History of Idioms Studying idioms many authors call attention to the fact that they can more easily

than other language units cumulate and store facts about the past, cultural semantics of a nation, traditions, customs, folklore, etc. because of the so called "cumulative" function of a language. The element, which renders the information, is called national-cultural component. We noticed that the background and etymological origins of most idioms is at best obscure. Some idioms of the worldwide English have first been seen in the works of writers like Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Lewis Carroll or even in the paperbacks of contemporary novelists. An example of Shakespearian quotation can be found in the following lines: Glamis thou art, and Cawdor, and shalt be What thou art promisd: yet do I fear thy nature; It is too full o the milk of human kindness To catch the nearest way. (Shakespeare, Macbeth I, 5). Biblical references are also the source of many idioms. Sports terms, technical terms, legal terms, military slang and even nautical expressions have found their way to the everyday use of the English language. While American and British English share a lot of common vocabulary stock idioms including there are, two diachronically distinct types of idioms: -those inherited from British English but which changed some components (one or two words) on the American soil; -those the prototypes of which appeared on the American soil some of these idioms are borrowed by British English. Etymological analysis of the data that we obtained showed that it is possible to distinguish several groups of idioms according to the period in the history they reflect. For example, the life in the woods is reflected in the idiom have a chip on ones shoulder, the etymological meaning of which was a reference to a man who carries a piece of wood balanced on his shoulder in the hope that someone will give him an excuse for a fight by knocking it off. The idiomatic meaning is: to have rather an aggressive manner, as if always expecting to be insulted, illtreated etc: He is very difficult to deal withhes always had a chip on his shoulder about the lack of education. The origin of the idiom run-of-the-mill has reference to the life in the woods too. It came to mean not special or unusual as can be seen from the example: The film on television last night was very run-of-the-mill. Originally it meant upgraded sawn timber as produced by a sawmill. One more facet of frontier history, the gold rush of the 1850s and 1860s, we found out in the idiom strike (it) lucky, the etymological meaning of which expressed anticipation of gold miners (fortyniners) to find gold or silver. Idiomatic meaning: to have good luck in a particular matter: We certainly struck lucky in choosing that school. We can distinguish three main groups of Phraseological Units: 1.Native English Phraseological Units 2.Borrowings from foreign languages 3.Adoption from American variant of the English language. 1.Native English Phraseological Units. The founders of the most primordial English phraseological units remain unknown. It concerns in most cases proverbs. In general phraseological units in the English language; as in other languages, are in creation of a nation, the manifestation of his wisdom and linguistic feelings. Traditions customs and peculiar beliefs, different realities and facts of the English history are reflected in many phraseological units. Many of phraseological units are of literal origin. The first important literary source is the Bible and the second one are Shakespeares works. phraseological units from the Bible: at the eleventh hour n ultimul moment;

