external forces are equivalent
in their effect
if
they
satisfy
moments about an
equal.
For, the second members of equations (i ), (2) and (3) of Art. 446 obviously have identical values for two systems satisfying these conditions.
Equivalent forces. These conditions of equivalence are satisfied by two forces which are equal in magnitude and direction and have the same line of action, even if apphed at different points in that line. This is the principle assumed in Art. 82 as one of the fundamental
laws of Statics.
*By
of the
is meant the sum of the resolved by the "moment of the system " is meant the sum
moments
380
453. Resultant
coplanar forces
ever
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Force
or
Resultant
Couple.
system of
For, what-
may be
the values of
X,
can generally be found having the same values of these three quantities,
values of
and thus giving the same equations of motion. Moreover, the X, Y and L completely determine the magnitude, direction
the vector
and
sum
is
zero,
no
single
moment
is
for the
system.
In order that a body acted 454. Conditions of Equilibrium. upon by any external forces may move as if acted upon by no force, the values of X, Y and L in the equations of motion must be zero. That is, the conditions of equilibrium for a rigid body are (i) that
the
sum
is
two rectangular
that
if
zero for
may
The sum of the resolved parts in any direction is zero, and The sum of the moments about any axis is zero. (2) From these general principles may be derived all the special
conditions of equilibrium deduced in Chapter V.
The
may
motion of a rigid body when the external forces are balanced be seen from equations (i), (2) and (3), Art. 446. These become
= dyidf' = d'Oldt' =
d'^xldf
0,
o, o.
(i)
(2) (3)
Equations (i) and (2) express the fact that the acceleration of the mass-center is zero, and its velocity therefore constant. Equation
(3)
is
thus seen that if every particle of the body is initially at rest, remain at rest. If initially there is a motion of translation, this motion will continue with unvarying velocity. But in general the
it will
38
will be composed of a translation in which the mass-center moves with unvarying velocity, together with a rotation with uniform
angular velocity.
The motion
of
any individual
particle
is
ponents due to the translation and to the rotation. In general the velocity of a particle not in a line perpendicular to the plane of
the motion and containing the center of mass
is
variable both in
magnitude and in direction. Its two components of acceleration may be determined as in Arts. 441, 443. With the notation there used,
the translational
component/
is
is
zero.
Of
to r
one perpendicular
;
zero
directed toward
is
This component
therefore
zero only for particles lying in an axis containing the center of mass.
Except
any particle is determined by the resultant These upon it by other particles of the body. of the forces exerted
acceleration of
internal forces, taken as a whole throughout the body, consist of
stresses (Art. 36), so that the entire
The
satisfies
the
same
ternal forces.
particle
are not balanced, except in the very special case of uniform translatory motion.
CHAPTER
XXII.
I.
Any
System of
Particles.
The momentum of a particle 456. Momentum of a System. has been defined as a vector quantity equal to the product of the mass into the velocity. The vector S7im of the momenta of all the
particles of a
system
may
be called the
momentum
of the system.
by
its
momentum
and
wzi j]
+ +
.
m^x.,
m.,y^
+ +
But if x,y are the coordinates of the mass-center and J/ is the whole we have as in Art. 377, w?2 -f mass 7i
m^x-^
ii
J\
+ +
)n.^x^
'2>2
+ +
= Midxjdt) = Midyldf).
The
if
total
momentum
same value
as
457. Angular
ticle is at
Momentum
a System.
Momentum may
of which this line
The momentum
of a particle
mois
also called
By
point
ticles
is
angJilar m.omenttnn about that point (Art. 327). the angular momentum of a system of particles about any
meant the sum of the angular momenta of the individual parbe taken as origin of moments, the
angular
momentum
,
of a particle
whose mass
is
;j
dinates are ^,
j/^ is
THE
PRIN'CIPLE OF IMPULSE
AXU MOMENTUM.
is
383
J'l-v,)
w/x,_r, -jvv.)
may
be described briefly
a vector quantity,
whose
direc-
tion coincides with that of the force during every elementary interval
of time.
Any
must be taken
set
as the vector
sum
sum
of the impulses of
upon the
If
particles of a
system
may
the system.
is
the
all
sum
Fthe sum
The
t
of the /-com-
ponents of
X and
sum
axial
t'
compocomponents
to t
t" are
^t"
Xdt
and
Y dt.
Since
its
may
be regarded as a localized vector quantity whose position-line is determined by the line of action of the force. Hence the impulse has
a definite
origin.
The moment
to be
elementary
is
the
moment
^
its
angular impulse
for
/'
to
^"
is
Ldt
For
L dt
is
equal to the
dt.
moment
elementary time
(Art. 335.)
The angular impulse of a set of forces may be sum of the angular impulses of the individual forces. the sum of the moments of the forces,
defined as the
If
denotes
384
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Ldt
is
the
sum
of the
moments
pulse.
The sum
the system.
all
a system of particles
Its
may be
is
value
Ldt
'
if
is
the
sum
of the
moments
of
460. Time-Integrals
General Equations
Motion.
In
Chapter XVIII were deduced three general equations for the plane motion of a system of particles. Two of these (Art. 380) are equations of
motion of the mass-center, and one (Art. 383) was called the Using the same notation as in Chapter
total
X=M{d'xldfy,
Y = M(dy/dt'); L = dff/dt.
The
first
members
;
of these equations
sum of their ;t:-components, V the sum of their j/-components, L the sum of their moments about the origin of coordinates. The quantity designated by is the angular momentum of the system of particles about the origin of coordinates.
ternal forces
is
the
limits t
Let each equation be integrated with respect to the time between t' and t t" Let x\ x" be initial and final values of x
and H.
Then
.
X dt = M{x" x);
Ydt=M(y"-y');
L dt =-- H"
(4)
X X
The
first
(5)
i"
H'.
...
is
(6)
member
the increment of
385
momentum.
The members
of (5) have
The
second
first member of (6) is the external angular impulse. member is the increment of the angular momentum.
is
The
axial
its
components are known, equations (4) and (5) express the following
:
The
cliange in the
is eqjial in
val of time
momentum of a system during any intermagnitude and direction to the impulse of the
Equation (6) may be expressed in words as follows (2) The change in the angular momentum of a system during any interval of time is equal to the angular impulse of the external
forces for that interval.
the equivalence of impulse of particles.
Together these two propositions express the general principle of and momentum-increment for any system
Equations
(4), (5)
to the solution of
They
however, more
If
when
a very great force acts for a very brief time, the positions of the particles
If
the changes of
problems is simplified. In considering the effect of a blow, or the impact of one body against another, the impulse is usually treated for most purposes the results are suffias if strictly instantaneous
ular
;
is
usually
wholly unknown.
The
eiTect.
For convenience, the integral expressions in equations (4), (5) and The equations may be (6) may be replaced by single symbols.
written in the form
X'
(7)
(8)
L'
25
(9)
386
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
axial
:
components of the
total impulse,
L'
is
angular impulse
Xdt;
V
F'=-J
Ydt;
V
L'
J
i'
"^
The symbol
denotes an increment;
^{Mx)
and /^{My)
are- the
is
the
momentum.
known,
can
be expressed
It has been shown that the axial 462. Linear Momentum. components of the total momentum have the same values as if the This is true for any entire mass were moving with the mass-center. system of particles, whether rigid or not. The effect of an impulse on the motion of the mass-center may therefore be determined as if The momentum, computed as if the system were a single particle. the whole mass were concentrated at the mass-center, may be called
the linear
momentum
of the system.
in general the
same value
as
Examples.
1.
A A
gravity.
body of mass 20 lbs. falls from rest under the action of Determine, by the principle of impulse and momentum,
body?
of 40 lbs. mass and of any shape, initially at rest, blow equivalent to a force of 100 lbs. acting for sec. What can be determined as to the motion of the mass-center immediately after the blow?
3.
body
receives a
4. Two bodies of masses 10 lbs. and 18 lbs. respectively are connected by a string. Both being initially at rest, the mass of 10 lbs. receives an impulse equivalent to a force of 50 lbs. acting for i sec. {a) What is the velocity of the mass-center of the system immediately after the impulse ? (<5) If, immediately after the impulse, the mass
387
of 18 lbs. IS at rest, what is the \-elocity of the mass-center of the other body ? (r) If, at a certain instant after the impulse, the masscenter of the mass of i8 lbs. has a velocity of lo ft.-per-sec. in the direction opposite to that of the impulse, what velocity has the masscenter of the other body ? Ans. {c) 18 179 ft.-per-sec.
+ 5^=
5.
Two
particles
5 lbs.
and
ft.
i lb.
same point. The lighter body is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 40 ft.-per-sec. {a) What will be the velocity of their common mass-center immediately after the second particle begins to rise? {b) How long will the ma.ss-center continue to rise? Ans. (a) 5.15 ft.-per-sec. {b) 0.16 sec.
2.
Ti'anslation or of Rotation
463. Angular
Momentum
is
in
Case
of
Translation.
If
the
is
motion of a body
known when
known.
therefore
The
is
equation of
momentum
The
mo-
mentum
If
ticles
however, be found
-o is
momenta
These momenta form a system analagous to a system of parallel forces applied to The sum of their the particles and proportional to their masses.
are parallel and equal to
m^u,
....
moments
is
therefore the
is,
is
same as that of a momentum Mv at the computing the angular momentum of a translatory, the whole mass may be assumed
in
464. Linear
of mass
Momentum
of
Rotating Body.
to,
Let a
V
rigid
body
M be
a.
