MGT INFO-All Class Lectures

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Course: Management Information

Professional Stage: Knowledge Level
Section # 04, Jan-Mar 2010 Session
Md. AKH Hasif Sowdagar, ACMA, ACA The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh
Course Conducted By:
1 Management Information, Conducted By: Md. AKH Hasif Sowdagar, BBA, MBA (DU), ACMA, ACA
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Broad-Level Course Content and Lecture Schedule:

Broad-Level Course Content Weighting (%) Chapter # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Related Chapter Name The fundamentals of costing Calculating unit cost (Part 1) Calculating unit cost (Part 2) Marginal costing and absorption costing Pricing calculation Budgeting Cash budgets and the cash cycle Performance management Standard costing and variance analysis Breakeven analysis and limiting factor analysis Investment appraisal techniques Lecture # 1 2&3 4 5 6 7 8&9 10 Lecture Division By
Costing and pricing
25%
MAKHHS
Budgeting and forecasting Muck Test Performance management Management decision making
25%
25% 25%
SA
Objectives of this Module (Management Information):

Students will be able to: 1. establish the costs associated with the production of products and provision of services and use them to determine prices. 1. select appropriate budgeting approaches and methods and prepare budgets. 1. identify key features of effective performance management systems, select appropriate performance measures and calculate differences between actual performance and standards or budgets. 1. identify and calculate relevant data for use in management decision making.

Lecture # 01 - Chapter-1 The Fundamentals of Costing 06 January 2010
Topic List: Chapter-1 1 What is cost accounting? 1.1 The cost accountant 1.2 Cost accounting and management accounting 1.3 Cost accounting system 1.4 Financial accounting versus cost accounting 2 Basic cost accounting concept? 2.1 Functions and departments 2.2 Cost objects 2.3 Cost units 2.4 Composite cost units 2.5 The concept of cost 2.6 Direct v indirect costs and cost objects Cost classification for inventory valuation and profit measurement 3.1 Cost elements 3.2 Direct cost and prime cost 3.3 Indirect cost and overhead 3.4 Product costs and period costs Cost classification for planning and decision-making 4.1 Cost behavior patterns 4.2 Fixed costs 4.3 Variable costs 4.4 Semi-variable costs (or semi-fixed costs or mixed costs) 4.5 Cost behavior and total and unit costs 4.6 Relevant range Cost Classification for control 5.1 Responsibility accounting 5.2 Controllable and uncontrollable costs
The cost accountant: The cost accountant or a person having access to cost information should be able to provide the following information: the cost of goods produced or services provided last period; the cost of operating a department last month; revenue were earned last week. Cost Accounting: Cost Accounting identifies, defines, measures, reports and analyzes the various elements of direct and indirect costs associated with producing and marketing goods and services. Originally cost accounting dealt with ways of accumulating historical costs and of charging these costs to units of output, or to department, in order to establish inventory valuations, profits or losses and balance sheet items. So cost accounting has been extended in to planning, control and decision making.

Management Accounting: In todays environment, the role of cost accounting in the provision of management information is therefore almost indistinguishable from that of management accounting, which is basically concerned with the provision of information to assist management with planning, control and decision. Cost Accounting System: Cost accounting system provides the foundations for an organizations internal financial information system for manager. Cost accounting is concerned with providing information to assist the following: Establishing inventory valuations, profits or losses and balance sheet items; Planning (the provision of forecast costs at different levels) Control (the provision of actual and standard costs for comparison purpose) Decision making (information about actual unit costs for pricing decisions). Financial Accounting versus Cost Accounting: Financial accounts are usually prepared for external stakeholders e.g. shareholders, bank, customers, suppliers, customs authority and employees. Management accounts are usually prepared for internal management of an organization. Cost: An expenditure, usually of money, for the purchase of goods or services. Cost Objects: A cost object is anything for which we are trying to ascertain the cost. A cost object is a tangible input for a product manufactured/Service provided, like labor or material. For example a cloth manufacturing firm requires some amount of predetermined labor and predetermined raw material for any amount of cloth being manufactured. The cost of employing labor can be directly fixed as "per man per hour" or "per man per day", so the labor is a cost object as you can directly associate cost with it. Similarly the raw material like cotton or threads or fabric can be another cost object. Example of Cost objects includes: A unit of product (e.g. a car), A unit of service (e.g. a valet service of a car) A project (e.g. the installation of a new computer system) Cost Units: A cost unit is the basic measure of product or service for which costs are determined. Example:
Organization Steelworks Hospital Accounting firm Restaurent Cost Unit Tonne of steel produced Patient per day Operation Out-patient visit Audit performed Meal served

Direct versus Indirect Cost and Cost Objects: Direct costs are costs identified with a cost object. Indirect costs cannot be identified with a particular cost object. For example: if a chair is a cost object then certain costs such as materials and labour required to assemble the chair would be classed as direct costs for an individual chair. Factory rent could not be associated with an individual chair so would be classed as indirect cost of the chair. Cost Element: For the purpose of inventory valuation and profit measurement, the cost of one unit must be determined. The total cost of a cost unit of product or service is made up of the following three elements of cost: Material Labour Other expenses (such as rent) So cost element can be classified as direct costs or indirect costs. Direct Cost and Prime Cost: A direct cost is a cost that can be traced in full to the cost unit. Types of Direct Cost: Direct Cost Direct Labour Costs Wage paid to an employee
Direct Material Costs Packing material Prime Cost:
Other direct expenses Cost of hiring a special machine
Total direct cost can be described as Prime Cost. Prime Cost = Total direct cost = direct material cost + direct labour cost + other direct expenses. Indirect Cost and Overhead: A cost that is incurred which can not be traced directly. Example of indirect cost: cost of supervisor wage on a production line, cleaning material and building insurance for a factory. These cost can not be traced directly. Total Expenditure: Material Cost + Labour cost + Expenses Total cost = = = = Direct material cost + Indirect material cost + + Direct labour cost + Indirect labour cost + + Direct expenses + Indirect expenses Direct cost/prime cost + Indirect cost/overhead

Categories of Overhead: 1. Production overhead 3. Selling overhead Cost Behavior Pattern: Cost behavior pattern means grouping costs according to how they vary in relation to the level of activity. Example of level of activity: The volume of production in a period The number of items sold The number of invoice issued The number of units of electricity consumed A knowledge of how the cost incurred varies at different levels of activity is essential to planning and decision-making. Fixed Costs: A fixed cost is a cost that, within a relevant range of activity levels, is not affected by increases or decreases in the level of activity. 2. Administration overhead 4. Distribution overhead
Cost
Volume output (level of activity) Example of Fixed Cost: The salary of the managing director (per month or per annum) The rent of a factory building (per month or per annum) Straight line depreciation of a machine (per month or per annum) Variable Costs: A variable cost is a cost that increases or decreases as the level of activity increases or decreases.
Example of Variable Cost:
Cost
Volume output

The cost of raw materials Direct labour cost, which are usually charged as a variable cost even though basic wages are often fixed. Sales commission that is variable in relation to the volume or value of sales.
Semi-variable Costs (or semi-fixed costs or mixed costs): Semi-variable, semi-fixed or mixed costs that are part-fixed and part-variable and are therefore partly affected by changes in the level of activity.
Cost
Variable part
Fixed part Volume output Example of Variable Cost: Electricity and gas bills. There is a standing basic fixed charge plus a charge per unit of consumption. Sales representatives salary. The sales representative may earn a basic monthly amount plus a commission based on the value of sales made. Cost Behavior and Total and Unit Costs: If the variable cost of producing a unit is Tk.5 per unit then it will remain at that cost per unit no matter how many units are produced (within the relevant range). However, if the businesss fixed costs are Tk.5,000 then the fixed cost per unit will decrease the more units are produced: for example, one unit will have fixed costs of Tk.5,000 per units; 2,500 units are produced the fixed cost per unit will be Tk.2; 5,000 units are produced the fixed cost per unit will be only Tk.1. Thus as the level of activity increases the total costs per units (fixed cost plus variable cost) will decrease. The Relevant Range: The relevant range is the range of activity levels within which assumed cost behavior patterns occur. For example, a fixed cost is only fixed for levels of activity within the relevant range, after which it could step up.

