Professional Documents
Culture Documents
000106
POLICY FORUM
Abstract This paper aims to provide an overall image in terms of low carbon society (LCS) and its development in China. It mainly introduced and analyzed low carbon development which was addressed as crucial initiative for implementation of LCS in China. A comparative analysis was carried out on concepts and experiences of LCS between China and developed countries. The trends and characteristics of CO2 emissions in China have also been analyzed. Because of large amount of CO2 emissions generated in the production process and relatively small amount of CO 2 emissions in the consumption process, China is facing a severe challenge of imbalance in economic growth and CO 2 emissions. If the consumption and production pattern of developed countries are duplicated, China is very likely to experience a development pattern of boosting economic growth and improving living standards signicantly but meanwhile risking and suering by large amount of resources consumption and CO2 emissions. Thus, a comprehensive, systematic and scientic scheme for implementing a low carbon society is urgently needed in China. Through literature research, mainstream perspectives of scholars with respect to development of LCS are concluded. In the meantime, CO 2 emissions reduction target, carbon taxation and dierent debated issues are also presented. The achievements, China has made, consist of concrete actions taken by local governments, some new policies and regulations for carbon reduction at national level, in particular energy-saving and renewable energy policies proposed in the 11th Five-Year Plan (20052010). Carbon trading markets and carbon capture and starage technology have also made progress in China. There are still many limitations and barriers remaining and in need to be solved in the next steps. Keywords: low carbon society; research; practice; China Citation: Cai, B.-F., J.-N. Wang, W.-S. Yang, et al., 2012: Low carbon society in China: Research and practice. Adv. Clim. Change Res., 3(2), doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1248.2012.000106.
1 Introduction
Low carbon society (LCS) is one of the essential initiatives proposed and launched globally for combating climate change. China has been recognized as the worlds biggest CO2 emitter. Therefore theoretical research and practice on LCS are not only meaningful to benet Chinas sustainable development but also inuence ambitious goals of CO2 emissions reduction for the rest of the world. At present, there are only few scientic literatures focusing on introducing and disReceivel: 23 September 2011 Corresponding author: CAI Bo-Feng, caibofeng@gmail.com
cussing the status of LCS in China [Liu et al., 2011; Hou et al., 2011; Liu and Feng, 2010]. This paper aims to comprehensively introduce the progress and characteristics of LCS in ve aspects: 1) the concepts and mechanisms of LCS from both decision-makers and researchers perspectives; 2) the status and trends of CO2 emissions in China; 3) theoretic research concerning LCS; 4) practices of LCS, mainly focusing on eorts and contributions from the central government, local governments and private sectors; 5) limitations and barriers for implementing LCS in China.
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
107
The data presented in this report were mainly derived from ocial statistics and some ideas inspired by discussions with specialists and researchers.
and Collection on Low-Carbon Strategy [Zhang et al., 2009] were written to outline and summarize the situation of low carbon development in China. Among the authors are seven academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences or the Chinese Academy of Engineering, eleven government ocials of the ministerial level, ten government ocials of the provincial level, and many scholars and entrepreneurs. The books summarize and conclude dierent perspectives of the understanding and realization of LCS and low carbon development in China. Through comparative analysis, we understand that low carbon development in China emphasizes the development of the economy on the conditions of signicantly reducing CO2 emissions and mitigating the adverse eects of climate change. In China the scope of low carbon economy is much similar to LCS, but narrower than LCS as it does not emphasize the changes of the overall social mechanisms and the institutional design. Thus, low carbon economy is an economic mode with low energy consumption, low pollution, and low emissions [Zhang et al., 2008; 2009; Zhuang, 2007; UNDP, 2010a]. However, the concept of LCS is getting more and more accepted in China. For instance, concepts and methods of LCS have been integrated into the designing and planning of Pudong new district in Shanghai [Skea and Nishioka, 2008]. During the Copenhagen Conference in 2009, the Chinese Government pledged to reduce CO2 emissions per unit GDP by 40%45% in 2020 compared with the 2005 level. This commitment sets a clear goal for China to develop a LCS in the near future. China is now facing the challenges of nding appropriate solutions which could adequately reduce CO2 emissions without compromising economic growth and living standards. The emerging of LCS could be an opportunity for China to achieve its ambitious target.
