Objective 1. To identify the supports reaction in simply-supported and overhanging beams. 2.

To develop an understanding of beam apparatus, and to determine its sensitivity and accuracy. Theory 1. General A beam is a member which has the primary function of resisting transverse loading. Beam is one of the simplest structures in design but one of the most complexes to analyze in terms of the external and internal forces acting on it. The complexity of its behavior under load depends on how it is supported - at one or both ends - and how its ends are attached to the supports. Three basic beam types are the simply-supported, overhanging, and cantilever beams. A beam supported by a support at the ends and having one span is called a simply-supported beam (Figure 1). A support will develop a reaction normal to the beam but will not produce a couple. If either or both ends of the beam project beyond the supports, it is called overhanging beam (Figure 2). A cantilever beam is one in which one ends is built into a wall or other support so that the built-in end can neither move transversely nor rotate (Figure 3).

2. Types of Load A beam is normally horizontal, the loads being vertical, other cases which occur being locked upon as exceptions. The two types of loads for beams are concentrated and distributed loads. i) A concentrated load W [N] is one which is considered to act at a point, although in practice it must really be distributed over a small area (Figures 1, 2 and 3). ii) A distributed load w [N/m] is one which is spread in some manner over the length of the beam. The rate of loading may be uniform, or may vary from point to point along the beam (Figure 2). 3. Types of Support The deformations and stresses which result in a beam owing to a particular load (concentrated load) or group of loads (distributed load) are dependent on the manner in which the beam is supported. The three basic types of supports for beams are roller, pinned and fixed-end. i) A roller support is one which exerts a reactive force having a known line of action (Figure 1). ii) A pinned support in one which allows the beam freedom to rotate but prevents it from any linear movement (Figures 1 and 2). iii) A fixed-end support is one which prevents the beam from translating or rotating at the point of support (Figure 3). 4. Deflection of Cantilever

The deflection under the load for a cantilever loaded at the free end is given by

If EI and L are maintained constant then:

Where

is constant

Similarly if EI and W are maintained constant:

Likewise

and

if E and I respectively are made the variables.

Specimens and Equipments 1. Beam apparatus SM104 2. Cantilever support 3. Vanier calliper 4. Load cells 5. Dial gauges 6. Steel blocks 7. Beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminium ` Procedures 1. A load cell at a convenient position was set up near to one side of the frame. 2. The clamp was set up to give a cantilever of convenient length. 3. Passed one end of the beam through the clamp and rest the other end on the load cell. Tightened the clamp and tied up the free end of the beam used by a short piece of string. 4. The dial gauge was placed near to the clamp and set the zero. The dial gauge was moved to the free end of the cantilever, the knife edge was unlock and adjusted it so that the dial gauge returns to zero. The pointer of the load cell was set to zero. 5. The knife edge was adjusted upwards to give a convenient reading on the load cell. The load and the dial gauge reading were recorded. 6. The knife edge was adjusted upwards to give a number of load increments recording loads and dial gauge readings. 7. The knife edge was returned to its initial position; the knife edge was locked; the clamp was moved and moved it to a new position (this was more convenient than moving the load cell). 8. The experiment for several lengths of cantilever was repeated. 9. The Aluminium, Brass and Steel beams 6 mm thick were used to varying E value. 10. The steel beams 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6 mm thick were used to vary I.
Fig. 4 Beam apparatus SM104

Fig. 5 Schematic of Experimental Setup

RESULT
1. Record the value of z according to the following table ALUMINIUM Load (N) 2 4 6 8 10 Deflection, z (mm) L = 300mm L = 400mm L = 500mm 16.0 55.0 38.0 24.0 80.0 65.0 32.0 80.5 84.0 39.0 81.0 85.0 45.0 82.0 85.0

L = 200mm 3.0 6.0 8.0 11.0 13.0

L = 600mm 77.0 85.0 86.0 86.0 86.0

Thickness

: 6.6mm

BRASS Load (N) 2 4 6 8 10 Deflection, z (mm) L = 400mm L = 500mm 20.0 29.0 36.0 51.0 48.0 79.0 64.0 90.0 76.0 90.6

L = 200mm 2.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0

L = 300mm 14.0 23.0 29.0 31.0 39.0

L = 600mm 64.0 82.0 82.0 82.0 82.0

Thickness

: 6.6mm

STEEL Load (N) 2 4 6 8 10 Deflection, z (mm) L = 400mm L = 500mm 9.0 17.0 19.0 31.0 28.0 46.0 35.0 60.0 43.0 71.0

L = 200mm 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0

L = 300mm 3.0 7.0 10.0 13.0 17.0

L = 600mm 28.0 50.0 70.0 87.0 87.0

Thickness

: 6.6mm

2. Plot graphs and verify the accuracy of the result

i.