Responsibility Accounting: Responsibility accounting is a system of accounting that segregates revenues and costs into areas of personal responsibility in order to monitor and assess the performance of each part of an organization. Responsibility Centre is a department of function whose performance is the direct responsibility of a specific manager. Controllable and uncontrollable Costs: A controllable cost is a cost that can be influence by management decision and action. Example: Excessive overtime, buying material by higher price by the purchasing department. An uncontrollable cost is a cost that cannot be affected by management within a given time span. Example: Increase in expenditure due to inflation.
Lecture # 02 - Chapter-2 Calculating Unit Costs (Part I) 13 January 2010 Exam Requirement: The context of much of this chapter provides scope for a range of numerical questions. However, you should also be prepared to deal with narrative questions that examine your understanding of the implications of the techniques you are using. Main Focus of this chapter: This chapter is related to the numerical questions. Classify costs as direct or indirect Calculate the prime cost of a cost unit Calculate the price of materials and the value of inventory using FIFO LIFO Average Pricing Method
Topic List: Chapter-2
1 Identifying Direct and Indirect Costs for Cost Units

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Direct Material Cost Direct wages or direct labour costs Direct expenses Indirect costs Direct and Indirect costs: some further points
LECTURE # 02
2 Inventory Valuation
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 Valuing inventory in Financial Accounts Charging units of inventory to cost of production or cost of sales Example: Inventory Valuation Pricing methods of Inventory Valuation FIFO (First In First Out) Advantages and Disadvantages of the FIFO Method LIFO (Last In First Out) Advantages and Disadvantages of the LIFO Method Cumulative Weighted Average Pricing Advantages and Disadvantages of Cumulative Weighted Average Pricing Periodic Weighted Average Pricing Inventory Valuation and Profitability Profit Differences
Direct Material Cost: Direct Material Cost is all material becoming part of the cost unit. Direct material costs are charged to the cost unit as part of the prime cost. Examples of direct material are as follows: Components parts or other material purchased for a particular product, service, job, order or process. Primary packing materials like carton or boxes.
LECTURE # 03
Direct Wages or Direct Labour Costs: Direct wages are all wages paid for labour (either as basic or as overtime) that can be identified with the unit cost. Direct wages costs are charged to the cost unit as part of the prime cost. Examples of group of labour receiving payment as direct wage are as follows: Workers engaged in altering the condition, confirmation or composition of the product. Inspectors, analysts and testers specifically required for such production. Direct Expenses: Direct expenses are any expenses that are incurred on a specific cost unit other than direct material cost and direct wages. Direct expenses are charged to the product as part of the prime cost. Examples of direct expenses are as follows: The cost of special designs, drawings or layouts of a particular job. The hire of tools or equipment for a particular job. Indirect Costs: Indirect costs or overheads are those cost that cannot be traced in full to a specific cost unit. For Example, a garage carries out a repair job on a customers car. Direct and Indirect costs: some further points: Some misconceptions about direct and indirect costs: Direct costs are not necessarily bigger in size than indirect costs. Indirect costs are not less important than direct costs. It is easy to confuse fixed and variable costs with direct and indirect costs. Valuing inventory in Financial Accounts: For financial accounting purposes, inventories are valued at the lower of cost and net realizable cost. In practice, inventories will be valued at cost in the stores records throughout the course of an accounting period. Only when the period ends will the value of inventory in hand be reconsidered so that items with a net realizable value below heir original cost will be revalued downwards, and the inventory records altered accordingly. Charging units of inventory to cost of production or cost of sales: It is important to be able to distinguish between the way in which the physical items in inventory are actually issued and the way in which inventory is costed. In practice, a storekeeper may issue goods in the following ways: The oldest goods first The latest goods received first Randomly Those that are earliest to reach.
Pricing methods of Inventory Valuation: 1. FIFO (First In First Out) 2. LIFO (Last In First Out) 3. Cumulative Weighted Average Pricing FIFO (First In First Out): FIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the order in which they were delivered into inventory: issued are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory. Worked Example FIFO and LIFO:
Date Opening Balance, 1 May 2009 Receipt, 3 May Issue, 4 May Receipt, 9 May Issue, 11 May Receipt, 18 May Issue, 20 May Closing balance, 31 May 2009 Total Quantity (Units) 100 400 200 300 400 100 100 200 Unit Cost (Tk.) 2.00 2.10 2.12 2.40 Market value Total Cost per unit on date (Tk.) of transaction 200 840 2.11 2.11 636 2.15 2.20 240 2.40 2.42 2.45 1916
Solution of Worked Example - FIFO:

Issues Receipts Inventory Unit Cost Amount Unit Cost Amount Unit Cost Amount Date Quantity Quantity Quantity (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) 1-May-09 100 2.00 200 3-May-09 400 2.10 840 100 400 500 100 100 300 2.12 636 2.00 2.10 200 210 2.00 2.10 200 840 1,040
4-May-09
300 300 300 600
2.10 2.10 2.12
630 630 636 1,266
9-May-09
11-May-09
300 100 100 2.40 240
2.10 2.12
630 212
200 200 100 300
2.12 2.12 2.40
424 424 240 664 212 240 452
18-May-09
20-May-09 31-May-09
100
2.12
212
100 100 200
2.12 2.40
LIFO (Last In First Out): LIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the reverse order from that in which they were delivered: the most recent deliveries are issued before earlier once, and issues are priced accordingly. Solution of Worked Example - LIFO:
Receipts Issues Inventory Unit Cost Amount Unit Cost Amount Unit Cost Amount Date Quantity Quantity Quantity (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) (Tk.) 1-May-09 100 2.00 200 3-May-09 400 2.10 840 100 400 500 200 2.10 420 100 200 100 200 300 600 300 100 100 2.40 240 2.12 2.10 636 210 100 100 100 100 100 300 100 2.40 240 100 100 200 2.00 2.10 200 840 1,040 200 420 200 420 636 1,256 200 210 200 210 240 650 200 210 410
4-May-09
2.00 2.10 2.00 2.10 2.12
9-May-09
300
2.12
636
11-May-09
2.00 2.10 2.00 2.10 2.40
18-May-09
20-May-09 31-May-09
2.00 2.10
Lecture # 03 - Chapter-2 (Contd) Calculating Unit Costs (Part I) 20 January 2010 Cumulative Weighted Average Pricing The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units in inventory. Issues are priced at this average cost, and the balance of inventory remaining would have the same unit valuation. The average price is determined by dividing the total cost by the total number of units. A new weighted average price is calculated whenever a new delivery of materials is received into store. This is the key feature of cumulative weighted average pricing. The issue prices are calculated each time materials are received in stores and not when they are issued. Worked Example - Cumulative Weighted Average Pricing Using cumulative weighted average pricing, the issue costs and closing inventory of the transaction as follows:
Date Opening Balance, 1 May 2009 03-May 04-May 09-May 11-May 18-May 20-May Cost of issues Closing inventory value Total 100 300 100 300 600 400 200 Received Units 400 500 200 300 Issued Units Balance Units 100 Total Units Cost Inventory (Tk.) Value (Tk.) 200 2.00 840 2.10 1040 2.08 -416 2.08 624 2.08 636 2.12 1260 2.10 -840 2.10 420 2.10 240 2.40 660 2.20 -220 2.20 Total Taka
416
840
220 1476 440 1916
200 2200
440
2.20
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cumulative Weighted Average Pricing: Advantages: 1. Fluctuations in price are smoothed out, making it easier to use the data for decision making. 2. It is easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO, because there is no need to identify each batch separately. Disadvantages: 1. The resulting issue price is rarely an actual price that has been paid, and can run to several decimal points which are very much laborious. 2. Price tend to lag a little behind current market values when there is gradual inflation. 3. Materials cost does not represent actual cost price.
Periodic Weighted Average Pricing: The average method differs from the cumulative weighted average method. Instead of calculating a new inventory value per unit whenever a receipt occurs, a single average is calculated at the the end of the period based on all purchases for the period. This method is extremely simple to operate and can be used in process industries where each individual order is absorbed into the general cost of producing a large quantity of articles. But where each individual order is to be priced separately at each stage of completion, such as in jobbing industry, this method is unsatisfactory. Unless stated to the contrary, assume the cumulative method is required in an exam question. Worked example: Periodic Weighted Average Pricing Using periodic weighted average pricing, the issue costs and closing inventory of the transaction as follows:
Periodic weighted average price = Cost of opening inventory + Total cost of receipts in period Units in opening inventory + Total units received in period
Periodic weighted average price = = Tk. 2.129 per unit
(Tk. 200 + Tk. 1716) (100 + 800)
This average price is used to value all the units issued and the units in the closing inventory. Cost of issues = 700 units x Tk. 2.129 Cloing inventory value = 200 units x Tk. 2.129
Tk. 1490 Tk. 426 1916
Inventory Valuation and Profitability: Each method of inventory valuation usually produces different figures for the value of closing inventories and the cost of material issues. A summary of the valuations based on the previous example which we have learned in the earlier is as follows: Since material costs affect the cost of production, and the cost of production works through eventually into the cost of sales (which is also affected by the value of closing inventories), it follows that different methods of inventory valuation will provide different profit figures.
Closing Inventory Cost of Issue (Tk.) Value (Tk.) 452 1464 410 1506 440 1476 426 1490
Valuation Method FIFO LIFO Cumulative weighted average Periodic weighted average
Total Tk. 1916 1916 1916 1916
Worked example: Inventory Valuation and Profitability: On 1 November 2009, DD Ltd. held 3 pink satin dress with orange sashes, designed by Freda Swoggs. There were valued at Tk. 120 each. During November 2009, 12 more of the dresses were delivered as follows:
Dress Received 4 4 4 Purchase cost per dress (Tk.) 125 140 150
Date 10-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov
A number of the pink satin dresses with orange sashes were sold during November as follows:
Date 14-Nov 21-Nov 28-Nov