108
emissions have grown up to 5 times the amount of the starting point, but carbon intensity dropped to approximately 27% of the 1978 level. Overall, Figure 1 indicates that China moves gradually towards a low CO2 emission mode. A weak decoupling of economic growth and CO2 emissions is presented, in which the growth rate of GDP is signicantly greater than that of CO2 emissions [Tapio, 2005]. The CO2 emissions grew much faster in the last decade (19992009) since Chinas energy supply relied more on coal than before. In this period, the annual growth rate of the share of coal in the total energy consumption is 0.57%, while the annual growth rate of GDP is 11% (20022009). After 24-year declining, the carbon intensity began to rise from 2002, but after 2004, it started to decline again.
Figure 1 Chinas CO2 emissions and emissions intensity during 19782009 [BP, 2010; NBSC, 2010a]
China still falls far behind developed countries in terms of the development level and energy eciency. According to Table 1, Chinas human development index is only close to the global average level, with still a big gap between the developed countries (OECD coun-
tries) and China. Economic development and peoples living standard improvement are still regarded as Chinas primary targets. Chinas CO2 emissions per unit of primary energy, per GDP, and per kW h from electricity and heat generation, are all higher than the global average level as well as the level of developed countries. These indicators imply that China is still in the high carbon emission period and the energy eciency in the production process also remains at a low level. Chinas CO2 emissions per capita in manufacturing and construction sectors are much higher than the global average levels and are close to the levels of developed countries. This indicates that although China has a large population, the high energy consumption and large amount of emissions in industrial production bring high CO2 emissions per capita. CO2 emissions per capita in the transportation sector are much lower than the level of developed countries. This indicator is closely related to the living standard. The high CO2 emissions at the production end and the low CO2 emissions at the consumption end indicate that China is urgently in need of a LCS transformation. The vice president of the Chinese Academy of Engineering said in the China Energy Forum that too much (about 60%70%) energy consumed in the industrial production process is a very serious issue. If the development pathway of developed countries is duplicated, China is very likely to reach an economic mode with high consumption and high emissions. There exists a signicant imbalance of regional economic development. The energy structure, the living standard, and per capita CO2 emissions at provincial level are very dierent (Fig. 2). The emissions
Table 1 Comparison of key indicators between China and the globe in 2008
Country/ region Human CO2 emissions development per unit of index (2009) primary energy source (t (TJ)1 ) 0.648 73.4 0.876 55.6 CO2 emissions Per capita CO2 per GDP emissions (kg per US$ (t per person) (2000 price)) Per capita CO2 emissions of manufacture and construction (kg per person) 1,635 1,529 Per capita CO2 emissions in transport (kg per person) CO2 emissions from electricity and heat generation (g (kW h)1 ) 745 433
China 0.60 4.91 341 Average of 0.38 10.61 2,846 OECD countries Global average 0.615 57.2 0.46 4.39 889 988 502 Note: The human development indices are from UNDP [2010b], the else from IEA [2010]. OECD, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
109
Figure 2
CO2 emissions per capita and total emissions in provinces of China in 2008 (excluding Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and Tibet) [NBSC, 2010a; 2010b]
Note: The width of each column depicts population and the height depicts per capita CO 2 emissions, so the area represents total emissions of each province
are the highest in Inner Mongolia, which are about 9 times as those of Guangxi, ranking as the lowest in China. According to the statistical review of world energy issued by BP [2010], Chinas total consumption of primary energy in 2009 was equivalent to 3.11 Gt C (plus the energy consumption in Hong Kong). China had overtaken the United States to become the biggest energy consumer in the world. In 2009, when the global emissions of GHGs dropped, CO2 emissions from fossil fuel consumption in China rose by 9% compared with the 2008 level, reaching 7.5 Gt CO2 , being the rst country emitting more than 7 Gt CO2 per year. This serious circumstance forces China to the pathway of LCS.