Let
center and
axis.
is
The
of
the
;
mass-center
aa
perpendicular to
is
linear
to
momentum OA.
^
Fig. 183.
3SS
465. Angular
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Momentum
of
Rotating Body.
The
angular
as fol-
momentum about
lows
:
may be computed
Let B (Fig. 183) be the position of a particle of mass m-^ distant Its momentum is mii\w perpendicular from the axis of rotation. The to OB, and the moment of this momentum about O is m^r^os.
Vx
total
moment
of
momentum
about
is
therefore
.
H = [mir^ +
if
inj-^
) to
= /,
is
the
moment
of inertia of the
body with
rotation.
If a body 466. External Impulse Acting on Rotating Body it is convenient to classify
is
the external forces into applied forces and constraining forces ; the
latter
and the conmade up hinge-reaction impulse of the latter is the The straining impulse. (Art. 422); it is unknown in magnitude and direction, but it acts
of the applied impulse
Momentum
for Rotating
Body
to the
R'
P'n in direction
A O and
Pt perpendicular to
fT'
:-.^^
/
i-" be and let the corresponding components oi R' be N' and T'. (Fig. 184 represents Pn and
AO
-V
Pi as
if
applied at
true,
this
is
not nec-
0""--.P
/
p'^"^^---/
essarily
but
the
figure
shows compo-
nent impulses.)
Fig. 184.
to
be instan-
is
the
The
direction of motion of
pulse,
same immediately before and immediately after the impulse. A is therefore not changed by the imbut its velocity is changed by A(b if A&) is the increment of
The change
of the linear
momentum
there-
389
;
Ma Aoj
OA
and the
P't^
P'n
T= + A" =
J/Aa);
O.
(i) (2)
If is the moment of the external impulse and / the moment of inertia of the body, both taken about the axis of rotation, the
momentum
.
Z' = /Ao).
And
since the
equal to the
moment of the constraining impulse R' is moment of the applied impulse (Art. 466).
L'
is
When
Equations
;
Momentum
for Rotating
Body
(i)
and
instantaneous
of motion of the mass-center changes during the impulse, and the change in the linear momentum has not the value used in these
equations.
Equation
equal to /Atu,
gration.
(3),
;
by the impulse
momentum
is
always
In
inte-
if
Ao)
is
may
Examples.
uniform straight bar, hinged at one end, receives a known sudden impulse at a certain point, in a direction perpendicular to the Required to determine () the eflength. gfect on the motion and {b) the constraining impulse. ^ i__ (Fig. 185) be the bar, hinged Let a at A, and let C be the point of application
I.
-
AB
of the impulse.
^^"^ '^5-
its length; Let y!/= mass of bar; radius of gyration about axis of rotation k distance magnitude of applied impulse; ^5
= increment of angular velocity. impulse Equation (3) becomes P'b = Mk'l^w, Aa> = P'bi2Ik' = ^FblAhf whence
eo'
A&) = w"
{k^
o'Jt, ;)
r ^^
after
(rt)
from which
to"
can
-be
determined
if
is
known.
; ;
390
{b) Since P't
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
= P' and = equations (i) and (2) give r = iMa/^a = (3^/2 i)P';
P'
o,
/^'
is
The
its
resultant hinge-impulse
therefore
R'
= P\7,b 2a)f2a,
P'
20 lbs. Solve Ex. I with the following data Mass of bar length of bar 2 ft. arm of impulse 4 ft. impulse equivalent to o. a force of 100 lbs. acting for j4 sec. initial angular velocity Alls. Ao) T' P'/415^/16 rad. -per-sec.
3. At what point must a uniform bar, hinged at one end, be struck in order that the hinge may receive no tehock ? Ans. With notation of Ex. i, b 2.2/3.
4. If a bar of length 3 ft. point and struck at a point i alent to that of a force of 1,000 lbs. acting for o. i sec, determine (a) the motion just after the impulse and {b) the constraining impulse. P' Ans. (a) w" 100^ 25^/9 rad. -per-sec. {b) T' poundal-sec.
and mass 24 lbs. is hinged at the middle ft. from the end with an impulse equiv-
homogeneous circular cylinder is free to rotate about its 5. string wrapped about the cylinder is jerked in geometrical axis. If the body receives a given a direction perpendicular to the axis. increment of angular velocity, required the value of the impulse applied through the string, and of the impulse of the hinge-reaction. radius of circular section. P' ^= \Mai^co, \i a Ans. 7"'
is free to rotate about its Around the cylinder is wrapped axis of figure, which is horizontal. a string, the free end of which hangs vertically and sustains a body This body is lifted vertically and then dropped so of known mass.
6.
homogeneous
circular cylinder
its velocity is Fjust as the string tightens. Immediately after Required (a) the angular velocity of the impulse its velocity is the cylinder just after the impulse, and {b) the impulsive tension in the string.
that
V')/Ma rad. -per-sec. (b) m(V-~ V); Ans. {a) being the mass of the cylinder, the mass of the other body, a the
;
2m{V~
body
is
free to rotate
about a be ap-
may
any hinge-impulse.
if
This
may be shown by
must be zero
N'
is
to be zero, P'n
OA
= P'.
391
and P;
=
P'
P'
in
equation (i),
= Ma Aco.
= arm of
becomes
= /Aft) ^ Alk'Ao}.
d
k'la.
That
in
is,
the
line
of action
of P'
must
that
intersect
OA
produced
point
O'
(Fig.
i86)
such
00'
This point
atssion.
is
k'la.
of perbe seen
of the
it
will
with
the center
if it
of oscillation
Fig. 186.
body
rotates as a
compound pendu-
lum, the fixed axis being horizontal and the applied force being the weight of the body.*
Examples.
1. is it
free to rotate about one edge as a fixed axis. At what point be struck in order that the hinge-impulse shall be zero?
must
A)is. At a distance from the axis equal to two-thirds the length of a side of the square.
2. The body described in Ex. i is free to rotate about an axis passing through one vertex of the square and perpendicular to its plane. Where is the center of percussion ? Ans. At a distance from the axis equal to two-thirds the diagonal.
body is free to rotate about a fixed axis passing through 3. Show that the center of percussion is at an inthe center of mass. finite distance from the axis.
*The above discussion assumes that the mass is symmetrically distributed with respect to a plane through the mass-center perpendicular to the fixed If this conaxis, and that the impulse is applied in this plane of symmetry. dition is not satisfied the impulse will (unless certain very special conditions
are satisfied) tend to cause rotation about some axis inclined to the fixed axis, and to resist this tendency impulsive reactions will act at the hinge. See
Art.
A^^
392
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
body free to rotate about a fixed axis passing through the 4. mass-center receives at the same instant two impulses which are Show that the hinge-impulse equal and opposite but not collinear.
is
zero.
body free to rotate about any fixed axis is acted upon by an 5. impulsive couple {i. e. two impulses as in Ex. 4) whose moment is Determine the hinge-impulse. Q. MaQjI. Ans. With notation of Art. 467, N' 0, 7"
,
470.
3.
Resultant Momentum.
Momentum.
Before
it
will
be
meaning of the general principle of the equivalence of impulse and momentum., stated in Art. 460. It was there shown that the total impulse of the external forces during any time and the total change of momentum during that time are equivalent that is, they are related to each other in the same
;
way
as
two
lent in effect.
The
by deducing three
is
showing the
particle,
it
full
momentumany
may
readily be extended to
system of
particles.
particle, the resultant
For a single
impulse
'
is
equiv-
"Resultant
and
If
internal,
equal in
means the impulse of the resultant of all forces, external which act upon the particle. "Equivalent" means magnitude and direction and having the same position-line.
all
finite in-
terval
be combined as
of magnitude, direction and position-line, and if the elementary momentum-increments be combined in like manner, the two resultants must be equal.
This principle
system.
may be
Combining the
particles,
it fol-
393
to the
is
equivalent
may
IS
external and internal forces acting upon the particles but it readily be seen that the resultant impulse of the internal forces zero. This follows from the law of action
;
forces exerted
stant equal,
and reaction. The two by any two particles upon each other are at every inopposite and collinear therefore their impulses during
;
collinear. The impulses of the internal forces for the entire system have therefore a zero resultant. It follows immediately that
is
equal, opposite
and
equal
to the resultant
change
This general principle is closely analagous to the principle of the equivalence of the external forces and the effective forces (Art. 387). The equation of impulse and momentum is in fact the time-integral
of the equation of external
(resultant external force)
and effective
dt
forces.
Thus,
471. Algebraic Equations of Impulse and Momentum. The above general principle is true without restriction to plane motion.
To
dimensions acting upon a rigid body (Chapter X). When the mois restricted to a plane, the principle is expressed by three inde-
pendent equations, just as in the case of coplanar forces in Statics. The three independent equations may be {a) two equations of reso-
and one of moments, (Jf) one equation of resolution and two of moments, or (r) three equations of moments. The restrictions to be observed in choosing origin of moments and direction of resolution are the same as in Art. 104. In the case of a sudden impulse, the most useful equations are Equations (7) and (8) are oboften (7), (8) and (9) of Art. 461.
lution
*The remarks made in Art. 387 regarding the sultant " are applicable here.
meaning
of the
term "
re-
394
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
by resolving
in
In equation (9) the axis of moments is any line perpendicular to the plane of the motion. In order to express the
other directions.
value of
in
it
is
necessary to consider
the resultant
momentum
Momentum.