Requirement:
Dress Sold 5 5 1
Sales price per dress (Tk.) 200 200 200
Calculate the gross profit from selling the pink satin dresses with orange sashes in November 2009, applying the following principles of inventory valuation. a) FIFO b) LIFO c) Cumulative weighted average pricing Calculate gross profit using the formula: Gross profit = (Sales - (opening inventory + purchase- closing inventory) BAS-2: Inventories (Paragraph 23-27): Cost Formulas: As per paragraph 23, The cost of inventories shall be assigned by using the first-in, firstout (FIFO) or weighted average cost formula. The FIFO formula assumes that the items of inventory that were purchased or produced first are sold first, and consequently the items remaining in inventory at the end of the period are those most recently purchased or produced. Under the weighted average cost formula, the cost of each item is determined from the weighted average of the cost of similar items at the beginning of a period and the cost of similar items purchased or produced during the period. The average may be calculated on a periodic basis, or as each additional shipment is received, depending upon the circumstances of the entity.
Methods Used in Issuing Materials: The various methods which are used for valuing materials issued from store can be grouped as follows: A. Cost Price Method:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 Specific Price FIFO (First In First Out) LIFO (Last In First Out) Base stock Simple Average Weighted Average Periodic Simple Average Periodic Weighted Average Moving Simple Average Replacement Price Realizable Price Current Standard Price Basic Standard Price
B. Average Price Method:
C. Average Price Method:
D. Standard Price Method:
Lecture # 04 - Chapter-3 Calculating Unit Costs (Part 2) 27 January 2010 Exam Requirement: Student should be prepared to tackle narrative questions on overhead absorption as well as on the selection of the most appropriate costing method in the specific circumstances. Main Focus of this chapter: Calculate the full cost of a cost unit using absorption costing Demonstrate an understanding of the basic principles of activity based costing Identify the most appropriate costing method in specific circumstances Demonstrate an understanding of the general principles of target costing, life cycle costing and just in time. Main Study Book: 1. Management Information published by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh and Reference Book: 1. Managerial Accounting, By Garrison and Noreen, Edition # 9, Chapter # 7 and 8. Chapter: 8 (Review Problem Activity Based Costing) (Exercise # 8-4, 8-5,8-6, 8-7, 8-10) (Problem # 8-12, 8-14, 8-15, 8-16) 2. Theory and Practice of Costing, Volume One by Basu & Das, Chapter # 5
Topic List: Chapter-3 1 Absorption Costing 1.1 Calculating the absorption cost of a cost unit 1.2 Overhead Allocation 1.3 Overhead Apportionment 1.4 Overhead Absorption 1.5 Blanket Absorption rates ad departmental absorption rates 1.6 Over and under Absorption of overheads 2 Activity Based Costing 2.1 The problems with traditional absorption costing 2.2 The Activity Based Costing approach Costing Methods 3.1 Specific order costing 3.2 Process (continues operation) Costing Other approaches to cost management 4.1 Life cycle costing 4.2 Target costing 4.3 Just-In-Time (JIT)
Calculating the absorption cost of a cost unit: To calculate the full cost of an item using absorption costing (sometime referred to as full costing) it is necessary first to establish its direct cost or prime cost and then to add a fair share of indirect costs or overhead.
The full or absorption cost per unit is therefore made up as follows: Tk. Direct Materials x Direct labour x x Direct expenses (if any) Total direct cost (Prime Cost) x Share of indirect cost/overhead x Absorption (Full) Cost x There are three stages in determining the share of overhead to be attributed to a cost unit. Overhead Allocation Overhead Apportionment Overhead Absorption Overhead Allocation: The first stage in absorption costing is allocation. Allocation is the process by which whole cost items are charged direct to a cost centre. A cost centre acts as a collecting place for costs before they are analyzed further. Cost centre may be one of the following types: A production Department, to which production overheads are charged. A production Service Department, to which production overheads are charged. An Administration Department, to which administration overheads are charged. A selling or Distribution Department, to which sales and distribution overheads are charged. An Overhead Cost Centre, to which items of expenses which are shared by a number of departments, such as rent and rates, heat and light and the canteen, are charged. Worked Example: Overhead Allocation Consider the following costs of a company. Tk. Wages of the supervisor of department A Wages of the supervisor of department B Indirect Material consumed in department A Rent of the premises shared by department A and B 200 150 50 300
The cost accounting system might include three cost centre. Cost Centre: 101 Department A 102 Department B 201 Rent Requirement: Compute the allocation of the above overhead cost.

Overhead Apportionment: The next step in absorption costing is overhead apportionment. This involves apportioning general overheads to cost centres (the first stage) and then reapportioning the costs of service cost centres to production departments (the second stage). The first stage: Apportioning General Overheads: The first stage of overhead apportionment is to identify all overhead costs as production department, production service department, administration or selling and distribution overhead. This means that the costs for heat and light, rent and so on (that is, costs which have been allocated to general overhead cost centres) must be shared out between the other cost centres. Overhead costs should be shared out on a fair basis. The bases of apportionment for the most usual cases are given below:
Basis Floor area occupied by each cost centre Cost or book value of equipment Number of employees, or labour hours worked in each cost centre Volume of space occupied by each cost centre
Overhead to which the basis applies Rent, rates, heating and light, repairs and depreciation of buildings Depreciation, insurance of equipment Personnel office, canteen, welfare, wages and cost offices, first aid Heating, lighting (see abive)
Interactive Question: Bases of Apportionment The following bases of apportionment are used by a factory. A Volume of cost centre B Value of machinery in cost centre C Number of employees in cost centre D Floor areas of cost centre Compute the below table with using one of A to D of the above the bases.
Production Overheads Rent Heating costs Insurance of machinery Cleaning costs Canteen costs Basis
Worked Example: Overhead Apportionment: McQueen Co has incurred the following overhead cost. Depreciation of Factory Factory repairs and maintenance Factory office cost (treat as production overhead) Depreciation of equipment Insurance of equipment Heating Lighting Canteen Tk. (000) 100 60 150 80 20 39 10 90 549

Information relating to the production and service department in the factory is as follows:
Pduction-1 1200 3000 30 30000 Department Pduction-2 Service 100 Service 100 1600 800 400 6000 2400 1600 30 15 15 20000 10000 20000
Floor space (square meters) Volume (cubic metres) Number of employees Book value of equipment (Tk.)
The overhead cost Apportionment Formula: Total overhead cost Total value of apportionment base For example, Heating for Dept. 1 = Value of apportionment base of cost centre
Tk. 39,000 13,000
X 3000
Tk. 9,000
Items of cost Depreciation of Factory Factory repairs and maintenance Factory office cost Depreciation of equipment Insurance of equipment Heating Lighting Canteen Total
Basis of Apportionment Floor Area Floor Area Number of employees Book value Book value Volume Floor Area Number of employees
Department (Tk.'000) Total cost Pduction- Pduction- Service Service 1 2 100 100 (Tk.)
Second stage: Service Cost Centre Cost Apportionment: The second stage of overhead apportionment concerns the treatment of service cost centres. The next stage in absorption costing is, therefore, to apportion the costs of service cost centres to the production cost centres. Example of possible apportionment base are as follows:
Service Cost Centre Stores Maintenance Production planning Basis of Apportionment Number of materials requisition Hours of maintenance work done for each cost centre Direct labour hours worked in each production cost centre
Overhead Absorption: Having allocated and/or apportioned all overheads, the next stage in absorption costing is to add them to, or absorb them into, the cost of production or sales. Production overheads Administration, selling and distribution overheads Predetermined Absorption Rate: In absorption costing, it is usual to add overheads into product costs by applying a predetermined overhead absorption rate.