studies on LCS. Through literature search analysis, the trends of academic activities on LCS by Chinese scholars are summarized in Figure 3. Although literature search cannot accurately count all the studies
Figure 3
Note:
database; English search keywords: greenhouse gas or low carbon development or low carbon economy or low carbon society and country=China; Chinese search keywords: or
or
or
or
110
in the eld of low carbon research, the trend can reect the enthusiasm and interests of scholars in this eld. Since 2005, various academic articles on LCS have continuously increased in China, indicating that Chinas academic community pays more attention to LCS. For the last six years (20052010), research institutions which are focusing on LCS in China have increased dramatically. According to the name of the institutions which published research articles, 18 research institutions have low carbon in their names and 41 have climate change in their names (China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database search). Most of these institutions were established in the last three years and are mainly located in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou.
to reach its CO2 emission peak rst, which is very likely to occur around 2035. This means that China will realize the relative reduction before 2035. During this period China will gradually decrease its carbon emission intensity. Chinese scholars have mostly used two main models to study LCS: computable general equilibrium (CGE) and integrated policy model for China (IPAC). The CGE is used to simulate how carbon policy, such as carbon tax and emission caps, will aect and contribute to the economy. The IPAC aims to comprehensively assess the decision-making processes on energy and environmental issues. The IPAC has the features of a bottom-up method and its application depends on dierent technical proles, so that it could present dierent future scenarios of CO2 emissions. The 2050 China Energy and CO2 Emission Report and Chinas Low Carbon Development Pathways by 2050 Scenario Analysis of Energy Demand and CO2 Emissions represent the main achievements of IPAC, i.e. the CO2 emission levels and technical capability, and various scenarios of medium and long-term CO2 emissions in China [ERI, 2009; CECESTG, 2009]. The UNDP [2010a] comprehensively explained the status of Chinas CO2 emissions, concerning the impoverished and social justice. It also proposed a low carbon transformation, a low carbon technology road map, and advised policies for LCS development based on the CGE model. Energy production, consumption patterns and energy eciency are regarded as essential components on implementing LCS. Fan et al. [2007] found that the reduction in energy intensity was the overwhelming contributor to the reduction of carbon intensity in China during 19802003. Glomsrod and Wei [2005] proposed that China should use clean coal for combustion to reduce CO2 emissions. Jiang et al. [2010] concluded that the clean energy including the new energy technology and renewable energy resources, and energy-saving should be crucial for Chinas low-carbon economy. Peng and Shi [2011] found that carbon intensity plays a signicant restrain role on CO2 emissions, which beneted from improvements of energy eciency during 19922005. Hou et al. [2011] evaluated the opportunities for energy-saving and analyzed
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
111
the main challenges and limitations on Chinas energysaving policies. They concluded that a long-term and eective mechanism to promote energy-saving is essential for low carbon development. Liu et al. [2011] identied that the opportunities for energy intensity improvement in China rely on energy-saving and clean energy development. Kahrl et al. [2011] considered that renewable energy would play a signicant role in the transition of China to a low carbon electricity supply system and emphasized Chinas demands to make institutional changes in order to secure the low carbon transition more smoothly. Yuan and Zuo [2011] reviewed Chinas Five-Year Plans for the last 58 years and found an increasing attention on energy eciency improvement and renewable energy usage. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences published its Annual Report on Climate Change Actions, and summarized the latest achievements on combating climate change in China [Wang and Zheng, 2009; 2010]. The report is a systematic compilation and summary of the study on LCS from a social science perspective.