The
resultant of a set
A simi-
momentum
of any system of
particles
moving
its
in a plane.
If the vector
sum
of the
momenta
it is
is
not zero,
momentum.
As
in Art. 462,
momentum
in
the entire
may be determined
by a moment equation.
If the velocity of the mass-center is zero, the vector sum of the momenta of the particles is zero. In this case the resultant momentum is in general a couple, whose moment is the same for every
axis,
and
may
therefore be
computed
for
whatever axis
is
most con-
venient.
If
is
mo-
mentum
if
momentum
at rest
;
zero.
In this case
the system
rigid
it
must be
but
473. Resultant
Momentum
is
in Case of Translation
In the
momentum
is
mentum whose
mass-center
their
;
value
in
all
position-line) the
same
as if the entire
for the
momenta
parallel.
474. Resultant
Momentum
of
momen-
tum
a couple (Art. 472); its moment is equal to the angular momentum about the axis of rotation. The value of this moment is
395
/ is the moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation the angular velocity (Art. 465). In this case the angular momentum has the same value for all axes parallel to the axis of rotation.
and
o)
475. Resultant Momentum of Rigid Body Having Any Plane Motion. The resultant momentum in the general case of plane
motion
{ci)
is best determined by considering the actual instantaneous motion to be made up of two components as in Art. 443:
A rotation, A
is
assumed
axis,
The The
resultant
momentum
is /&).
is
couple whose
iU)
moment
resultant
momentum
is
a linear
momentum
Mv
These can be combined into a single linear momentum equal at a distance from the mass-center equal to Ia>IJ\[v, which
momentum.
In general, however,
it is
con-
venient to use the two components (a) and (b) rather than their
resultant.
The angular 476. Angular Momentum About Any Axis. momentum about any axis perpendicular to the plane of the motion may be found by taking the sum of the moments of the two com-
The moment of the couple of ponents of the resultant momentum. course has the same value /w for every axis.
plane of the motion
the entire
any axis perpendiailar to the angular mojnentuvi about a parallel axis containing the mass-center plus the angular momentum of
The angular
niomeiituni abont
is
equal
to the
tlie
mass-center.
4.
Any
477. Equations of Impulse and Momentum in General Case Motion. We are now prepared to apply the equations of Plane of
396
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
It
must
may
depending upon the choice of the coordinates of position and of the axis of moments. The appHcation of the equations may best be explained by the solution of specific problems. For convenience, the
general equations are here repeated.
X'
(i)
(2)
(3)
In equation (3),
the mass-center,
H=
.
L' This
the
is
= I Ace.
;
(4)
identical in
form
with equation (3) of Art. 467, which apabout any fixed axis but in that case /
moment
Let
a body,
initially at rest
but free to
known magnitude,
and
is
(momentum-increment)
Hence
sultant
momentum
its
distance of
line of action
its
body,
Mk'
^ /^
Let P' be the magnitude of the impulse, b the from the mass-center, mass of
M=
and
moment
= velocity of mass-center,
= an-
Then by Art. 475 the resultant momentum is equal in magnitude to Ah, its direction is that of v, and its moment about the mass-center is Mk^(o. Hence the direction
gular velocity just after the impulse.
of
P'
or
Instantaneous axis.
Let A
and
THE
of
PRIN'CIPLE OF IJIPULSE
AND MOMEXTIIM,
397
is
impulse is parallel to P', the instantaneous motion a rotation about some axis C intersecting BA produced. Let A s then v sco, or
after the
v/q)
k^lb.
The
points
C and B
way
as the centers
425).
of the instanta-
neous axis and of the angular velocity gives a clear idea of the state of motion immediately after the impulse. If the
"~^-
y'_^
body
is
Fig. 187.
at the
same
its
locus
is
a plane
The
surface traced in
body by the instantaneous axis is a circular cylinder of radius z whose geometrical axis contains the mass-center. Application of equations. To show the application of the equathe
Then
X'=^P',
and
if
= o;
moments
L = P'b.
Equations
(i), (2)
and
(4J therefore
become
o,
Mb.x
But Ai- and
= P',
%'
J/Ar r=
Jl/^'Aco
v,
P'b.
Av
and since
Ar
o,
=
ft,
A.r
to,
P';m.
Also, Aa>
becomes
in this case
hence
P'biMk\
as before.
To
illustrate
still
moments be
angular
is
taken about a point in the line of action P' momentum about this point is zero, the moment of P'
The
initial
zero,
hence
398
the angular
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
momentum
its
about
is
this
is
zero.
value
Mk'a>
equating this to zero,
Mvb
=
k''lb,
vlw
This
moment
equation
may
Examples.
straight bar of uniform small cross-section and uniform 1. density, free to take up any plane motion, receives a blow at a given Determine the instanpoint directed at right angles to its length. taneous axis of rotation. Pli2b, I being the length of Ans. With the above notation, z
the bar.
In Ex. I, let the mass of the bar be 20 lbs., its length 2 ft., the impulse be equivalent to that of a force of 1,000 Ibs.If ^ weight acting for o. i sec. //2, determine v and (o after the o) i5^rad.-per-sec. Ans, 5_g- ft. -per-sec impulse.
2.
and
let
v^
of uniform cross-section and uniform density, 2 ft. long, receives a blow in a direction perpendicular to its length at Determine the instantaneous axis. a point 6 ins. from one end.
3.
A straight bar
Ans. 4
4.
ins.
from end.
In Ex. I, let the direction of the impulse be inclined at angle Determine the instantaneous axis. 6 to the length of the bar.
5. If, in Ex. 3, the impulse is applied at the same point but in a direction inclined 30 to the bar, determine the instantaneous axis.
Ans. 4
6.
ins.
of uniform small thickness and uniform density is suspended by strings attached to two corners so that two edges It receives a blow perpendicular to its plane, applied at are vertical. the middle point of the lowest edge. Determine the instantaneous Ans. \i a side of square, s axis. a\b.
A square plate
7.
circular plate of
ness
suspended by a string attached at a point in the circumference. must it be struck in order that it shall begin to rotate about a vertical tangent ? Ans. At a point bisecting a horizontal radius. 8. If the plate suspended as in Ex. 7 receives a blow in a direction perpendicular to its plane and at a distance from the center
is
How
equal to one-third the radius, determine the instantaneous axis. Ans. z radius. 3/2, if
homogeneous parallelopiped of mass 10 kilogr. and dimensions (in cm.) 20 X 30 X 40, receives a blow whose direction is
9.
THE
PRINC^IPLE OF IMPULSE
AND MOMENTUM.
399
perpendicular to one of the largest faces and whose point of application is the middle point of its shorter edge. Determine the instantaneous axis. If the velocity of the mass-center after the impulse is i met.per-sec, determine the angular velocity and the value of the impulse.
Ans.
10.
1 1.
s^Syi cm.; w 12 rad.-per-sec. P'^ 10 dyne-seconds. In the above general problem, discuss the case b o.
;
is
infinite
while P'b
?
is finite.
12.
ball in
order that
shall
begin to
roll
without sliding
479. Effect of Impulsive Couple on Free Body Initially at Rest. If a body is subjected to two instantaneous impulses which
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and not coUinear, the motion of the
that the resultant
body immediately
after the
momentum
is
a couple.
the
moment
is
after the
impulse
= L'IMk\
Examples.
1. A uniform straight bar of length /receives simultaneously two blows applied close to the ends, at right angles to the length, and in Either blow alone, applied at the middle point, opposite directions. would give the bar a translational velocity V. Determine the motion
Ans.
2.
impulses P' and 2P' at right angles to the length and in the same direction, the former applied at the middle, the latter at one end. The impulse P' alone would give the bar a translational velocity V. Determine the instantaneous motion. Ans. A rotation with angular velocity 12 Vjl about an axis distant
A rotation about a central axis, with angular velocity 12 Vjl. A uniform straight bar of length / recei\'es simultaneously two
from the middle point. to A uniform bar 2 ft. long whose mass is 10 lbs., constrained impulse at a point 0.25 ft. from the an receives end, one rotate about instantaneous angular velocity of 360 per free end which gives it an applied to an exacdy similar bar which is is impulse equal An sec instantaneous motion. the Determine wholly free. of 247r/7 rad.-per-sec. about an axis sVi velocity angular An Ans. point. ins. from the middle the massA body is free to rotate about a fixed axis through Show that an impulsive couple will cause no hinge-impulse.
//4
center
400
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
itially at Rest.
480. Effect of Instantaneous Impulse on Free Body Not InThe momentum-increment due to a given impulse
value,
whatever the
after
initial
motion immediately
the impulse
is
motion due to the impulse with the motion previously existing. Thus if ir, y are the axial components of the velocity of the masscenter
and
Q)
if
are denoted
by a
single accent
impulse by a
double accent,
x"
y"
w"
in
-j-
Aft)
(2)
which Ax, Aj) and Atu are to be determined from equations and (4) of Art. 477.
(i),
The
pulse.
is
equal to the
vector Stan of
The angular
the algebraic
sum
Change of instantaneous
axis-
axis.
simply deterit
mined
is
body
It
is
in
may, however, be determined, by combining the change of motion due to the impulse with the initial motion. Let the changp of motion due to the impulse, computed as if
initially at rest.
the
'^
body were
initially at rest,
center
C (Fig.