Calculating predetermined overhead Absorption Rate: The absorption rate is calculated by dividing the budgeted overhead by the budgeted level of activity. Selecting the appropriate Absorption Base: Management should try to establish an absorption rate that provides a reasonably accurate estimate of overhead costs for jobs, products or service Blanked Absorption Rates and Departmental Absorption Rate: A blanked or single factory overhead absorption rate is an absorption rate used throughout a factory and all jobs and units of output irrespective of the department in which they were produced. Worked Example: Absorption Rate: Over and Under Absorption of Overhead: (a) Over Absorption means that the overheads charged to the cost of production are greater than the overheads actually incurred. (b) Under Absorption means that insufficient overheads have been included in the cost of production. Reasons for under/over Absorbed Overhead: The problem with Traditional Absorption Costing: The traditional absorption costing system relies on subjective judgment concerning the basis of apportionment of overheads to cost centres. The traditional absorption costing system can create a problem for management seeking to accurately identify unit costs and exert control over these costs. The Activity Based Costing Approach: Activity based costing (ABC) provides an alternative to the traditional method of absorption costing. The objective of this method is to establish a better means of relating overheads to output, it is claimed that the ABC method provides managers with a better basis for both cost control and for the analysis of profitability. Cost Drivers: For those costs that vary with production levels in the short term, ABC uses volume-related cost drivers such as labour hours or machine hours. Calculating product costs using ABC: Worked Example: Comparing ABC with Traditional Absorption Costing:

Specific Order Costing: Some organizations produce one off products or services to a customers specific requirements, where cost unit is separately identifiable from all others. Job Costing: Job costing is appropriate where each separately identifiable cost unit or job is of relatively short duration. Contact Costing: Contact costing is appropriate where each separately identifiable cost unit is of relatively long duration. Batch Costing: Batch costing is similar to job costing except that each separately identifiable cost unit would be a batch of identical items. Process (Continue Operation) Costing: Some organizations have a continuous flow of operations and produce a large number of identical products. Life Cycle Costing: A product incurs costs over the whole of its life cycle, from the design stage through development to market launch, production and sales, and its eventual withdrawal from the market. Target Costing: Target costing works the other way round. It begins with a concept for a new product and, after considering the situation in the potential market for the product, a required selling price is determined. Just-In-Time (JIT): Just-in-time (JIT) is an approach to operations planning and control based on the idea that goods and services should be produced only when they are needed. Operational Requirement for JIT: JIT and Cost Management:

Lecture # 05 - Chapter- 4 Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing 03 February 2010 Exam Requirement: The calculation of the different profits reported under marginal costing and absorption costing is likely to be a popular examination topic. Students are also likely to be asked to reconcile the difference between the profits reported under the two systems. Main Focus of this chapter: Calculate the profit reported under marginal costing and under absorption costing using the same basic set of data. Reconcile the difference between the profit reported under the two systems. Derive the marginal costing profit from data provided that is prepared using absorption costing and vice versa. Most students are comfortable with marginal costing but have difficulty with absorption costing, particularly the under or over absorption of overhead. Narrative questions as well as numerical questions are important in this area of the syllabus. Book Reference Main Study Book: 1. Management Information published by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales. Reference Book: 1. Theory and Practice of Costing, Volume Two by Basu & Das. Topic List: 1 Marginal Cost and Marginal Costing 1.1 Marginal Costing 1.2 Contribution 1.3 Conclusion 2 Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing Compared 2.1 Summarizing the differences between the two costing methods 2.2 Conclusion 2.3 Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing Compared Marginal Costing: Marginal costing is an alternative costing system to absorption costing. With marginal costing, only variable production costs are included in the valuation of units. All fixed costs are treated as period costs and are charged in full against the sales revenue for the period. The marginal production cost per unit usually consists of the following: Variable materials Variable labour Variable production overhead

Contribution: Contribution is an important measure in marginal costing and it is calculated as the difference between sales value and marginal cost. The term contribution is really short for contribution towards fixed overheads and profit. The contribution per unit can be calculated is follows: Per Unit (Tk.) Per Unit (Tk.) Selling Price x Variable material x Variable labour x x Variable production overheads Marginal production cost x Variable selling, distribution and administrative cost x Total Marginal Cost (x) Contribution X Worked Example: Marginal Costing: Water Ltd makes a product, the splash, which has a variable production cost of Tk. 6 per unit and a sales price of Tk. 10 per unit. At the beginning of September 2009, there was no opening inventory and production during the month was 20,000 units. Fixed cost for the month were Tk. 45,000 (production, administration, sales and distribution). There were no variable marketing costs. Requirement: Calculate the contribution and profit for September 2009, using marginal costing principle, if sales were as follows: (a) 10,000 splash (b) 15,000 splash (c) 20,000 splash Conclusions: The conclusions that may be drawn from this example are as follows: (a) The profit per unit varies at different levels of sales. (b) The contribution per unit is constant at all level of output and sales. (c) The contribution per unit does not change. Summarizing the differences between the two costing methods: The differences between the two costing systems can be summarized as follows: In marginal Costing: Closing inventories are valued at marginal or variable production cost. Fixed costs are charged in full against the profit of the period in which they are incurred. No fixed costs are included in the inventory valuation.

In Absorption Costing: Inventories are valued at full production cost, and include a share of fixed production costs. This means that the cost of sales in a period will include some fixed overhead incurred in a previous period (in opening inventory values) and will exclude some fixed overhead incurred in the current period which is carried forward in the closing inventory value. Conclusions: Marginal costing and absorption costing are different techniques for assessing profit in a period. If there are changes in inventories during a period, marginal costing and absorption costing give different results for profit obtained. If the opening and closing inventory levels are the same, marginal costing and absorption costing will give the same profit figure if unit costs remain constant. In the long run, total profit for a company will be the same whether marginal costing or absorption costing is used as all inventory is sold. Different accounting conversions merely affect the profit of individual accounting periods. Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing Compared: Advantage of Absorption Costing: i. Fixed production costs are incurred in order to make output; it is therefore fair to charge all output with a share of these costs. ii. Closing inventory values, by dividing a share of fixed production overhead, will be valued on the principle required by accounting standards for the financial valuation of inventories for external Advantage of Marginal Costing: i. It is simple to operate. ii. There are no apportionments of fixed costs. iii. Fixed cost will be the same regardless of the volume of output. iv. Under or over absorption of overhead is avoided.

Lecture # 6 - Chapter- 5 Pricing Calculation 10 February 2010 Exam Requirement: Pricing decisions could features as a narrative question or a calculation question. The sample paper for this syllabus featured one calculation question and one narrative question about pricing as well as a calculation question about transfer pricing. Main Focus of this chapter: Calculate a selling price using full cost-plus pricing Calculate a selling price using marginal cost-plus pricing Demonstrate an understanding of the difference between mark-up and margin and of the relationship between them Derive the mark up percentage that will achieve a desired return on the investment in a product. Calculate a transfer price that will achieve profit maximization and encourage an alignment of the goals of groups or individuals with the goals of the organization as a whole. Book Reference Main Study Book: 1. Management Information published by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales. 1 Full cost-plus pricing 1.1 Cost-plus pricing 1.2 Setting full cost-plus prices 1.3 Determining the mark-up percentage 1.4 Determining the mark-up to achieve a required return on investment 1.5 Allowing for inflation when setting selling prices 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of full cost-plus pricing Marginal Cost-plus pricing 2.1 Setting marginal cost-plus prices 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of marginal cost-plus pricing Mark-ups and Margins 3.1 The difference between mark-up and margin Transfer Pricing 4.1 What is transfer price? 4.2 Aims of a transfer pricing system 4.3 Practical methods of transfer pricing 4.3.1 Market price 4.3.2 A cost-plus approach to transfer pricing 4.3.3 Two part transfer price 4.3.4 Dual pricing
Cost-Plus Pricing: In practice cost is one of the most important influences on price. While in economic theory it is possible to set a sales that will maximize profit, in reality there is a lack of precise information about cost behavior patterns and the effect of price on sales demand.