the industry) as distributive factors. Chinese scholars have also carried out in-depth studies and discussions on carbon tax. The common understanding is that carbon tax is the key economic measure to control CO2 emissions with market eciency. Almost all of the scholars agree on issuing the carbon taxation policy as an important action for China to develop LCS, and the carbon tax rate must be limited under 20 RMB t1 in the near term and gradually be raised to 150 RMB t1 in 2020 [ERI, 2009; Wang et al., 2009; Su et al., 2009]. The characteristics of the carbon taxation frame proposed by Wang et al. [2009] is a low tax rate, wide tax base, low impact, neutralized, which is accepted by most of the institutions such as the Energy Research Institute and the Research Institute for Fiscal Science (RIFS) of the Ministry of Finance. Liang et al. [2007] studied the negative eects of carbon taxation on the energy-intensive and tradeoriented sectors in China based on the CGE model. Wang et al. [2011b] analyzed the short-term impact of carbon tax on dierent sectors in China. The RIFS recently summarized the economic, institutional, nancial, social, and other barriers on launching carbon tax in China as well as economic and social impacts of carbon tax [Su et al., 2011a].
112
region and specic sector). This proposal attracted widespread attention. China has also made many eorts on researches of carbon capture and storage (CCS). China and the UK nished their near zero emissions coal (NZEC) initiative in 2009. This project examined the merits of various options for implementing CCS in China, including the potential for the development of CCS technology and its deployment in the future. Chen et al. [2009; 2011] has summarized the results of NZEC and analyzed the role of CCS in a low carbon development of China. In 2010, China and Australia launched a CCS research project, aiming to develop methods and indicators for the selection of CO2 storage sites, CCS monitoring, and environmental impact assessment, and giving recommendation on CCS policy in China.
ing local GHG inventories in specic provinces and cities. China has improved the statistical system for climate change. It has revised and supplemented some contents of energy consumption statistics and complemented energy categories so that the statistics will be comparable with international standards on energy classication, and incorporated renewable energy power generation and international fuel tanks (international aviation and shipping) in ocial statistics. The 12th Five-Year Plan (20112015) was published in 2011; it demands that CO2 emission intensity in this period must be reduced by 17% compared with 2010. The 12th Five-Year Plan will have great inuences on Chinas social and economic development. In the same year, the Chinese Government addressed the establishing and improving supervision and monitoring system for CO2 emissions reduction and energysaving eorts in the Government Work Report in 2011.
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
113
important measures to meet the energy-saving target. The accomplishment of this measure has secured the overall target for energy-saving. Figure 4 shows the reduction of obsolete productions by sectors and years [MIITPRC, 2011]. In China the proportion of coal, crude oil, natural gas and non-fossil energy in total primary energy consumption are roughly 70%, 18%, 4%, and 8%, respectively. The shares are quite stable (non-fossil energy share has increased in the last 5 years but still remains small). The reduction rate of energy intensity (energy consumption per GDP) is almost similar to the reduction rate of carbon emission intensity. The energy consumption intensity target and carbon emission intensity target in the 12th Five-Year Plan is a reduction by 16% and 17%, respectively. According to national statistics [NDRC, 2011], China has basically achieved the energy-saving target of the 11th Five-Year Plan. The energy intensity decreased by 19.1% (excluding Xinjiang). In the 11th Five-Year Plan period, the annual growth rate of energy consumption is 6.6% while it supported 11.2% of economic growth. The elastic coecient (the ratio of energy consumption to GDP) of energy consumption decreased from 1.04 to 0.59. All provinces have
achieved their own energy-saving targets except Xinjiang (Fig. 5). Beijing ranked number one with a reduction rate of 26.59%. The energy-saving target is a reduction by 1.5 Gt CO2 compared with the baseline scenario. This CO2 reduction benet attracted more political willingness to push forward the development of LCS in China.