;
J^^
f C"\
i*^
f ^
]
ity
ft)
let
V__^
Fig. 188.
and
let
the
motion immediately
impulse be a rotation about an instantaneous center C" with angular velocity a)". By Art. 437
after the
C"
lies
upon the
line
CC" X
and
If
ft)'
CC" X
ft)
ft)',
==
-|-
ft)'.
and
ft)
have
like signs,
lies
C"
lies
between
C and
C;
if
they
on
C C produced.
4OI
and
m"
CO
C"
is
at infinity
is
on
CC
In
this case
is
zero,
and the
resultant motion
a translation.
Examples.
circular disc of uniform density and thickness is rotating about a central axis perpendicular to its plane when it receives a blow directed along a tangent. What is the angular velocity after the impulse if the velocity of the mass-center is z""?
1
A free
Let r
impulse.
= radius
From
of disc, a'
its
P'
= Mv",
is
L ~ Mv"r
magnitude, but may be either positive or negative. the equation of moments about the mass-center is
in
If positive,
whence
If
Aw
negative,
7.v" \r
L'
is
Mv"lr=
m'
u>'
\Mr'b.w,
to'
-(-
2v"jr.
jr.
rotating wheel falls vertically in its own plane and strikes a 2. Determine horizontal plane which is perfectly rough and inelastic. [" Perfectly rough" means that no sliding the subsequent motion. "perfectly inelastic" means that the wheel does not rebound occurs but remains in contact with the plane. ]
;
This problem may be solved by a single equation obtained by taking moments about an axis through the point of contact of the The moment of the impulse about this axis wheel with the plane. is zero, hence the angular momentum has the same value before and Letting v" denote the velocity of the mass-center after the impulse. after the impulse, and taking other notation as usual, the angular momentum before the impulse is
After the impulse
if
it is
Mk'w
Aav
r,
is
Therefore
M%'''r.
MFo>
But
also,
= Mk'w" +
rO
;
v"
o)"
= rm" =
hence
a>'k'l{k'
V"
raili'lije
+ r%
circular disc of uniform thickness and density, of radius 2 3. mass and 50 lbs., rotating at the rate of 100 revoludons per ft. minute, falls in its own vertical plane and strikes a horizontal plane At the instant of striking its center has a horizontal velocity surface. If the of 20 ft.-per-sec. and a vertical velocity of 30 ft.-per-sec. plane is so rough that there is no sliding and so inelastic that there
26
402
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
(b) the value of
the impulse.
6.36 ft. -per-sec. depend20. 32 ft.-per-sec. or Ans. (a) v" (b) The horizontal impulse is either ing upon the direction of v' 1,318 poundal-seconds the vertical impulse 16 poundal-seconds or is 1,500 poundal-seconds.
,
resting with one end 4. A homogeneous right circular cylinder, upon a smooth horizontal plane, is set in motion by a jerk applied to Determine the inthe free end of a string wrapped on its surface.
stantaneous axis of rotation. Ans. At a distance from the geometrical axis equal to half the
radius.
the radius of the cylinder be 0.5 met. and its the angular velocity just after the impulse is 2 rev. -per-sec, what is the value of the impulse? What is the velocity of the mass-center? Velocity of mass-center Aiis. Impulse ^= 250,ooo7r dyne-sec.
5.
In Ex.
4, let
mass 5
kilogr.
If
body has any plane motion, when a certain line in the body, 6. perpendicular to the plane of the motion, suddenly becomes fixed. Determine the subsequent motion.
The impulse by whose action the stated change in the motion is in some line passing through the axis which becomes The angular momentum with respect to this axis is therefore fixed. The motion after the impulse may be determined by unchanged.
produced acts
equating the values of the angular
impulse.
7.
its
momentum
axis of figure
homogeneous right circular cylinder is rotating freely about when an element of the cylindrical surface suddenly
Determine the subsequent motion.
becomes
Let
the mass of the cylinder, a its radius, m its original angular velocity, o" its angular velocity after the impulse. The original value of the angular momentum about an axis instantaneously coinciding with an element of the surface is Md'oa I2. The angular momentum about this axis after the impulse is T^Ma^oi" I2. Hence
M be
fixed.
a"
= iw'.
8.
In Ex.
7,
The
Mam",
its
uniform straight bar of mass 10 lbs. and length 2 ft., rotat9. ing about its mass-center at the rate of 5 rev. -per-sec. receives a blow equivalent to a force of 100 lbs. acting for 0.5 sec. at a point 3 ins. from one end, in a direction perpendicular to the length of
,
403
velocity-
and angular
is 7. 10 ins. from middle point of bar. the initial motion described in Ex. 9, {a) what impulse will reduce the motion to a translation of 10 ft. -per-sec. ? (J?) What impulse will leave the body at rest? Ans. (a) An impulse of 100 poundal-seconds, whose line of action is ^TT ft. from the mass-center.
With
11. Show that an impulsive couple, applied to a body rotating about an axis containing the mass-center, does not change the axis of
rotation.
is 10 kilogr. and least radius of gyration has at a certain instant a translational velocity of 2 met. -persec. and an angular velocity of 2 rev. -per-sec. Two opposite impulses are simultaneously applied in lines 10 cm. apart, each equivalent to a force of 5,000 dynes acting for 10 sec. Determine the subsequent motion. Ans. The linear velocity is unchanged the angular velocity is increased or decreased by 2/9 rad. -per-sec.
12.
15
cm.
The
momentum
produces
may
be applied to
If the
as forming a system.
bodies
by
strings or
by
hinges,
internal,
be omitted from the equations of impulse and momentum for the system. For plane motion three independent equations can therefore be written which do not involve the impulses
of these forces of these internal forces or "reactions."
sufficient to
may
To complete
it is
unknown
will
reactions.
be
illustrated
by examples.
Examples.
connected by a frictionless I. Two uniform straight bars AB,BC, is a. straight line. hinge at B, rest on a horizontal plane so that receives at a certain point a horizontal blow at right The bar angles to its length. Determine the motion just after the impulse.
ABC
AB
Let P' denote the impulse, applied at distance a from Let m, m' be the masses and /, /' the lengths of 189).
.^^respectively.
AB
(Fig.
and
404
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
,
P' it is obvious that every Let v point of both bars will instantaneously move parallel to P' and to its be the velocity of the mass-center of '^ angular velocity, v' ta' being the velocity of the masscenter of C and its angular velocity. Then ?;' can _, be expressed in terms of w, (u, <', as follows If u is the velocity of B,
.
AB
1/
Fig. 189.
Equating the impulse P' to the linear of the system after the impulse,
P'
momentum
= mv ^ =
(jn
m'v'
-\-
mYii
^in'(/co
-\-
/'to').
(i)
B for the B
for the
P'a
= mPrnj 12 =
invljx.
(2)
body BC,
4/'q)' ;7zV^a>7i2 m'v'r I2 bv^ml' I12. o (3/0 (3) Equations (i), (2) and (3) serve to determine v, a> and o)' when P' is known. Without knowing P' the ratios of to, (o' and v can be determined.
,
2. If the two bars are equal in all respects and the impulse applied at the middle point oi AB, show that 00 at bvJiL
= ^
is
3. At what point must the impulse be applied in order that the bar i?C shall be instantaneously at rest? Will it remain at rest? 4. In Ex. I, suppose the two bars equal in all respects and the Show that a>' impulse applied at A. aJT) ^= ^v/^l.
^
,
bodies A, B of masses vi, ni are connected by a string 5. which coincides with the line joining their mass-centers. At a certain instant they are moving with equal velocities at right angles to the string, when receives an impulse in the direction which, if were free, would have deflected it 45. Determine the motion just after the impulse, assuming that the string does not stretch nor break. 6. The initial conditions being as in Ex. 5, let receive an impulse directed at an angle of 30 from produced, of such magnitude that if were free is would be deflected 15. Determine the motion just after the impulse. A/IS. If V is the original velocity, the bodies have equal velocities [o.2,i6gjn/(m m')']v in the direction after the impulse; the velocity of perpendicular to is unchanged, while the final velocity of ^ perpendicular to is 1.183^'.
Two
BA
BA
BA
BA BA
CHAPTER
XXIII.
THEORY OF ENERGY.
482.
I.
Work of a Stress. The forces which any two particles upon each other are equal and opposite, constituting a stress The total work done by the two forces of a stress during (Art. 36). any displacements of the particles upon which they act may be comexert
puted as follows Let A and B (Fig. 190) be the two the magnitude of apart at any instant,
:
particles,
their distance
Assume
that
upon
BA
then the
force acting
direction
upon
AB.
infini-
Fig. 190.
BB', such through by AB is also infinitesimal, and let turned angle that the orthographic projections of these displacements the be AA", BB"
,
AA
upon AB.
Then
;
P X AA" = work done by force P acting on A PX BB" = " " " " P " " B;
P{BB"
But
if
AA") = work done by BB" AA" = A"B" - AB = A'B' cos (dd) - AB,
total
stress.
d6
is
And
. .
since
= woy +
A'B' cos (d0) differs from A'B' by an infinitesimal order, and A'B' AB A'B' cos (d0)
of the second
^AB =
stress
;
= dr.
The
total
Pdr
; :
406
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
Pdr,
(i)
r'
initial
and
^^
final
values of
r.
The same
Let
(^1 Ji
,
result
,
may
{x.^
^'i)
and
^2)
particles
A
is
and
B respectively,
and
AB and the axes. By Art. 352, the work done by either of the axial comforces P equal to the sum of the works done by Hence the force P acting upon A does an amount of ponents.
work
fP cos a
dxi
fP cos
/8
dy^
fP cos 7
-\
ds^
P acting upon B does an amount of work fP cos a dx.^ -\-fP cos yS dy^ fP cos 7
dz^
and
final positions
of the particles.
is
The
total
work done by
therefore
fP\{dx^
dx^ cos a +
r-^
idyi
7].