This will lead some organizations to base their selling price decision on simple cost-plus rules, whereby costs are estimated and then a percentage mark-up is added in order to set the price. Setting Full Cost-Plus Pricing: The full cost may be a fully absorption production cost only, or it my include some absorbed selling, distribution and administration overhead. Therefore there are two options for calculating a full cost-plus price. Option 1: Unit sales price = Total production cost per unit + Percentage mark-up Option 2: Unit sales price = Total production cost per unit + Other Cost* per unit + Percentage mark-up *Other cost include selling, distribution and administration costs. Clearly, to achieve the same sales price, the mark-up on cost must be greater under Option1 than under Option 2 in order to recover the other costs. Worked Example: Calculating a cost-plus selling price XY Ltd has began to produce product S, for which the following cost estimates have been prepared.
Variable Costs Variable materials Variable labor at Tk. 12 per hour Variable production overheads at Tk. 3 per hour Variable production cost per unit Tk. Per unit 14.00 54.00 13.50 81.50
Fixed production overheads are budgeted to be Tk. 69,000 each period. The overhead absorption rate will be based on 17,250 budgeted direct labor hours each period. Requirement: The company wishes to add 20 percent to the full production cost in order to determine the selling price per unit for product S. Determining the mark-up percentage: A business may have an idea of the percentage profit mark-up it would like to earn, and so may decide on an average profit mark-up as a general guide for pricing decisions. This would be particularly useful for businesses that carry out a large amount of contact or jobbing work, for which individual job or contact prices must be quoted regularly to prospective customers. However, the percentage profit mark-up does not have to be rigid and fixed. It can be varied to suit the circumstances. In particular, the percentage mark-up can be varied to suit anticipated supply and demand conditions in the market. Determining the mark-up to achieve a required return on investment: A business might calculate the mark-up percentage for a product in order to achieve a required return on the investment in the product.

Worked Example: Pricing to generate a return on investment Allowing for inflation when setting selling prices: We have seen that the mark-up added to total cost must be sufficient to earn the required profit, or in the case of adding a mark-up to total production cost, the mark up must be sufficient to recover all non-production costs in addition to earning the required profit. Therefore managers must estimate costs as accurately as possible and must decide whether to include allowances for anticipated inflation. Advantages and disadvantages of full cost-plus pricing: The advantages of full cost-plus pricing are as follows: The price is quick and easy to calculate. Pricing decisions can be delegated to more junior employees. A price in excess of full cost should ensure that an organization working at normal capacity will cover all its costs. Price increases can be justified as costs rise. However full cost-plus pricing does have a number of disadvantages: It fails to recognize that since demand may be determining price, there will be a profit maximizing combination of price and demand. It reduces incentives to control costs. It requires arbitrary absorption of overheads into product costs. Setting Marginal Cost-Plus Prices: Marginal cost-plus pricing is a method of determining sales prices whereby a profit mark-up is added to either the marginal cost of production or the marginal cost of sales. Worked Example: Calculating a marginal cost-plus price: Advantages and disadvantages of marginal cost-plus pricing: The advantages of marginal cost-plus pricing are as follows: It is a simple method to use. It avoids the arbitrary apportionment and absorption of fixed costs that is necessary with absorption costing. Disadvantages of marginal cost-plus pricing: The full costs might not be recovered in the long term. The difference between mark-up and margin: When sales prices are being determined on a cost-plus basis it is extremely important to be clear about whether the profit to be added to unit costs is calculated as a percentage of costs or as a percentage of selling price.
CA in Bangladesh >> We believe in sharing www.facebook.com/CAinBD Cost-Plus Pricing
Mark-up Percentage (Profit expressed as a percentage of cost) What is Transfer Price?
Margin Percentage (Profit expressed as a percentage of sales prices)
Transfer pricing is used when divisions of an organization need to change other divisions of the same organization for goods or services that they provide to them. For example: subsidiary A might manufacture a component that is used as part of a product made by subsidiary B of the same company. The component can also be bought on or sold to the external market. Therefore there will be two sources of revenue for subsidiary A. External sales revenue from sales made to other organization. Internal sales revenue from the transfer prices charged for components supplied to subsidiary B. Practical Methods of Transfer Pricing: Practical Methods of Transfer Pricing
Market Price
Cost-Plus Price
Two part Transfer Price
Dual Pricing

Class Lecture # 07 Class Test # 01 Management Information (Knowledge Level) Section # 04, Date: 17 February 2010 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh
Total Mark-50
Time: 1 Hour
Chapter # 1: The fundamentals of costing 1. Who are the user party of financial accounts and management accounts? 2. Define Cost Unit with example. 3. What are the three elements of cost? 2 2 2
4. Define Fixed Costs, Variable Cost and Semi-variable Cost with example and graph. 2 5. Write down the components of Total Cost, Direct Cost/Prime Cost and Indirect Cost/Overhead Cost. 2 Chapter # 2: Calculating unit cost (Part 1) 6. Write down the Advantages and Disadvantages of the FIFO Method. 2
7. At the beginning of week 10 there were 400 units of component X held in the stores. 160 of these components had been purchased for Tk. 5.55 each in week 9 and 240 had been purchased for Tk. 5.91 each in week 8. On day 3 of week 10 a further 120 components were received into stores at a purchase cost of Tk. 5.96 each. The only issue of component X occurred on day 4 of week 10, when 150 units were issued to production. Using the FIFO valuation method, what was the value of the closing inventory of component X at the end of week 10? 2+2 8. Write down the formula of computation of Periodic Weighted Average Pricing. Chapter # 3: Calculating unit cost (Part 2) 9. How you will calculate the Absorption Cost of a product? 2 2
10. Write down the three stages in determining the share of overhead to be attributed to a cost unit under absorption costing. 2 11. The following bases of apportionment are used by a factory. A. Volume of cost centre B. Value of machinery in cost centre C. Number of employees in cost centre D. Floor areas of cost centre Requirement: Compute the below table with using one of A to D of the above the bases.
12. How you will calculate the predetermined overhead absorption rate?

13. Define the four stages of calculating product cost using Activity Based Costing (ABC). 2 14. Write down the advantages of Just-In-Time (JIT) cost approach. Chapter # 4: Marginal costing and absorption costing 15. How you will calculate the Marginal Cost and Contribution of a product? 2 2
16. A particular electrical goods is sold for Tk.1009.99. The variable material cost per unit is Tk. 320, the variable labour cost per unit is Tk192 and the variable production overhead cost per unit is Tk. 132. Fixed overheads per annum are Tk. 100,000 and the budgeted production level is 1,000 units. Requirement: a. What would be the contribution per unit of the electrical goods? 2 17. What are the differences between Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing. 18. The following costs card relates to one unit of Product EZ. Costs Components Variable materials Variable labor Production Overheads: Variable Fixed Sales and distribution overheads: Variable Fixed Total Cost Tk. 20 40 10 5 5 10 90 2
Requirement: What would be the marginal production cost of one unit of Product EZ? Chapter # 5: Pricing calculation 19. What are the differences between mark-up and margin?
20. XY Ltd. requires an annual return of 30% on the investment in all of its products. In the forthcoming year Tk. 800,000 will be invested in non-current assets and working capital to produce and sell 50,000 units of product X. The full cost per unit of product Z is Tk. 100. Requirement: a. What would be the mark-up percentage of full cost basis? 2 b. What would be the selling price of product Z? 2 21. Why you will consider inflation at the time of setting selling prices of a product? 2
22. The marginal cost per unit of a product is 70% of its full cost. Selling prices are set on a full costplus basis using a mark-up of 40 percent of full cost. Requirement: a. What percentage mark-up on marginal cost would produce the same selling prices as the full cost-plus basis described? 2 23. Write down the practical methods of transfer pricing. 2

Lecture # 8 - Chapter - 6 Budgeting 24 February 2010 Exam Requirement: Numerical questions will be limited in scope (e.g. individual budgets). Narrative questions need to be read very carefully. Main Focus of this chapter: Demonstrate an understanding of the Objective of a budgetary planning and control system Difference between a budget and a forecast Administrative process of budget preparation Prepare functional budgets and the income statement and balance sheet elements of a master budget from data supplied. Calculate the effect on budget outcomes of changes in specified variables. Demonstrate an understanding of a range of budgeting approaches and methods. Book Reference Main Study Book: 1. Management Information jointly published by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales. Reference Book: Managerial Accounting, By Garrison and Noreen, Edition # 9, Chapter # 11. What is Budget? Budget is the numeric expressions prepared for the assumptions of future events, which is expressed via financial statements (Profit & Loss, Balance Sheet, Cash flows Statement) and Non financial outcomes KPIs (Key Performance Indicator). Reasons for Preparing Budgets: An organizations budget fulfills many roles. Here are some of the reasons why budgets are used: 1. Compel planning 2. Communicate ideas and plans 3. Coordinate activities 4. Means of allocating resources 5. Authorization 6. Provide a framework for responsibility accounting 7. Establish a system of control 8. Provide a means of performance evaluation 9. Motivate employees to improve their performance Budgets Compared with Forecasts: A forecast is a prediction of what is likely to happen in the future, given a certain set of circumstances. This is different from a budget, which is a quantified plan of what the organization intends should happen in the future. The budget is based on the forecast, therefore the two are connected, but they are not the same thing. Measures might be taken to ensure that budgeted targets are achieved, thus a budget forces management into decision-making and taking action. For example, a gap between forecast sales revenue and the sales budget could force sales promotions or an increase in advertising.