Figure 4 Phased-out backward production capacities during the 11th Five-Year Plan period
Figure 5
Illustration of energy-saving target achievement in Chinas provinces (11th Five-Year Plan period)
114
sumption in 2015 and to 15% in 2020. In 2010, China ranked the top one among all countries in terms of newly installed capacity of wind power and nuclear power. By the end of 2009, China also ranked the top one in the world for newly installed capacity of hydropower and solar heaters [NDRC, 2011]. Hydropower is one of the clean and renewable energy resources which can signicantly contribute to LCS. But hydropower plants with installment capacities larger than 30 MW are often criticized concerning controversial issues such as ecological damage and resident migration. But small-scale hydropower plants are environment-friendly, cost-eective, and have almost zero GHG emissions, which positively benets LCS. By the end of 2009, the newly installed hydropower capacity during the 11th Five-Year Plan period reached 197 GW, accounting for 22.5% of the national total installed capacities. In 2009, the total hydropower output is around 57.47 billion kW h, which substituted for approximately 180 Mtce and reduced 470 Mt CO2 emissions [NDRC and NBSC, 2011]. By 2009, six nuclear power plants had been built in China. In 2010, three new nuclear reactors were under construction. But because of the Fukushima nuclear accident that hit Japan in March 2011, the Chinese Government will propose more stringent regulations on application and approval procedures for new nuclear power plant. This may substantially slow down the progress of nuclear power development. Energy-saving and developing renewable energy are two key aspects to realize LCS and improve Chinas environmental quality. Coal is the primary energy resource for China, which caused 90% of SO2 emission, 70% of dust, and 67% of Nx O emission. Therefore, the implementation of energy-saving measures and adjusting the energy consumption structure can signicantly improve the air quality while improving the human living standard. Meanwhile, China will boost distributed renewable energy such as wind power and solar power in the rural area that will denitely promote local employment and economic growth. Bioenergy, in particular, used for electricity generation, is a very important renewable energy resource in the rural area. It is considered as an excellent solution to
transform straw eciently. In the rural area, the reduction of non-CO2 GHGs (CH4 and N2 O) derived from livestock and farming, will benet the pollutionprevention and large scale farming management.
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
115
energy eciency, and to increase the coverage of carbon sinks (i.e. forest). Table 2 lists some cities which are actively getting involved in proposing targets for LCS. Shanghai and Baoding became the rst two cities in a new World Wide Fund initiative to explore solutions for LCS in Chinas urban area. This low carbon city initiative initially focuses on energy eciency in buildings, renewable energy resources, and manufacturing eciency. Baoding is expected to gain worldwide reputation for its sustainable energy production. Shanghai is considered as the most vulnerable port city in China, because coastal area received more threats of climate change. The priority of Shanghais mitigation measures is to increase the energy eciency of the construction and transportation sector, for instance, the demonstration projects like the Shanghai Expo 2010, which highlighted low carbon exhibitions. Moreover, Wuxi in Jiangsu province aims to become an ecologically sound and low carbon city. Rizhao, Wenjiang district, Chengdu, Tongji University, and URBN Hotel have joined the UNEP climate neutral network. They made a commitment on GHG reduction and use the climate neutral network as
an interactive platform for taking mitigation actions. Qingdao and Dezhou in Shandong province, Beijing, and Hangzhou, have signed the Daegu Declaration to commit the eorts on improving energy eciency and renewable energy for GHG reduction.