From
the equation
=
(x,
(X.,
- z,y,
there results,
by
differentiation,
rdr=
fe
dr
^1)/^ = cos
(y^
y^)fr = cos
(dy,
/3,
(z^
(dz^
z,)lr
= cos
7,
we have
(dx.,
dXj) cos a +
total
dy^) cos
Pdr,
/3
dz^ cos
7.
as before.
Two particles
rigidly connected.
if
If the
two
particles
and
move in such a way that the distance between them remains constant, the work done by the stress is zero
are rigidly connected, or
they
for if
;'
is
is
zero,
of P, so long as
THEORY OF ENERGY.
The above reasoning
4O7
obviously holds for any two equal and oppoapplied to two particles and directed along the line joining them, whether the two forces constitute a stress, or whether they are
site forces
done by an
internal force.
484. Configuration.
particles of a
system
particles
is
called a configuration.
between the
constant.
If
remain constant, the configuration remains the configuration does not change, the system either
if
internal stress.
The
total
is
2.
Particles.
a system
When the condition of 486. Energy of a System Defined.* is such that it can do work against external forces, it is said
to possess energy.
The quantity of energy of a system is the quantity of external work it will do in passing from its present condition to some standard
condition.
The meaning
discussion of the
of
' '
condition
' '
will
method of estimating the quantity of energy. It has been of a System of Particles. Energy Kinetic 487. velocity and mass v possesses of m particle a that shown (Art. 358) theamount the "stand4;w', to energy kinetic or motion energy of
ard condition
*
' '
being one of
rest.
an
the
Some
of the defini-
principles there given are here repeated in order to following more rigorous discussion complete.
and
make
4o8
7i, 72,
. .
,
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
having velocities
%\, v^
possesses
hn{o^
For
if
\m.p}
+
will
by the
action of external
forces, this
amount
of external
work
be done.
Potential Energy.
488.
particle
forces,
its
it
Energy
of
Configuration, or
is
If
any
of a system
For unchanged so long as the internal work done upon it is equal to the external work done by it. It thus appears that a system may be able to do external work (and therefore may possess energy) by reason of the internal forces. Since the total internal work is zero for any displacement which leaves the configuration unchanged, this form of energy depends upon the
may do
possibility of
It
may
therefore be called
is,
energy of configuration.
The name
potential energy
however,
more
generally used.
489.
Meaning
of
Standard Condition.
The
is
meaning of the
in the definition of
By
amount of energy possessed by a necessary to assume a standard configuration and a standard set of velocities and to compute the total quantity of external work done by the particles while the system passes from the given condition to this standard condition. In estimating the kinetic energy of a particle, any velocity may be taken as the standard, but it will here be assumed zero for every
In order to estimate the total
in
system
a given condition,
it
is
particle.
and does not detract from the generality of the discussion. The choice of the standard configuration will be governed by
convenience in each particular case.
490. Total
Energy
of
a System.
will
now be
Let
work done by a
system
in
condition.
THEORY OF EXERGV.
Let
7',
4O9
/,
forces,
similar equation
may be
that
is,
By
addition,
{E,
Or,
if
/^
.
+
.
...
.
i,
K = \m{i\'
the equation
-I-
\m{o:^
+
K.
may
be written
= /+
Since
all
the particles
it is
by
definition
its initial
condition.
/ and-
K whose sum
Of
is
is
sum
is
of the
The
part
the total
standard condition. This is the energy of configuration o^t: potential In regard to this quantity an important question must be energy.
raised.
A system may, in gen491. Is Energy a Definite Quantity? present condition standard condition in to the its eral, change from
different ways.
Can
it
will
actually followed ?
be the same, whichever one of the possible If different ways of making the change
work, the energy of the sysdefined, cannot have a definite value. been has term tem as the obviously has definite value, depending only a energy The kinetic their masses. particles and It remains to the of velocities upon the
result in different quantities of external
And
4IO
tential
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
energy
is
internal forces
during the change to the standard configuration (Art. 490), the question reduces to this Does the total work done by the internal forces
:
depend only upon the initial and final configurations, or does it depend upon the way in which the change of configuration takes place? In the case of any actual material system, this question can be
answered only by experience.
The foregoing
upon one
another forces which, for any two particles, act along the line joining
the particles, and follow Newton's law of action and reaction.
No
any two
particles
apart,
make
the internal
;
work
total
change of configuration
it
is
equally
make
in
Ideally,
may
exist.
work done during any change of configuration initial and final configurations, the system is
work depends upon the way
is
in
which the
is
change of configuration
It is
is
non-conservative.
Law
of Force in Conservative
System.
It
may be shown
system is magnitude
any two
particles of the
and
if its
depends only upon their distance apart, the system is conservative. It was shown in Art. 482 that the work done by the stress between any two particles
is
equal to
X
if
Pdr,
r'
/"is the magnitude of each of the equal and opposite forces of the stress, r the distance between the particles, r' and r"the initial
THEORY OF ENERGY.
4I
and final values of r. If jP is a function of r, fPdr is a function of r, and the definite integral is a function of r' and r" Since the internal forces consist wholly of stresses, the total internal work is a function of the initial and final values of the distances between the particles that is, it depends only upon the initial and final configurations. The assumed law of force therefore makes the system conservative. The above assumption is not, however, the only one which makes Considering all possible pairs of particles, the system conservative. let P^ be the magnitude of the stress acting between a pair whose P^ the magnitude of the stress between a pair distance apart is r, whose distance apart is r.^ etc. and let / denote the total work done by the internal forces during any given change of configuration.
.
;
Then
(Art. 482)
dl
\i P^, P.^,
.
= P,dr, +
.
P,dr,
....
Tj
,
r,
that the
second member
r
,r.
,
of this equation
,
limits gives /as a function of the initial and final values of r^,r. that is, as a function of the initial and final configurations.
.
As an
illustration,
is
is
conservative
if
P,
= A -^ B{r, + P, = A + B(,r, +
P,=
A,
A+ B(r, +
r,)
+ + +
Cr,r,;
Cr,r,;
Cr,r,
;
particles attract each other with a stress of constant magWhat is the potential energy of the nitude equal to 100 poundals. ft. apart, if in the standard configare lo particles
1
Two
ft.
apart
mversely particles attract each other with forces varymg 2 being attraction of the value the apart, distance as the square of their distance is b in the standard configthe If a. is distance c when the energy of the system when the distance uration, what is the potential
Two
Ans. ca\ilb ilr). three particles attracting one another of consists system , The square of the distance. according to the law oi the inverse in when i met. apart is 5,000 dynes, two any between attraction jg^?
412
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
the Standard configuration their distances are 2, 3 and 4 met. respectively. Determine the value of the potential energy when each of the three distances is 10 met. Ans. 3.92 lo'* ergs.
494. Principle of
and
final
conditions
may be
is
condition as C.
external
total
work
a definite quantity E^
total external
in the condition C^
In passing from C^ to
work
is
to the energy of the system in the condition C^. Hence in passing from Ci to C.^ the external work done by the system is a definite quantity E^ That is, E^.
,
TJie total external work done by a conservative system during any change of condition is equal to the decrease of its total energy. The same principle may be stated in the following form The total work done upon a conseriiative system by externalforces during any change of condition is equal to the increase of its total
:
energy.
As
is
no external work
done.
The
total
In the following Section will be given a brief discussion of the theory of energy as applied to the actual systems of nature.
3.
Conservation of Energy.
495. Transfer of
When
loses
Energy from One System to Another work against external forces, it an amount of energy equal to the work done. In certain cases this loss is accompanied by a gain of energy on the part of some other body or system. Thus, consider two bodies A and B (Fig. 191) to be in contact and to be exerting upon each
a conservative system does
Fig. 191.
other equal and opposite forces at the surface of contact, the magnitude of each force being P, and
its direction being normal to the surface of contact. Let the bodies receive displacements whose components parallel to
THEORY OF ENERGY.
4X3
the forces are equal, each being equal to h, and their direction being such that does positive work and therefore does negative work.
The body
A A
an equal amount.
The
resulted in no change in their total amount of energy; one has gained exacdy as much as the other has lost.* Again, consider two rough bodies ^J and i; in contact (Fig.
192),
exerting upon each other forces which have components both normal and tangential to the surface of contact. The normal components
are equal and opposite forces
N, and the tangendal components are equal and opposite forces T. Let both bodies be displaced parallel to the forces let Ii be the displacement of and h" the displacement of
'
B, their directions being the same, and h being greater than h " No work is
' .
Ti^
done by or against
forces.
either of the
normal
"I-
The
forces
T
;
Fig. 192.
body over the other that is, the direction of the force T acting upon A is opposite to the direction of the displacement of its point of application, while the force T acting upon B acts in the direction
of the displacement of
its
point of application.
The body
to
TIi
',
+ +
If,
Th'.
The body
to
B does
A
work equal
to
Tk" and
,
Tk".
therefore loses
The body
gains.
The
o, B gains no enA. and there is Another example of an apparent loss of energy is furnished by a moving body suddenly brought to rest, as a falling body striking the The kinetic energy possessed by the body just before strikearth. ing is wholly lost, without any apparent gain by other bodies.
gained hy
ergy,
is
by
^i.