bone of the bone and flesh of the flesh os din oase i carne din carne; the root of all evil rdcina tuturor relelor; from the bottom of my heart din adncul sufletului; not to let ones left hand know what ones right hand does s nu tie stnga ce face dreapta; a prodical son fiul risipitor; forbidden fruits pomul interzis; daily bread pinea cea de toate zilele; heap cools on smbs head a face pe cineva s se ruuneze ntorcndu-i rul cu binele. Phraseological units used by Shakespeare in his works: eat smb. out of house and home (King Henry IV) a tri pe spinarea cuiva; lay it on with a trowel 2 (Iulius Caesar) a exagera; the wish is father to the thiught (King Henry IV) gndurile din dorini se nasc; a tower of strength (King Richard III) turn de scpare; more honoured in the breach than in the observance des se ncalc dect se mplinete. 2. Borrowed Phraseological Units There are a lot of borrowings from the Latin and French languages. There are some borrowings from Greek, Spanish, Italian and other languages. Borrowed phraseological units have bookish meaning. We can distinguish five groups of borrowed phraseological units: 1.Total calcations. This group can be devided into two subgroups: a)In the English language there are calcations and their prototypes arent used. For example: make believe (Engl.) faire croire (Fr.); proverbs like: dead men dont bite mortul nu muc; lat. mortui non mordent; hunger is the best sourse foamea e cel mai bun buctar; (lat.) fames optimum condimentum (Cicero) Both: the calcation and its prototype can be used in the English language. e.g. second to none (de) nentrecut, fr pereche; (lat.) nulli secundus. man is to man wolf (lat.) homo homini lupus est. 2.Phraseological Units in which some changes are introduced in comparison with original That is observed when the languages have divergence in the order of lexemes e.g. an iron hand has a velvet glove o nou min de fier ntr-o mnu de velvet. (fr.) une main de fer dansun gant de velours. In French and German proverbs are changed and take the order of lexemes of the Latin prototypes. Sometimes the change of lexemes of prototypes can be more difficult deep to their lexical changes: (engl.) by all thats blue! s-l ieie dracul! (fr.) parbleu! the euphemism instead of par Dieu. In the English language phraseological units are added to the components in comparison with the French prototypes. 3. Phraseological Units in which a part is borrowed and the other part is translated. Phraseological Units can be of such turns of speech: a propos of nothing (rom.) din senin; (fr.) propos de rien. 4.The latest Phraseological units formed by a classical base. To this group we can refer a great number of variations of speech, which are based on the mythology, on the facts of ancient history. e.g. the apple of discord mrul discordiei; one swallow does not make summer o rndunic nu face primvar; (fr.) une hirondelle ne fait pas le printemps. call a spade a spade a spune lucrurilor pe nume.

the golden mean mijlocul de aur. Borrowings from the French Language. e.g. (Eng.) After us the deluge dup noi i potopul; (Fr.) Aprs nous le dluge. (En.) All roads lead to Rome toate drumurile duc spre Roma; (Fr.) Tous les chemins vont Rome. (En.) Appetite comes with eating pofta vine mncnd; (Fr.) Lapptit vient en mangeant. (En.) Every bird likes its own nest fiecare pasre i iubete cuibul; (Fr.) Chaque oiseau trouve son nid beau. (En.) Leap to the eye a sri n ochi; (Fr.) Sauter aux yeux. Borrowings from German. En. Speech is silver, silence is golden tcerea e de aur. Germ. sprechen ist silbern, schweigen ist golden. En. let the cat out of the bag a-i lua gura pe dinainte, a se scpa cu vorba. Germ. die katze aus dem sack lassen. En. go to the dogs a se duce de rp; Germ. vor die Hunde ghehen. En. ones place in the sun loc sub soare; Germ. platz an der sonne. En. blood and iron fier i snge; Germ. Blut and Eisen. Phraseological units from fairy-tales. e.g. an ugly ducking ruca cea urt; A series of phraseological units are from foreign realities. e.g. the skeleton at a feast ceea ce stric. put on the buskin (s) a juca un rol ntr-o tragedie, a scrie o tragedie. a white elephant avere risipitoare. A precaution should be taken to establishing the facts of borrowings from a certain language because there exist parallel expressions which appeared in equal conditions. In this way the English phraseological unit get on the high horse a se ine cu nasul pe sus; is taken from military language. There is no reason to confirm, that the English phraseological unit is the translation from German, Swedish, or French. The phraseological parallels are often explained by the origin of the common source. There are some examples which are coherent with the mythology and historical facts: E.g. Damocless sword sabia lui Damocle. ameninare permanent a pericolului. Fr. Lpe de Damocles; Span. La espada del Damocles. En. Cross / pass the Rubicon a trece Rubiconul (a face un pas hotrtor); Fr. Franchir / passer le Rubicon; Span. Pasar el Rubicon. En. Pandoras box cutia Pandorei; Fr. La boite de Pandore; Germ. die Pandora bchse; Span. la casa de pandora. The important thing is that similar concepts are formed differently in different languages. In English, French and Spanish languages a phraseological unit in most cases is a word-combination, but in the German language it is expressed by compound words. Some phraseological units in Modern languages represent a calcation from ancient classical languages, especially from Latin. The Latin phraseological unit: sub rosa is called in English under the rose, in French: sous la rose. Many phraseological units coincide with those in the Romanian, English and French languages, without any borrowing, for example a bird of passage pasre cltoare. (Fr.) oiseau de passage. The English proverb bird of a feather flock together is close to the French les oiseaux de mme plumage, sassemblent sur mme rivage (but we havent proved that the English proverb is a