Figure 6 LCS research institutions, the low carbon provinces and cities pilot taken from NDRC [2010], and local low carbon development in China
116
Chengdu Wuxi
Xiamen Tianjin
Nanchang
By 2015, carbon emission intensity drops by 38% compared with 2005, and non-fossil energy weighs up to 7% in primary energy consumption. By 2020, carbon emission intensity drops by 45%48% compared with 2005, and non-fossil energy weighs up to 15% in primary energy consumption Note: The unit of carbon emission intensity is t CO2 per 10,000 RMB GDP
electric vehicles up to 30 million by 2020. If all of the commitments are fullled, the CO2 emissions will be reduced by 1.65 Gt in 2020 compared with the baseline scenario. The China Building Materials Association issued an action map for low carbon building materials in China in 2009 and proposed that carbon emissions per 10,000 RMB added values for the building materials industry will drop to 7.33 t in 2012. In the 2008 China Sustainability Reporting Guidelines for Apparel and Textile Enterprises, the China Textile Industry Association has proposed that Chinese apparel and textile enterprises need to state the total emissions of GHG as well as control indicators, measures, and eects in their sustainability reports. Seven Chinese enterprises including China Mobile and Suntech Co. have joined the Climate Group, a UK based non-governmental organization, and signed an agreement to publish their GHG emissions information and reduction goals. The Shenhua Group, Chinas biggest coal producer, has started Chinas rst integrated CCS project and accomplished its rst injection in Erdos, Inner Mongolia in 2011. This project aims to isolate and
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
117
development and energy utilization in regional areas of China, the intensity goal is facing diculties on fair, equitable, and reasonable allocation for the provinces. Meanwhile, according to the experiences gained from the SO2 and chemical oxygen demand emissions control policy proposed in the 11th Five-Year Plan, the eectiveness of achieving the total emissions control goal is more rational than the intensity goal. Additionally, setting the total CO2 emissions control goal and distributing it to the provinces will not only promote the development of a voluntary carbon trade system but also help eliminate the regional rich-poor gap and promote green development [Guan and Hubacek, 2010]. Furthermore, China has not issued a comprehensive LCS development scheme. This scheme should include not only an action plan on LCS and a CO2 emissions goal, but also regulations for a supervision and evaluation system and public participation. Some of Chinas local governments shut down electricity and heat supply in 2010 winter in order to achieve the energy-saving target. This phenomenon demonstrates that a comprehensive LCS development scheme may avoid some adverse eects.
also limiting the development of LCS in Chinese cities. Many cities still use the IPCC methods to calculate CO2 emissions, despite the common understanding that the IPCC methods are not applicable on cityscale. Therefore, establishing more scientic and specic guidelines on developing LCS at municipal level, including a methodology and indicator system, is very necessary for the development of low carbon cities in China. The development of low carbon cities is a key step for implementing LCS in China.
118
7 Conclusions
China is the biggest CO2 emitter as well as the biggest developing country in the world. China faces a dilemma between economic growth and CO2 emissions control. The core principle and ultimate goal of LCS is to reconcile the socio-economic development and CO2 emissions reduction. However, a LCS not only emphasizes the change of economic mode but also tries to create a completely new mode of society through the overall transformation of social mechanisms, institutional design, regional planning, and peoples lifestyle. Our research has found that there are many theoretical researches assisting the establishment of either strategic schemes or concrete actions toward LCS. The practices of LCS in China are currently lacking systematic regulations and management. But during the period of the 12th Five-Year Plan, the central government will integrate a carbon intensity target into the national socio-economic development evaluation system. This will be the driving-force towards LCS, which will undoubtedly increase dramatically in the future. Acknowledgements