If
h"
an apparent loss of
all
or of should be noticed that nothing is here said of the relation of from may be continually The energy received by transferred, in whole or in part, to other bodies.
*
It
to other bodies.
414
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
An
example of the
transfer of
body moving upward against the force of gravity. is moving upward with velocity v, possesses kinetic mass m, body of A energy equal to \mv'. As it rises, its kinetic energy decreases and Is this loss accompanied by a gain on the finally is wholly lost. The other body concerned is the part of other bodies or systems ? obviously the system consisting of the earth and the body earth has gained an amount of potential energy equal to mgh, if k is the If, during this ascent, the vertical distance ascended by the body. velocity of the body changes from v^ to v.^ its loss of kinetic energy
furnished by a
; ,
is
v^^) are equal (Art. 227); But m;A and ^mQi'^ that is, the gain of potential energy by the system of the earth and the body is exactly equal to the loss of kinetic energy by the body. The last example is an illustration of what occurs whenever a conservative system suffers a change of configuration without doing
im(_Vi
I'./).
external work.
The
individual
If, in the supposed case, the an equal amount of potential energy. earth and the body be regarded as a system, their energy does not vary in total amount, but merely changes, in part from kinetic to
potential.
To summarize: When a body or a system loses may be {a) an equal gain by other bodies or systems
other systems apparently less than the loss
(c)
energy, there
(1^)
a gain by
;
or
no apparent gain by other systems. In some cases, then, there seems to be a disappearance of energy.
496. Equivalence
of
In
many
cases
in
which energy disappears, heat is generated, and it is found that there is a definite relation between the quantity of energy that disappears
and the quantity of heat that is generated. Taking as the unit quantity of heat the amount which will raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree Fahr. (the British thermal unit), the disappearance of 778 foot-pounds of energy is accompanied by the generation
of
I
unit of heat.*
To make
be
temperature of a pound of water one degree is not exactly the same at all temperatures. The numerical value of the energy-equivalent of the unit heat, expressed in foot-
THEORY OF ENERGY.
415
In Other cases, as in the steam-engine, energy comes into existence while heat disappears one unit of heat being consumed for every 778 foot-pounds of energy generated.
;
From these facts it is natural to conclude that heat and energy are equivalent, and that a given quantity of one may be transformed into an equivalent quantity of the other.
497. Forms of Energy. Modern science goes further and regards heat not merely as equivalent to energy but as being actually a
form of energy. Moreover, heat is but one of several forms of energy into which the ordinary kinetic and potential energy possessed by bodies and systems may be converted, either directiy or indirecdy. The meaning of the word energy is thus enlarged and we recog;
nize mechanical
energy.
Mechanical energy.
particles
is
-Energy which
The
mechanical energy.
486-494
Heat
energy.
The
kind of energy.
Chemical
energy.-
The
is is
often accompanied
by the generation
found to be a definite relation between the amount of chemical change and the quantity of heat generated. Thus, if one pound of water is produced by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, the quantity
of heat generated
is
units.
pound
of water
may be decomposed
hydrogen and
oxygen.
when uncombined
may
Electrical energy.
sessed b> bodies
Another important form of energy is posby reason of their electrical condition. If a body
ity.
pounds, varies with the value of the pound-force, which varies with the localThe value 778 foot-pounds is sufficiently correct for most purposes.
in
Expressed
British
absolute units of
work
equivalent of the unit heat is approximately 25,000. Using French units, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water a degree Cent,
is
kilograms of energy.
41
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
charged with
electricity,
and
if
of potential,*
actually takes
body possesses
electrical
energy.
If the flow
energy
is
form.
a continuous flow
of electricity and a
A part
may be transformed into mechanical energy by means of a motor. Or the current may be employed in decomposing a chemically compound substance Nature of
it
as water into
its
plausible supposition
that heat
On this supposition, these forms of enwhich bodies are made up. ergy do not differ in nature from the kinetic and potential energy possessed by any system by virtue of its configuration and of the
visible
motions of
its
is
parts.
kinetic energy possessed by the moand a possible explanation of the development of heat during the chemical combination of two substances is that there is a transformation of mechanical energy from potential into kinetic. The atoms of hydrogen and those of o.xygen, when brought into
that
it
certain relations,
may
exert
forces,
of which the particles approach one another or assume definite relative positions
;
during
this
particles
by these
forces,
and
their kinetic
may
thus be in-
same
No
The above
explanation of the meaning of electrical potential can be given here. brief statement regarding electrical energy presupposes an eleelectricity.
THEORY OF ENERGY.
nature as ordinary mechanical energy then transformed into kinetic.
chanical energy possessed
;
Ajy
first potential,
being at
and
Attempts have been made to explain electrical energy as meby the hypothetical "ether." The supposition that all energy is really mechanical may or may not become more probable with the advance of knowledge the fact that the different forms of energy are equivalent in the sense that a definite quantity of one can be converted into a definite quantity of another is independent of any hypothesis as to their nature.
;
498. Conservation of
sults of
Energy
modern
science
is
system of bodies gains or loses energy wihout an equivalent gain by other bodies or systems.
499. Conservation of Energy in Machines.
structure designed to
A machine
is
do work against external forces. In doing external work, a machine loses an amount of energy equal to the work done. Energy must therefore be supplied to it if it is to continue to do work indefinitely. The operation of a machine
thus involves () the transfer of energy to the machine from other
bodies,
and
bodies.
If they go on at unequal rates, the quantity by the machine fluctuates. If energy is received by the machine and given off by it at the same rate, the machine is a body or system in equilibrium. In this case the relations which must hold among the forces acting upon it may be determined by the principles of Statics. Machines have been The theory of energy considered from this point of view in Part I. furnishes a means of dealing with machines in a more general manner.
nearly the
same
rate.
of energy possessed
machine
may be
ergy given up by a machine which is equivalent to the useful work done may be called utilized energy. The energy given up by the machine can never be wholly utilized. In order that the parts of the
machine
may move
;
in the desired
other bodies
: :
4l8
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
be done. In doing work against the frictional forces, energy is transformed into heat. Such energy may be called lost, since no useful effect can be obtained from it. The external forces acting upon a machine may be classified (as in Art. iii) as efforts, resistances {useful 2x\A prejudicial'), and In terms of work and energy these may be defined as constraints.
follows
An
effort
is
The machine
A resistance
a force
work upon the machine. work done. which does negative work upon the ma-
The
machine gives up a quantity of energy equal to the work done. Energy given up in doing work against useful resistances is utilized; it is lost if given up in doing work against prejudicial resistances. A constraint is a force which does no work, positive or negative,
upon the machine. The office of a constraint is to guide the motion No energy is gained or lost by the machine of some machine part. by reason of a constraint.
501. Equation of
Energy
for
a Machine.
is
The transformations
may be
follows
Let
= energy received by the machine W = work done by the machine against useful resistances = energy utilized W" = work done by the machine againstprejudicial resistances = energy E = increase the quantity of energy possessed by the
;
efforts
lost
in
machine.
Then
If
W= W +
is
W" +
E.
equation
W= W +
IV".
The same equation holds if the interval is so chosen that the energy possessed by the machine has the same value at the end as at the beginning of the interval, even though it has fluctuated during the
interval.
THEORY OF ENERGY.
502. Efficiency.
lost
is
419
For the efficient working of a machine, the be made as small as possible. The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the energy utilized to the energy received by the machine, the energy stored in the machine
energy
to
being supposed to remain constant (or the interval of time to be so taken that the total energy lost by the machine has equaled the total energy received).
so that
E =^
o.
The
efficiency
may be
e^ W'/IV=
If
is
]V'/(JV'
W").
i
;
IV" could be
made
i.
would be
its
actual value
Examples.
1. The fuel used in running a steam-engine is coal of such composition that the combustion of i lb. produces heat sufficient to raise the temperature of 12,000 lbs. of water 1 Fahr. It is found that 3 J^ What is the lbs. of fuel are consumed per horse-power per hour. Ans. 0.061 nearly. efficiency of the entire apparatus?
steam-engine uses coal of such composition that the com2. If 40 lbs. of bustion of I lb. generates 10,000 British thermal units. coal are used per hour, and if the efficiency is 0.08, what horse-power
is
realized?
3. A dynamo is driven by an engine working as described in Ex. 2. If its efficiency is 0.78, what "activity" in kilowatts is represented by the current generated?
4.
Principle of
to
Rigid System.
503. Potential
Art. 485 that
Rigid System.
zero.
is
zero.
When
the condition
any instant
is
Translation.
In case of
par-
The
kinetic energy
is
therefore
420
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
if
K = \m,v,' -^ \m,v,' +
is
= \Mv\
v the
. . .
(i)
velocity of every
particle.
{b) Rotation
Let
r^, r^,
be the
m^, m^,
I the
moment of inertia of the system with rew the angular velocity at any instant.
;
The velocities
and the
r^co,
r.fi),
kinetic
energy
is
therefore
.
)(o'
or
(c)
is
JT^i/o)^
(2)
rigid
Any
plane motion.
body
every instant equivalent to a rotation about a definite axis, the kinetic energy in any case (except translation) is given by equation
at
(2),
if
is
the
moment
axis.
but in general
is-
variable.