Quantified Budgets: To fulfill the range of purposes for which it is prepared, a budget must be quantified. For example, the following two statements would not be particularly useful for planning and control purposes.
"We plan to utilise fully all the available hours of semi-skilled labour next period." "We plan to minimise expenditure on advertising next period." Without quantification these are merely general statements of purpose of purpose. The following quantified budgets are more useful for planning and control. "We plan to utilise 24,800 hours of semi-skilled labour next period." "We plan to spend Tk. 107,000 on advertising next period."
These budgets provide definite plans, as well as yardstick for control purposes. Notice that the labour hours budget is not expressed in financial terms. It still fulfills the role of a budget because it is quantified. Therefore a budget does not necessarily need to be expressed in financial terms. Of course the semi-skilled labour hours budgeted can be converted into a budget expressed in financial terms by applying a rate of pay per hour to the budgeted number of labour hours. An important feature of any quantified budget is the fact that it is time bound. Just to say, We plan to spend Tk. 107,000 on advertising without specifying a period over which this amount is to be spent would render the budget useless. Budget Committee: The budget committee is the coordinating body in the preparation and administration of budgets. The budget committee is usually headed up by the managing director (as chairman) who is assisted by a budget officer, who is usually the finance director or another accountant. Every part of the organization should be represented on the committee, so there should be a representative from sales, production, marketing and so on. Functions of the Budget Committee: Coordination and allocation of responsibility for the preparation of budgets. Issuing of the budget manual Timetabling Provision of information to assist in the preparation of budgets. Communication of final budgets to the appropriate managers. Monitoring the budgeting process by comparing actual and budgeted results.
The Budget Period: The budget period is the period covered by the budget, which is usually one year. However, budgets can be prepared and used for longer periods, for example capital expenditure budgets. Budgets can also be prepared for shorter periods, for example in an environment where technology or other factors are rapidly changing with the result that annual budgets quickly become out of date. In the common situation where a budget is prepared for a year it will usually be divided into monthly control periods so that regular comparisons can be made of the actual and budgeted results.

Some organizations divide the annual budget into 13 periods of four weeks. Others have 12 budget periods but they are not calendar months, but periods of 4, 4 and 5 weeks for each quarter of the year. The Budget Manual: The budget manual is a collection of instructions governing the responsibilities of persons and the procedures, forms and records relating to the preparation and use of budgetary data. A budget manual may contain the following: a) b) c) d) e) An explanation of the objectives of the budgetary process. Organizational structure. An outline of the principal budgets and the relationship between them. Administrative details of budget preparation. Procedural matters.
Steps in the preparation of a Budget: The procedures for preparing a budget will differ from organization to organization but the steps described below will be inactive of those followed by many organizations. The preparation of a budget may take weeks or months and the budget committee may meet several times before the master budget (budgeted income statement, budgeted balance sheet and budgeted cash flow) is finally agreed. Functional budgets (sales budget, production budgets, direct labour budgets and so on), which are amalgamated into the master budget, may need to be amended many times as a consequence of discussions between departments, changes in market conditions and so on during the course of budget preparation. Ideally, a master budget should be finished prior to the start of the period to which it relates. Identifying the Principal Budget Factor: The budget for the principal budget factor must be prepared first. The principal budget factor is that factor which limits an organizations activities. This factor is usually sales demand. A company is usually restricted from making and selling more of its products because there would be no sales demand for the increased output at a price that would be acceptable/profitable to the company. The principal budget factor may alternatively be machine capacity, distribution and selling resources, the availability of key raw materials or the availability of cash. Once this factor is defined then the reminder of the budgets can be prepared. For example, if sales are the principal budget factor then the production manager can only prepare the production budget after the sales budget is complete. The order of Budget Preparation: Assuming that sales has been identified as the principal budget factor, the stages involved in the preparation of a budget for a manufacturing business can be summarized as follows. a. The sales budget is prepared in terms of units of product, unit selling price and total sales value. The finished goods inventory budget can be prepared at the same time. This budget decides the planned increase or decrease in finished goods inventory levels.

b. With the information from the sales and inventory budgets, the production budget can be prepared. This is, in effect, the sales budget in units plus (or minus) the increase (or decrease) in finished goods inventory. The production budget will be started in terms of units. c. This leads on logically to budgeting the resources for production. This involves preparing a materials usage budget, machine usage budget and a labour budget. d. In addition to the material usage budget, a material inventory budget will be prepared to decide the planned increase or decrease in the level of inventory held. e. Once the raw materials usage requirements and the raw materials inventory budget are known, the purchasing department can prepare a raw materials purchase budget in quantities and value for each type of material purchased. Similarly warehousing and distribution budgets can be prepared. f. During the preparation of the sales and production budgets, the managers of the cost centres of the organization will prepare draft budgets for their department overhead costs. Such overheads will include maintenance, stores, administration, selling and research and development.
g. From the above information a budgeted income statement can be prepared. h. In addition, several other budgets must be prepared in order to arrive at the budgeted balance sheet. These are the capital expenditure budget (for non-current assets), the working capital budgets (for budgeted increases or decreases in the level of receivables and accounts payable as well as inventories), and a cash budget. Preparing Functional Budget: Functional/department budgets include budgets for sales, production, purchases, labour and administration. Having seen the theory of budget preparation, let us look at functional (or department) budget preparation, which is best examined by means of an example. Worked Example: Preparing a Materials Purchase Budget: ECO Co. manufactures two products, S and T, which use the same raw materials, D and E. One unit of S uses 3 liters of D and 4 kilograms of E. One unit of T uses 5 liters of D and 2 kilograms of E. A liter of D is expected to cost Tk. 3 and a kilogram of E Tk. 7. Budgeted sales for 2002 are 8,000 units of S and 6,000 units of T; finished goods in inventory at 1 January 2002 are 1,500 units of S and 300 units of T, and the company plans to hold inventories of 600 units of each product at 31 December 2002. Inventories of raw material are 6,000 liters of D and 2,800 kilograms of E at 1January and the company plans to hold 5,000 liters and 3,500 kilograms respectively at 31 December 2002. The warehouse and stores managers have suggested that a provision should be made for damages and deterioration of items held in store, as follows: Product S Product T Product D Product E : loss of 50 units : loss of 100 units : loss of 500 liters : loss of 200 kilograms

Requirement: Prepare a material purchases budget for the year 2002. The Link between Budgeting and Standard Costing: There is a link between budgeting and standard costing. A standard cost is a predetermined unit cost that details the price and quantity of resources (material, labour and so on) required for each unit of production or service. This unit cost is multiplied by the budgeted activity level to determine the budgeted total cost for each of the relevant cost elements. Thus standard costs provide the basic unit rates to be used in the preparation of a number of functional budgets. The detail standard cost also enables control to be exercised over actual performance. The departures from budgets, or variances, can be analyzed in detail using the standard cost information about the price and quantity of resources that should have been used for each unit of production or services. The Content of the Master Budget: The master budget provides a consolidation of all the subsidiary budgets and normally comprises a budgeted income statement, a budgeted balance sheet and a cash budget. Worked Example: Preparing a Budgeted Income Statement and Balance Sheet: A new business is to be started and details of budgeted transactions are as follows: Non-current assets will be purchased for Tk. 12,000. Depreciation will be charged on a straight line basis, assuming that the assets will have a useful life of five years after which they will have no residual value. Month-end inventories will be maintained at a level sufficient to meet the forecast sales for the following month. Forecast monthly sales are Tk. 4,000 for January to March, Tk. 5,000 for April to June and Tk. 6,000 per month for July onwards. The gross profit margin is budgeted to be 20% of sales value. Two months credit will be allowed to customers and one months credit will be received from suppliers of inventory. Operating expenses (excluding depreciation) are budgeted to be Tk. 350 each month. The budgeted closing cash balance as at 30 June is Tk. 16,700. Requirement: Use the above information to prepare a budgeted income statement for the six months ended 30 June and a budgeted balance sheet at that date. Performing a Sensitivity Analysis: Since the master budget provides a summary of all the subsidiary budgets it is likely to be of most interest to senior managers and directors who may not to be concerned with the detail of budgets outside their own areas of responsibility.