This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41101500). The authors appreciate the helpful suggestions and comments of anonymous reviewers and the editors. References BP (British Petroleum), 2010: BP statistical review of world energy. CEAP (China Environmental Awareness Program), 2008: 2007 China general public environmental survey. CECESTG (China Eneregy and Carbon Emission Study Topic Group), 2009: 2050 China Energy and CO2 Emission Report (in Chinese). Science Press, 105 150. Chen, W.-Y, 2011: The potential role of CCS to mitigate carbon emissions in future China. Procedia, 4, 60076014. Chen, W.-Y., J. Liu, L. Ma, et al, 2009: Role for carbon capture and storage in China. Energy Procedia, 1(1), 42094216. Energy
ERI (Energy Research Institute), 2009: Chinas Low Carbon Development Pathways by 2050 Scenario Analysis of Energy Demand and Carbon Emissions (in Chinese). Science Press, 232290. Fan, Y., L.-C. Liu, G. Wu, et al, 2007: Changes in carbon intensity in China: Empirical ndings from 19802003. Ecological Economics, 62, 683691. Fujino, J., G. Hibino, T. Ehara, et al., 2008: Backcasting analysis for 70% emission reduction in Japan by 2050. Climate Policy, 8, S108S124. Glomsrod, S., and T.-Y. Wei, 2005: Coal cleaning: A viable strategy for reduced carbon emissions and improved environment in China. 33(3), 525542. Gomi, K., K. Shimada, and Y. Matsuoka, 2009: A low-carbon scenario creation method for a local-scale economy and its application in Kyoto city. Energy Policy, 37(9), 47834796. Guan, D., and K. Hubacek, 2010: China can offer domestic emission cap-and-trade in post 2012. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(14), 1055 1055. Hamilton, K., M. Sjardin, A. Shapiro, et al., 2009: Fortifying the foundation: State of the voluntary carbon markets 2009. Ecosystem marketplace and new carbon nance. Accessed http://ecosystemmarketplace.com/documents/cma documents/StateOfTheVoluntrayCarbonMarkets 2009.pdf. Hou, J., P.-D. Zhang, Y.-S. Tian, et al., 2011: Developing low-carbon economy: Actions, challenges and solutions for energy savings in China. Renewable Energy, 36, 30373042. Hourcade, J. C., and R. Crassous, 2008: Low-carbon societies: A challenging transition for an attractive future. Climate Policy, 8(6), 607612. IEA (International Energy Agency), 2010: CO2 emissions from fuel combustion 2009. Jiang, B., Z.-Q. Sun, and M.-Q. Liu, 2010: Chinas energy development strategy under the low-carbon economy. Energy, 35, 42574264. JUJRP (Japan-UK Joint Research Project), 2008: Japan scenarios and actions towards low-carbon societies. Kahrl, F., J. Williams, J.-H. Ding, et al., 2011: Challenges to Chinas transition to a low carbon electricity system. Energy Policy, 39(7), 40324041. Energy Policy,
CAI Bo-Feng et al. / Low Carbon Society in China: Research and Practice
119
Liang, Q.-M., Y. Fan, and Y.-M. Wei, 2007: Carbon taxation policy in China: How to protect energyand trade-intensive sectors? Journal of Policy Modeling, 29, 311333. Liu, C.-J., and Y. Feng, 2010: Low-carbon economy: Theoretical study and development path choice in China. Energy Procedia, 5, 487493. Liu, L.-Q., C.-X. Liu, and Z.-Y. Sun, 2011: A survey of Chinas low-carbon application practiceopportunity goes with challenge. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 28952903. Lo, A., 2010: Chinas response to climate change. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(15), 505525. Matsuoka, Y., 2007: How to link modelling and practical steps to achieve a low-carbon society: UK/Japan achieving a low carbon society. MIITPRC (Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the Peoples Republic of China), 2011: China has successfully achieved the target of phasing-out backward production capacities in 11th Five-Year Plan (in Chinese). Accessed http://www. chinadaily.com.cn/hqcj/zgjj/2011-03-29/content 2160810.html. NBSC (National Bureau of Statistics of China), 2010a: China Energy Statistical Year Book 2009 (in Chinese). China Statistics Press, 100200. NBSC (National Bureau of Statistics of China), 2010b: China Statistical Year Book 2010 (in Chinese). China Statistics Press, 100160. NDRC (National Development and Reform Commission), 2010: Notice on the low carbon provinces and low-carbon city pilot (in Chinese). Accessed http://www.sdpc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/2010tz/t20100810 365264.htm. NDRC (National Development and Reform Commission), 2011: Chinas policies and actions for addressing climate change (in Chinese). NDRC (National Development and Reform Commission), and NBSC (National Bureau of Statistics of China), 2011: The number bulletin (in Chinese). Accessed http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbgg/2011gg/t20110610 417376.htm. Peng, Y., and C. Shi, 2011: Determinants of carbon emissions growth in China: A structural decomposition analysis. Energy Procedia, 5, 169175. SGC (State Grid Co.), 2010: White paper on the state grid corporation of green development (in Chinese).