Let
M=
a
/
total
mass of system
moment
aco
to instantaneous axis
^ velocity of mass-center. I= Ma' From Art. 400, = therefore K= + \Mv\ term of this value of K would be the value of the The
V
I^
-\;
i/<o'
\I,a,'
(3)
first
kinetic
energy of the system if rotating, with its actual angular velocity, about a fixed axis through the mass-center. The second term would be the value of the kinetic energy if every particle had a velocity
equal to that of the mass-center.
rotational energy
505. Principle of
for
is
Rigid System.
total
1
work done
r
c-
rigid system
is
equal
to the
decrease increase
,
its
>
of '
THEORY OF ENERGY.
506. Equation of
42
the total work done upon a rigid system by all external forces during a certain interval, and let v' and v" be the initial
Let
W denote
in Case of Translation.
and
is
final
If the
motion
is
W=\M{v"'
which
ticle
is
v"),
(4)
of mass
M moving
K
may
work and energy for a parwith the center of mass of the system.
;
equation applies to any case in which the angular for equation (3) shows that if w is constant the whole change in is equal to the change in the term \Mv'\
velocity
The same
remains constant
Equation (4)
therefore be applied to
is
any case in which the rea single force whose line of action mass-center of tlie body ; since the angular velocthis condition is fulfilled (Art. 444).
constant
when
force
may be
its
computed
as
if
a displacement
ing
W.
507. Equation of
in Case of
Rotation.
If
If
equation (2) gives the value of to' and a>" are the initial and
may be
W=\I{o,-'~a>'^).
508. Computation of
(5)
Work
in Case of Rotation.
The work
done by any force upon a rotating body may be expressed in terms of the moment of the force and the angular displacement of the body. Let A (Fig. 193) be the point of appH cation of a force, being the center of the circle described by A. Let P magnitude of
force
tion
; ;
r
(f>
= length OA L = moment of P about the axis of rota= angle between OA and P; ^ angle between OA and
;
some
422
If the
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
body
receives an infinitesimal angular displacement dd, the
is
displacement ol A
rdQ, and
its
direction
is
perpendicular to
force
is
OA.
The
work, done
by the
therefore
dW=Prsm^-de.
But
hence
= Pr sin ^ dW = L dO.
Z
for
is
That
Fig. 193.
is,
work done
moment
For a
values of 6
finite
;
initial
and
final
then
W=\
If
Ldd.
iv
509. Equation of
= L{e"
e').
in
Any
Plane Motion.
Let a rigid system, restricted to plane motion, be acted upon by any forces, and receive any displacement during a certain interval. Let Jll, 1, p, V, CO, (}>, 6 have the same meanings as in Arts. 443, 446 let
;
P denote
their
the vector
sum
and
the
sum
of
is
(Art. 445)
P= Mp,
being identical with the equation of motion of a particle of mass
acted
upon by a
force P.
Resolving
tangent to
the path described by the mass-center, and integrating the resulting equation exactly as in Art. 353, there results the equation
W,= Wiv"'-v"),
in
(6)
is
which v'
is
the
initial
final
value of v, and
W^
the
total
The equation
of angular motion
is
(Art. 446)
L = I(dw/dt).
THEORY OF ENERGY.
Multiplying this equation
423
the equation
dQ
member by member by
do).
a> dt.
^0'
Integrating,
C
*/ nt
= Iw L dd = \I(w" w'
L dQ
''
'),
in
initial
which eu' and m" are the initial and and final values of 6.
final
values of
&),
The
first
member
of this equation
actual forces
if
is
CaUing
this quantity
W,
= i/(<o"'-a,'^).
(7)
Referring to the value of the total kinetic energy of a rigid system, given in equation (3), it is seen that the values of W^ and W^ given by equations (6) and (7) are equal respectively to the increcalled
ments of the two portions of the kinetic energy which have been energy of translation and energy of rotation. Hence the
may
be stated
In any plane motion of a rigid system, the increment of the energy translation is eqzial to the work done by the external forces comof puted as if they were applied at the mass- center ; the increment of the rotational energy is equal to the work done by the external forces
Examples.
of mass 20 lbs. and radius 6 ins. axis of figure at the rate of 300 rev. -per-min. Required the value of the kinetic energy in foot-pounds.
1.
homogeneous cylinder
its
rotates about
2. The mass of a wheel-and-axle is 50 lbs., its radius of gyration with respect to the axis of rotation is 10 ins., and the radius of the It is set rotating by a constant tension of 5 poundsaxle is 6 ins. Required the angular force in the rope which unwinds from the axle. velocity of the body after making 4 rev. starting from rest.
,
Ans. 1.72
rev. -per-sec.
3. Take data as in Ex. 2, except that the tension is due to a weight of 5 lbs. suspended from the rope, {a) Determine the angular (1^) Determine the tension velocity of the body after making 4 rev. [Neglect the weight of the rope in both cases. ] in the rope.
Ans. () 1.69
rev. -per-sec.
424
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
;
4. A body of any shape is projected upward against gravity determine the height to which the mass-center will rise, if no external force acts except gravity. Solve by the principle of work and energy. [Notice that the reasoning by which equation (6) was deduced is valid without restricting the motion to a plane.]
5. Apply the equation of work and energy to a compound pendulum, and deduce equation (5) of Art. 425. 6. Solve Ex. 9, Art. 447, by the principle of work and energy.
7.
Solve Ex.
by the
principle of
5.
Work
for
a System of Particles.
has been shown (Art. 369) that if a particle in equilibrium be assumed to receive any arbitrary small displacement, the total work
done upon
principle
it
by
all
forces
is
equal to zero.
By
That is. If every particle of a system is in equilibrium, the total work done upon all the particles during any arbitrary small displacements
to
may be extended
any system of
particles.
is zero.
work"
obtained by applying In
many
may be
so taken as to
Work
for
Rigid
Body. Since
the
work
is
may
equation of virtual
work
for a rigid
body.
That
If a rigid body is in equilibrium, the total work done by ternal forces during any arbitrary displacement is zero.
the ex-
In applying this principle, it is generally necessary to take the displacement infinitely small, since a finite displacement will so change the relation among the lines of action of the forces that they
will
no longer be
in equilibrium.
is
Since the negative of any one of a number of forces in equilibrium the resultant of all the rest, and since reversing a force reverses the
sign of the
work done by
it
it
of work done by any number of external forces acting upon a rigid body during any displacement is equal to the work done by their resultant.
THEORY OF ENERGY.
512. Equations of Equilibrium for a Rigid Body.
eral equations in
425
The gen-
Part
I,
may be
a
work. Thus,
if
body be conceived
work
of any force
is
equal to
the product of the displacement into the resolved part of the force
in the direction of the displacement
;
and the
total virtual
work
is
sum
of the re-
Since
work
is
it follows that, for equilibrium, the algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in any direction is zero. Again, let the virtual displacement be a rotation about a fixed
axis
any force
is
moment
(Art.
508)
total
and the
total virtual
into the
sum
is
of
work is equal to the angular displacement Since this the moments of the forces about M.
it
work
sum of
the
moments of
the forces
about any axis is equal to zero. These two general forms include all the equations of equilibrium for forces applied to a rigid body, whether in two dimensions or in
three, as already given in
Chapter X.
work
is
ap-
plied to a system of rigid bodies connected in any manner, as by hinges or strings, or pressing against one another, the equation of
work must in general include {a) all external forces acting upon any of the bodies and (Jf) the forces exerted by the bodies upon one In certain important cases, another by reason of their connections. however, forces due to connections may be omitted from the equation
because
it can be seen that their work vanishes. Thus, any two adjacent portions of a tense string exert upon each If the distance between forces constituting a tensile stress.
other
work
will
work of the stress is the two portions remains constant, the total changes, the total string zero (Art. 482). But if the length of the If a system includes zero. of the internal forces will not be
two bodies which are connected by a
string, the tension in this string
if
the dis-
426
placement
length.
is
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
such that the string remains tight and of unchanged
true of the contact-stress between
if
The same
placement
is
is
and reaction between two bodies connected by a smooth hinge joint may be omitted from the equation of virtual work. But if the surfaces are rough and the displacement is such that sliding occurs, the frictional work must enter the equation.
514. Solution of Problems in Equilibrium.
virtual
work
The method
forces,
finitesimal displacement,
is to assume an arbitrary incompute the work done by all the applied and equate the total work to zero. By choosing different
may
be obtained.
In general, for
its
By
elim-
forces acting
on a
rigid
body may be
two points
may
be
chosen
by
Principle of
Work
The
work
machine or a combination of simple machines. System of pulleys. To determine the relation between effort and load in case of a system of pulleys arranged as in Fig. 1 94.
The system
three pulleys
consists of
two
sets of pulleys,
upon a common axis and free to rotate independently of one another and a cord passing continuously around the pulleys as shown, one end being attached at A, and the
mounted
freely
effort
P being
' '
The
is
is
applied to
may be the weight of a heavy body, or it may be a force applied horizontally or in any other direction. Assuming the cord to be perfectly flexible and inextensible, and
B.
This
load
'
THEORY OF ENERGY.
neglecting axle friction, the principle of work
follows
:
427
may be
applied as
tance
Let the system be displaced in such a way as to shorten the disby an amount k, the cord remaining tense. The straight
AB
portions of the cord being practically parallel to AB, the end of the cord moves a distance 6/l The effort
and the
sets
the equation of
two
IV are the only forces entering system composed of the of pulleys and the cord, and we have
resistance
work
for the
work done by
"
effort
== 6PA
" load
is
IV/i.
The equation
of
work
therefore
.
6Pk~ Wk==o;
may
P=
W/6.