Z against W to verify equation (2) is correct, with k1 for each length being given by gradient of the graph. Graph z against W for aluminium
100 80 Deflection,z 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 Load,W 8 10 12 L=200mm L=300mm L=400mm L=500mm L=600mm

Deflection,z against Load,W

Graph 1: deflection, z against load, W for aluminium

Graph z against W for brass

100 90 80 70 Deflection,z 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

Deflection,z against Load,W

L=200mm L=300mm L=400mm L=500mm L=600mm

6 Load,W

10

12

Graph 2: deflection, z against load, W for brass

Graph z against W for steel

100 80 Deflection,z 60 40 20 0 0

Deflection,z against Load,W

L=200mm L=300mm L=400mm L=500mm L=600mm 2 4 6 Load,W 8 10 12

Graph 3: deflection, z against load, W for steel For Z against W graph From equation (1)

From equation (2) z = k1 W From this equation, we know that k1 also equal to gradient of the graph.

From eq (1) and (2) We know that

The relationship between deflection and load is proportional. When the load increases, the deflection also will increase. From the graph of z against W, when the load doubles from 2N to 4N, the deflection of the beam almost doubles too. This prove equation (2) that is; If EI and L are maintained constant then, z = k1 W Where k1 is constant As a result, z is proportional with w. (2)

ii.

Z against L3 verifies that equation (3) is correct, with k2 for each load beimg given by the respective gradient of graph. For aluminium Length , L3 (m)
0.008 0.027 0.064 0.125 0.216

2N
3.0 6.0 8.0 11.0 13.0

4N
16.0 24.0 32.0 39.0 45.0

Load 6N
55.0 80.0 80.5 81.0 82.0

8N
38.0 65.0 84.0 85.0 85.0

10N
77.0 85.0 86.0 86.0 86.0

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.05

Deflection,z against
2N 4N 6N 8N 10N

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Graph 3: deflection, z against L3 for aluminium

For brass Length , L3 (m)

0.008 0.027 0.064 0.125 0.216

2N
2.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0

4N
14.0 23.0 29.0 31.0 39.0

Load 6N
20.0 36.0 48.0 64.0 76.0

8N
29.0 51.0 79.0 90.0 90.6

10N
64.0 82.0 82.0 82.0 82.0

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.05

Deflection,z against
2N 4N 6N 8N 10N

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Graph 3: deflection, z against L3 for brass For steel Length , L3 (m)

0.008 0.027 0.064 0.125 0.216

2N
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0

4N
3.0 7.0 10.0 13.0 17.0

Load 6N
9.0 19.0 28.0 35.0 43.0

8N
17.0 31.0 46.0 60.0 71.0

10N
28.0 50.0 70.0 87.0 87.0

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.05

Deflection,z against L3
2N 4N 6N 8N 10N

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Graph 3: deflection, z against L3 for steel

For z-L3 graphs

From the z against W graphs plotted, only the steel verified equation (3) such that all the graphs are linear and with k2,which is a constant as their gradient. The gradients of z-L3 graphs for all the specimens at different W can be arranged in the sequence as follow: (k2)2N<(k2)4N <(k2)6N<(k2)8N<(k2)10N -------------------------------------------------> Increasing gradient Since E and I are constants, z is directly proportional to W for any value of L3. Therefore, z increases as W increases. Also, k2 which is equal to W/3EI, is directly proportional to W, thus, when W is larger, the value of k2 is also larger. However, for aluminum and brass, the values of k2 are not constant with higher W such that their deflections are deviated from the theoretical ones. These are some factors which might affect the experimental results. a) The imperfections in the structures in the brass and aluminum lead to the differences in their E values. b) The dial gauge was not set at right angle to the beam before readings was taken. Parallax error may occur when the observer did not put his or her eyes perpendicularly to the scale of the measuring instruments

Conclusions
Due to the large margin of error from the measured and calculated results that is from 25% - 35%, the experimental results are not acceptable for practical application. Any design utilizing a cantilever setup that experiences stresses close to the yield point of the material need to be more rigorously tested. At maximum deflection, strain gage 1 exhibited a 25% error from the calculated value. One cause for this error occurs because the equations used are a c c u r a t e i n small deflections and loads easily handled by the material tested. Also, it is showed t h a t Hooke's law is not the best choice when using it where there is flexural of a beam. T h e r e f o r e , whenever a cantilever setup is used in high stress or deflecti on applications, thorough testing and a suitable safety factor must be considered.

References
Gilbert, J. A and C. L. Carmen. "Chapter 8 Cantilever Flexure Test." MAE/CE 370 Mechanics of Materials Laboratory Manual. June 2000. Ashby, M., Jones, R. H., Engineering Materials, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980.