Of particular interest to senior managers will be the sensitivity of the budget outcomes to changes in the budget assumptions. For example, they might like to know the answers to questions such as the following: What will be the budgeted profit if sales revenue is five percent higher or lower the the budget? What will be the total budgeted costs if direct material costs are ten percent higher or lower than the budget? A sensitivity analysis (sometimes called a what if? analysis) might be performed to show the effect of changes such as these, and to assess the impact on critical areas such as cash resources. Worked Example: What if? Analysis: R Ltd manufactures and sells a single product. The budgeted income statement contained in the master budget for the forthcoming year is as follows.
Particulars Sales revenue (20,000 units) Variable materials cost Variable labour cost Variable overhead Fixed overhead Budgeted Net Profit Tk. 190,000 172,000 13,000 155,000 530,000 110,000 Tk. 640,000
The directors wish to know what the budgeted profit will be if a higher quality material is used. This will increase material costs per unit by ten percent but sales volume will be increased by five percent. There will be no change in the unit selling price. Assumption: The budgeted sales volume will increase to 21,000 units and, in the absence of information to the contrary, we will assume there will be no changes in the total fixed overhead cost incurred and no changes in the variable labour and overhead costs per unit. Requirement: Prepared the revised budgeted income statement based on the above assumption.

Lecture # 9 - Chapter 6 (Contd) Budgeting 03 March 2010 Forecasting Using Historical Data: Numerous techniques have been developed for using past costs as the basis for forecasting future values. These techniques range from simple arithmetic to advanced computer-based statistical systems. With all these techniques the important presumption is made that the past will provide guidance to the future. The forecasting methods that we will review in this in this section of the chapter are based on the assumption that a linear relationship links levels of cost and levels of activity. Linear Relationships: A linear relationship can be expressed in the form of an equation that has the general form y = a + bx, where, y is the dependant variable, depending for its value on the value of x x is the independent variable, whose value helps to determine the corresponding value of y a is a constant, a fixed amount b is a constant, being the coefficient of x (that is, the number by which the value of x should be multiplied to derived the value of y) For example if there is a linear relationship between total cost and level of activity, y = total costs, x = level of activity, a = fixed cost and b = variable cost per unit. The High-Low Method: The high-low method is a technique for analyzing the fixed and variable cost elements of a semivariable cost and thus predicting the cost to be incurred at any activity level within the relevant range. The steps taken to prepare a forecast using the high-low method are as follows: Step 1: Records of costs in previous periods are reviewed and the costs of the following two periods are selected. The period with the highest volume of activity The period with the lowest volume of activity The difference between the total cost of these two periods will be the total variable cost of the difference in activity levels (since the same fixed cost is included in each total cost). Step 2: The variable cost per unit may be calculated from this as (difference in total cost + difference in activity levels). Step 3: The fixed cost may then be determined by substitution. Step 4: The linear equation y = a + bx can be used to predict the cost for a given activity level.

Linear Regression Analysis: Linear regression analysis is a statistical technique for establishing a straight line equation to represent a set of data. Linear regression analysis is superior to the high-low method because it takes account of all sets of recorded data, rather than only the highest and lowest activity. However, even though the linear regression technique is more accurate than the high-low method, it is important to remember that its use in forecasting is still based on the presumption that past events are a good guide to what will happen in the future. A further issue with the use of both the high-low method and linear regression analysis is that the quality or reliability of the linear equation derived will depend upon the correlation between the variables. Correlation: Correlation is the degree to which one variable is related to another, i.e., the degree of interdependence between the variables. Measures of Correlation: The coefficient of Correlation, r The degree of correlation between two variables can be measured using the coefficient of correlation, r. r has a value between -1 (perfect negative correlation) and + 1 (perfect positive correlation). If r=0 then the variable are uncorrelated. The coefficient of determination, r2 The coefficient of determination, r2, is a measure of the proportion of the change in one variable that can be explained by variations in the value of the other variable. Participation in the Budgeting Process: It has been argued that the participation in the budgeting process will improve motivation and so will improve the quality of budget decisions and the efforts of individuals to achieve their budget targets. There are basically two ways in which a budget can be set: Top down (imposed budget) Bottom up (participatory budget)
Imposed or Top-Down Style of Budgeting: In this approach to budgeting, top management prepare a budget with little or no input from operating personnel, which is then imposed upon the employees who have to work to the budgeted figures. The time when imposed budgets are effective: Advantages of Imposed or Top-Down Style of Budgeting: Disadvantages of Imposed or Top-Down Style of Budgeting:

Participative or Bottom-Up Style of Budgeting: In this approach to budgeting, budget are developed by lower-level managers who then submit the budgets to their superiors. The budgets are based on the lower-level managers perceptions of what is achievable and then associated necessary resources. Advantages of Participative Budgets: Disadvantages of Participative Budgets: Incremental Budgeting: The traditional approach to budgeting is to base the forthcoming years budget on the current years results modified for changes in activity levels, for example by adding an extra amount for estimated growth or inflation next year. This approach is known as incremental budgeting since it is concerned mainly with the increments in costs and revenues which will occur in the coming period. Incremental budgeting is a reasonable approach if the current operations are as effective, efficient and economic as they can be. Zero Based Budgeting: Zero based budgeting (ZBB) is an approach to budgeting that attempts to ensure that inefficient are not concealed. The principle behind ZBB is that, instead of using the current years results as a starting point, each budget should be prepared from the very beginning or zero. Every item of expenditure must be justified separately to be included in the budget for the forthcoming period. Increments of expenditure are compared with the expected benefits received, to ensure that resources are allocated as efficiently as possible. A major disadvantage of ZBB is that it is a time-consuming task that involves a great deal of work. Rolling Budgets: Rolling budgets are sometime called continuous budgets. They are particularly useful when an organization is facing a period of uncertainty so that it is difficult to prepare accurate plans and budgets. For example, it may be difficult to estimate the level of inflation for the forthcoming period. Rolling budgets are an attempt to prepare targets and plans that are more realistic and certain, particularly with a regard to price levels, by shortcoming the period between preparing budgets.
Advantages of Rolling Budgets: Disadvantages of Rolling Budgets:

Alternative Budget Structures: The structure of budgets may be designed around one of a number of frameworks, including the following: Product Based Budgets: Product based budgets are drawn up by preparing budgets for each product. This structure is appropriate when the cost and revenue responsibilities differ for each product, or when a single manager is responsible for all aspects of one product. Responsibility Based Budgets: Responsibility based budget systems segregate budgeted revenues and costs into areas of personnel responsibility in order to monitor and assess the performance of each part of an organization. Activity Based Budgets: Activity based budgets are based on a framework of activities, and cost drivers are used as a basis for preparing budget.
Sample Question & Answer Q. Ans: Write down the two ways in which a budget can be set. There are basically two ways in which a budget can be set: Top down (imposed budget) Bottom up (participatory budget) Explain Imposed or Top-Down Style of Budgeting. In this approach to budgeting, top management prepare a budget with little or no input from operating personnel, which is then imposed upon the employees who have to work to the budgeted figures. Explain Participative or Bottom-Up Style of Budgeting. In this approach to budgeting, budget are developed by lower-level managers who then submit the budgets to their superiors. The budgets are based on the lower-level managers perceptions of what is achievable and then associated necessary resources. Explain Incremental budgeting approach. The traditional approach to budgeting is to base the forthcoming years budget on the current years results modified for changes in activity levels, for example by adding an extra amount for estimated growth or inflation next year. This approach is known as incremental budgeting since it is concerned mainly with the increments in costs and revenues which will occur in the coming period. When Incremental budgeting is a reasonable approach? Incremental budgeting is a reasonable approach if the current operations are as effective, efficient and economic as they can be.
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Q. Ans: Explain Zero Based Budgeting. Zero based budgeting (ZBB) is an approach to budgeting that attempts to ensure that inefficient are not concealed. The principle behind ZBB is that, instead of using the current years results as a starting point, each budget should be prepared from the very beginning or zero. Every item of expenditure must be justified separately to be included in the budget for the forthcoming period. Increments of expenditure are compared with the expected benefits received, to ensure that resources are allocated as efficiently as possible. Q. Ans: What is the major disadvantages of Explain Zero Based Budgeting? A major disadvantage of ZBB is that it is a time-consuming task that involves a great deal of work. Explain Rolling Budgets. Rolling budgets are sometime called continuous budgets. They are particularly useful when an organization is facing a period of uncertainty so that it is difficult to prepare accurate plans and budgets. For example, it may be difficult to estimate the level of inflation for the forthcoming period. Write down the Alternative Budget Structures. The structure of budgets may be designed around one of a number of frameworks, including the following: 1. Product Based Budgets, 2. Responsibility Based Budgets 3. Activity Based Budgets. When Product Based Budgets is appropriate? Product based budgets are drawn up by preparing budgets for each product. This structure is appropriate when the cost and revenue responsibilities differ for each product, or when a single manager is responsible for all aspects of one product. Q. Ans: What do you mean by the Responsibility Based Budget? Responsibility based budget systems segregate budgeted revenues and costs into areas of personnel responsibility in order to monitor and assess the performance of each part of an organization. What do you mean by the Activity Based Budgets? Activity based budgets are based on a framework of activities, and cost drivers are used as a basis for preparing budget. An organization expects to place 500 orders with suppliers during the forthcoming budget period. The rate per cost driver has been established as Tk. 100. What is the budgeted cost of the ordering activity? The budgeted cost of the ordering activity is therefore 500 x Tk. 100 = Tk. 50,000.
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Course: Management Information
Question Bank
Prepared By:
Md. AKH Hasif Sowdagar, ACMA, ACA The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh

Chapter-1 The Fundamentals of Costing 1. Who are the user party of financial accounts and management accounts? 2. Define Cost Unit with example. 3. What are the three elements of cost? 4. Define Fixed Costs, Variable Cost and Semi-variable Cost with example and graph. 5. Write down the components of Total Cost, Direct Cost/Prime Cost and Indirect Cost/Overhead Cost. 6. Describe the purpose and role of cost and management accounting within an organizations management information system. 7. Compare and contrast financial accounting with cost and management. 8. Explain and illustrate production and non-production costs. 9. Describe the different elements of production cost-materials, labour and overheads. 10. Describe the different elements of non-production cost administrative, selling, distribution and finance. 11. Explain the importance of the distinction between production and non-production costs when valuing output and inventories. 12. Distinguish between direct and indirect costs in manufacturing and non-manufacturing organizations. 13. Identify examples of direct and indirect costs in manufacturing and non-manufacturing organizations. 14. Explain and illustrate the concepts of cost objects, cost units and cost centres. 15. Describe and illustrate graphically different types of cost behavior. 16. Explain and provide examples of costs that fall into the categories of fixed, stepped fixed and variable costs.
Chapter-2 Calculating Unit Costs (Part I) 17. Write down the Advantages and Disadvantages of the FIFO Method. 18. At the beginning of week 10 there were 400 units of component X held in the stores. 160 of these components had been purchased for Tk. 5.55 each in week 9 and 240 had been purchased for Tk. 5.91 each in week 8. 19. On day 3 of week 10 a further 120 components were received into stores at a purchase cost of Tk. 5.96 each.

The only issue of component X occurred on day 4 of week 10, when 150 units were issued to production. Using the FIFO valuation method, what was the value of the closing inventory of component X at the end of week 10? 20. Write down the formula of computation of Periodic Weighted Average Pricing. the entries and balances in the material inventory account. Interpret
Chapter-3 Calculating Unit Costs (Part 2)
21. How you will calculate the Absorption Cost of a product? 21. Write down the three stages in determining the share of overhead to be attributed to a cost unit under absorption costing. 21. The following bases of apportionment are used by a factory. Volume of cost centre Value of machinery in cost centre Number of employees in cost centre Floor areas of cost centre
A. B. C. D.
Requirement: Compute the below table with using one of A to D of the above the bases.
22. How you will calculate the predetermined overhead absorption rate? 23. Define the four stages of calculating product cost using Activity Based Costing (ABC). 24. Write down the advantages of Just-In-Time (JIT) cost approach.
Chapter-4 Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing 25. How you will calculate the Marginal Cost and Contribution of a product? 26. A particular electrical goods is sold for Tk.1009.99. The variable material cost per unit is Tk. 320, the variable labour cost per unit is Tk192 and the variable production overhead cost per unit is Tk. 132. Fixed overheads per annum are Tk. 100,000 and the budgeted production level is 1,000 units. Requirement: a. What would be the contribution per unit of the electrical goods?

27. What are the differences between Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing? 28. The following costs card relates to one unit of Product EZ. Costs Components Variable materials Variable labor Production Overheads: Variable Fixed Sales and distribution overheads: Variable Fixed Total Cost Requirement: What would be the marginal production cost of one unit of Product EZ? 29. Explain the importance of and apply the concept of contribution. 30. Demonstrate and discuss the effect of absorption and marginal costing on inventory valuation and profit determination. 31. Calculate profit or loss under-absorption and marginal costing. 32. Reconcile the profits or losses calculated under-absorption and marginal costing. 33. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of absorption and marginal costing. Tk. 20 40 10 5
5 10 90
Chapter-5 Pricing Calculation 34. What are the differences between mark-up and margin? 35. XY Ltd. requires an annual return of 30% on the investment in all of its products. In the forthcoming year Tk. 800,000 will be invested in non-current assets and working capital to produce and sell 50,000 units of product X. The full cost per unit of product Z is Tk. 100. Requirement: a. What would be the mark-up percentage of full cost basis? What would be the selling price of product Z? 36. Why you will consider inflation at the time of setting selling prices of a product? 37. The marginal cost per unit of a product is 70% of its full cost. Selling prices are set on a full cost-plus basis using a mark-up of 40 percent of full cost. Requirement: 38. a. What percentage mark-up on marginal cost would produce the same selling prices as the full cost-plus basis described?

Chapter-6 Budgeting 39. Explain why organizations use budgeting. 40. Explain the administrative procedures used in the budgeting process. 41. Explain the term principal budget factor. 42. Prepare budgets for sales, production, materials (usage and purchases), labour and overhead. 43. Explain the purpose and principles of standard costing. 44. Explain the standard cost per unit under absorption and marginal costing. 45. Write down the two ways in which a budget can be set. 46. Explain Imposed or Top-Down Style of Budgeting. 47. Explain Participative or Bottom-Up Style of Budgeting. 48. Explain Incremental budgeting approach. 49. When Incremental budgeting is a reasonable approach? 50. Explain Zero Based Budgeting. 51. What is the major disadvantages of Explain Zero Based Budgeting? 52. Explain Rolling Budgets. 53. Write down the Alternative Budget Structures. 54. When Product Based Budgets is appropriate? 55. What do you mean by the Responsibility Based Budget? 56. What do you mean by the Activity Based Budgets? 57. An organization expects to place 500 orders with suppliers during the forthcoming budget period. The rate per cost driver has been established as Tk. 100. What is the budgeted cost of the ordering activity?

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Course: Management Information

Course Conducted By:

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Broad-Level Course Content and Lecture Schedule:

Costing and pricing

Objectives of this Module (Management Information):

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Direct Material Costs Packing material Prime Cost:

Other direct expenses Cost of hiring a special machine

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Example of Variable Cost:

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1 Identifying Direct and Indirect Costs for Cost Units

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Solution of Worked Example - FIFO:

300 300 300 600

2.10 2.10 2.12

630 630 636 1,266

300 100 100 2.40 240

200 200 100 300

2.12 2.12 2.40

424 424 240 664 212 240 452

100 100 200

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2.00 2.10 2.00 2.10 2.12

2.00 2.10 2.00 2.10 2.40

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220 1476 440 1916

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Periodic weighted average price = = Tk. 2.129 per unit

(Tk. 200 + Tk. 1716) (100 + 800)

Tk. 1490 Tk. 426 1916

Total Tk. 1916 1916 1916 1916

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Date 10-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov

Date 14-Nov 21-Nov 28-Nov

Sales price per dress (Tk.) 200 200 200

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B. Average Price Method:

C. Average Price Method:

D. Standard Price Method:

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Tk. 39,000 13,000

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CA in Bangladesh >> We believe in sharing www.facebook.com/CAinBD Cost-Plus Pricing

Mark-up Percentage (Profit expressed as a percentage of cost) What is Transfer Price?

Margin Percentage (Profit expressed as a percentage of sales prices)