Train of toothed wheels. The principle of work be applied without difficulty to any connected
one of which
is
rotation,
mounted upon fixed axes at ^, i? and C, so connected by teeth that an angular displacement of one must be accompanied by a proportional angular displacement of each of the others. A
force P, applied as shown, tends to pro-
The relation between the displacements of any two points of the system may readily be determined from the diNeglecting axle friction and connection. of manner mensions and
friction at the surfaces
for
no
forces except
P and
Q.
If
and b are the distances moved by the points of apphcation of Q respectively, the equation of work is
P and
Pa
Pulleys
Qb
o.
and
belts.
Let
set of
machinery
428
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
freely
upon a common axis, each connected by a belt with another pulley from which it receives (or to which it imparts) (Fig. motion by means of the belt.
and mounted
196.)
~^^
~^T'
Assuming the belts to be perfectly and inextensible, and neglecting axle friction, the equation of work may
flexible
:
be written as follows Lgt a and i> be the radii of the two Fig. ig6. pulleys, T and T' the tensions in the two portions of one belt, .S and S' the Then, for any angular tensions in the two portions of the other. displacement A^, the equation of work is
TaAe
or
T'aAd
SdA0
S'6A0
= o;
(TT'}a={S~S')d.
A screw, used as a machine, is arranged to work in a Screw. and is usually provided with an arm rigidly attached to the fixed nut,
screw and at right angles to
its
length.
to
The
it
end of
length.
this
of a heavy
body which
is
to
be
lifted,
upon a
solid foundation in
the earth.
Neglecting
friction,
may be
found as follows
Let
P=
;
effort,
applied at distance
W=
of rotation of
to the axis of
rate,
so that the
all
work done by
forces
upon the body be computed for one revolution. The work done by Pis itraP; that done by H^is forces exerted by the fixed body do no work, if friction The total work done upon the body is
acting
2'iraP
Wb.
is
The
neglected.
Wb =
whence
P =;
JVb/2Tra.
THEORY OF ENERGY.
By making
with P.
b small, IF
429
may be made
The
They
are
all
problems
I.
in Statics,
and may
also
Examples.
Determine the position of equilibrium of a bar resting with both ends against the inner surface of a smooth hemispherical bowl. If the bar be displaced from the position of equilibrium in such a way that the ends slide along the surface of the bowl, the work done by the reactions is zero hence the work done by gravity (the only other external force) must be zero. This requires that the displace1.
;
be horizontal. In order that this every possible sliding displacement, the center of gravity must be vertically below the center of the bowl.
shall
fulfilled for
2. Find the position of equilibrium of a heavy bar resting with ends upon two smooth inclined planes. (Fig. 197) represent the bar, C being its center of gravity, Let and let it receive a displacement such that the ends slide upon the Reasoning as in Ex. i, it is seen that, if the bar is displaced planes. from the position of equihbrium, the displacement of C must be horizontal if the ends slide along the planes, since the work done by the weight of the bar must then be zero. From this condition and the geometry its
AB
of the figure, the position of equilibrium be determined. Let Q be the inclination of the bar to the horizontal, and y the vertical distance of the center of gravity above a horizontal plane through the line of in-
may
^^^4:
""C^
/3
Let a tersection of the supporting planes. a, of the planes to the horizontal, pressed as a function of Q the result is
AC =
and
CB
_y
t)
p)
a sin
6.
As
on the
dyjdd
o.
and reducing, b cotan j3. tw 6 =^ a cotan a is 3 ins. from one end, mass-center long.whose 3. A bar 7 ins. What in diameter. rests within a smooth hemispherical bowl 1 2 ins.
Differentiating
{a -^ b)
is
when
equilibrium?^
Ans. 84 9.
430
4.
THEORETICAL MECHANICS.
A bar A
2 ins. long,
rests
position of equilibrium.
straight bar rests with one end upon a smooth inclined 5. Determine the position of plane and leans against a smooth peg. equilibrium.
bar leans against a smooth peg, the lower end resting upon 6. Determine the form of the surface in order that a smooth surface. the bar may be in equilibrium wherever placed. section of the surface by a vertical plane is represented Ans. a -\- c sec 6. by the polar equation r can turn freely in a vertical 7. A uniform bar AB, of weight G, To i? is attached a string which passes plane about a hinge at ^ over a smooth peg at C and sustains a weight P.
Ans.
10.
P/W=
{b'
b)l2a.
In Ex. 9, let the radius of the wheel be 2 ft. and the radii of the two portions of the axle 6 ins. and 4 ins. If the load is 1,000 lbs., what must be the value of the effort ?
is attached to a uniform bar the end C rests against a smooth vertical plane C. Find the position of equilibrium. A71S. If the inclinations of the string and bar to the vertical are 6 and cf) respectively, tan 4> 2 tan 6 in the position of equilibrium.
Fig. 198.
11.
string
AB
BC of which
uniform bars, AB, BC, of unequal lengths and masses, are connected by a smooth hinge at B. At A and C are small rings
12.
Two
which
slide
on a smooth horizontal
will
wire.
equiUbrium.
Ans. There
be equilibrium
is
if
either
AB or BCis
vertical.
One
of these solutions
imaginary.
1 3. Take data as in Ex. 1 2, except that the bars are not uniform, so that their mass-centers are not equally distant from the wire. Determine the position of equilibrium.
14.
Two
equal bars connected by a smooth hinge rest upon a is horizontal. Determine the position
THEORY OF ENERGY.
43
distance of mass-center of each bar from hinge, A>!s. Let a angle between either bar and the vertical r := radius of cylinder, 6 in the position of equilibrium. Then a siifO r cos ^ o.
unequal masses, connected by a weightless 15. inextensible string, rest on the surface of a smooth cylinder whose
particles of
Two
axis
is
horizontal.
INDEX.
Acceleration, 172, 173, 212, 214. average, 213.
axial
components
for, 173.
of, 239.
formula
polar resolution
of, 241.
equilibrium
compo-
nents
of, 244.
of, 203.
Action at a distance,
Activity, 316.
19.
work and
energ>-
value
Coordinates of position of
of rigid body, 345, 360.
particle,
upon
particle, 162.
of spherical shell
particle, 160.
upon exterior
Coplanar
forces,
composition and
of,
resolution
60-64. 65-91.
of spherical shell
upon
interior
equilibrium
of,
Balance, 86.
59,
145,
Body,
2,
228.
Catenary, 118. Center of mass, 127, 129. Central force, motion under, 193198, 253, 260.
coplanar, 56-60.
impulsive, 399. in three dimensions, 144-146.
representation of by vector, 144. Curved path, motion in, 208-236. D'Alembert's principle, 327, 329,
371-
Degrees
of freedom, 346.
Centroid, 124-140.
Density, 128.
6, 157,
Displacement, 167.
given by vector, 208.
of rigid body, 360-361.
434
Dynamics,
4.
INDEX.
Gram,
of,
24.
moments
350.
law
of, 155,
158.
Gravity,
414.
motion under,
189, 199,
of,
249.
407-412.
of a rigid system, 419.
Harmonic motion, 196. Heat equivalent to energy, 414. Hodograph, 211, 239. Homogeneous body, 128, 129.
Impact, 282-284.
and
lost, 417.
of,,
for particle, 279, 290, 291. for rigid body, 388, 395.
non-coplanar
forces,
149-151.
definition of, 26.
system of bodies,
99.
Force, conception
228.
effect
of, 2,
16-18, 177.
constant,
177,
184,
217.
effect of variable, 185, 220.
or
absolute
18-22.
Lever, 83.
Forces, classes
of,
Machine, Mass, 2.
by law of action and reaction, 226, 227. external and internal, 92. Freedom, degrees of, 346.
equal, defined
Friction, 106-113.
225,,
Mass-center,
motion
2.
of,
322,
324,,
348, 352-
Material body,
angle
in
of, 108.
system, 321.
Mechanics defined,
subdivisions
i.
of, 4.
INDEX.
435
medium, motion
26,
Moment
150.
Resisting
in,
203.
50,
with respect to a plane, 130. with respect to a point, 13, 35. Moment of inertia of plane area,
339-345of rigid
Resolution of forces,
141.
31,
Moments, theorem
54-56.
Momentum,
acceleration
288.
angular, 287.
linear, 386, 387.
Motion, laws
motion of, 346-381 Rigid system, energy of, 419, Rotating body, equations of motion
of,
Newton's
first
353-
on ap-
Parallelogram offerees,
Particle, 2, 228.
28, 221.
Smooth
354.
surface, 21.
Pendulum, compound,
simple, 266.
Percussion, center
of,
390.
Plane motion of particle, 236-276. of rigid body, 360-381. Plane motions of rigid body, composition
and
resolution
of,
work
of,
405.
364-370.
Stresses, external
104.
and
internal, 102-
Polygon
of forces, 30.
Position, 3.
in straight line, 167.
Symmetry,
131.
Translation, 347.
and derived,
C.
23.
Vector,
7.
8.
23.
addition,
increment of variable,
338, 341.
11.
localized, 13.
resolution
of, 12.
9.
subtraction,
components
of, 238.
of, 4.
formula
Radius
polar resolution
240.
436
Velocity, sudden change
tangential
of,
INDEX.
215.
Work and
energy, principle
of, 309,
and
of, 244.
normal com-
ponents
Work and vis viva, equation of, 306. Work done by body defined, 307.
done by
301.
^^fm!-iims^
%>Wl{*
X-Ak
mm^ m mm
mi.
>.>M