Shimada, K., Y. Tanaka, K. Gomi, et al., 2007: Developing a long-term local society design methodology towards a low-carbon economy: An application to Shiga Prefecture in Japan. Energy Policy, 35(9), 46884703. Skea, J., and S. Nishioka, 2008: Policies and practices for a low-carbon society. Climate Policy, 8, S5S16. Su, M., H. Fu, W. Xu, et al., 2009: Study on the introduction of carbon taxes in China. Review of Economic Research (in Chinese), (72), 216. Su, M., H. Fu., W. Xu., et al., 2011a, Barriers to the carbon tax in China and countermeasures. Environmental Economy (in Chinese), (4), 1023. Su, M., H. Fu, W. Xu, et al., 2011b: Forecasted consequences of Chinas carbon tax. Environmental Economy (in Chinese), (4), 2433. Tapio, P., 2005: Towards a theory of decoupling: Degrees of decoupling in the EU and the case of road trac in Finland between 1970 and 2001. Transport Policy, 12(2), 137151. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), 2010a: China human development report 2009/10: China and a sustainable future: Towards a low carbon economy & society. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), 2010b: Human development report 2010. Wang, J.-N., B.-F. Cai, D. Cao, et al., 2011a: Scenario study on regional allocation of CO2 emissions allowance in China. Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae (in Chinese), 31(4), 680685. Wang, J.-N, B.-F. Cai, G. Yan, et al., 2010: Study on carbon dioxide total emission control in the context of emission intensity commitment. China Environmental Science (in Chinese), 30(11), 10091014. Wang, J.-N., G. Yan, K.-J. Jiang, et al., 2009: The study on Chinas carbon tax policy to mitigate climate change. China Environmental Science (in Chinese), 29(1), 101105. Wang, W.-G., and G.-G. Zheng, 2009, Annual Report on Climate Change Actions(2009): The Road to Copenhagen (in Chinese). Social Sciences Academic Press, 3076. Wang, W.-G., and G.-G. Zheng, 2010: Annual Report on Climate Change Actions(2010): Cancun Challenges in Cancun and the Actions of China (in Chinese). Social Sciences Academic Press, 7295.
120
Wang, X., J.-F. Li, and Y.-X. Zhang, 2011b: An analysis on the short-term sectoral competitiveness impact of carbon tax in China. 39(7), 41444152. WB (World Bank), 2009: Public attitudes toward climate change: Findings from a multi-country poll. Yi, W.-J., L.-L. Zou, J. Guo, et al., 2011: How can China reach its CO2 intensity reduction targets by 2020? A regional allocation based on equity and development. Energy Policy, 39(5), 24072415. Yuan, X.-L., and J. Zuo, 2011: Transition to low carbon energy policies in China From the Five-Year Energy Policy,
Plan perspective. Energy Policy, 39(6), 38553859. Zhang, K.-M., J.-H. Pan, and D.-P. Cui, 2008: Introduction to Low Carbon Economy (in Chinese). China Environmental Science Press, 2430. Zhang, K.-M., J.-H. Pan, and D.-P. Cui, 2009: Collection on Low-Carbon Strategy (in Chinese). China Environmental Science Press, 5696. Zhuang, G.-Y., 2007: Low Carbon Economy: Chinas Development Road in the Background of Climate Change (in Chinese). China Meteorological Press, 5586.