translation from the French proverb). The proverb a close mouth catches no flies dac tceai filosof rmneai, is a translation of the Italian proverb. The origin of these proverbs cant be established. e.g. by hook or by crook prin orice mijloc. fight shy of somebody a se ine la o parte, a nu se amesteca. my aunt! My eye and Betty Martin! ia te uit; na-i-o bun! take heart of a cpta curaj. talk through ones hat a spune prostii, a vorbi cai verzi pe perei. 3. Phraseological Units borrowed from the American variant of the English language. Phraseological units borrowed from the English language of the USA, in contrast to the borrowings from other foreign languages, are without translation, because they can be carried out in the limits of a unique literary language and thats why they cant be calcations, neither whole, no partial. Many phraseological units came to England from the USA. Some of them were assimilated and in the English dictionary they are marked as being of American origin. We could find a lot of such examples. e.g. bark up the wrong tree a grei adresa; do ones level best a face tot posibilul; get it on the ground floor a o lua naintea cuiva; make a monkey out of smb. a duce de nas; make the fur fly a face trboi, un scandal monstruos; paddle ones own canoe a-i conduce singur brcua, a se descurca singur; a depinde numai de sine nsui; sell like cakes a se vinde ca pinea cald; sit on the pence a rmne neutru; strike oil a descoperi un izvor de ctig; take a back seat a trece pe planul doi, a rmne n umbr; spill the ills a divulga un secret. 1.2. Definition of idioms After consulting several dictionaries, all having slightly different takes on the definitions, we found the following definitions of idioms: IDIOM: A phrase that is commonly understood in a given culture or subculture to have a meaning different from its literal meaning. A good example of this is to bend over backwards. This phrase is commonly understood in our culture to mean to exert an enormous effort in order to accomplish something. The literal meaning, however, is the physical act it describes, of which few may actually be capable of doing. A peculiarity of phraseology approved by the usage of the language and often having a signification other than its grammatical or logical one. Oxford English Dictionary A group of words with a meaning of its own that is different from the meanings of each separate word put together. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English An expression in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself either grammatically (as no, it wasnt me) or in having a meaning that cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. (as Monday week for the Monday a week after next Monday) Webster Dictionary

The word idiom is even more polysemantic. The English use it to denote a mode of expression peculiar to a language, without differentiating between the grammatical and lexical levels; also, as W.Graff puts it, the syntactical or structural form peculiar to a given language. It may also mean a group of words whose meaning it is difficult or even impossible to understand from the knowledge of the words considered separately. Moreover, idiom may be synonymous to the words language or dialect, denoting a form of expression peculiar to a people, a country, a district, or to one individual. In our study we noticed that linguists have two meanings for idiom. From the Greek sense of something ones own, something personal or private, one sense is the speech typical of a people or a place, a dialect or a local language. Other linguists say that idiom is an expression thats unique to a language, especially one thats allusive, figurative or metaphorical and which as a result isnt always possible to understand from its component parts. The most characteristic feature of idioms is identified as lexical integrity:As a general rule an idiomatic phrase cannot be altered; no other synonymous word can be substituted for any word in the phrase, and the arrangement of the words can rarely be modified. Classification of Idioms We know that term phraseology is defined as a section of linguistics, which studies word collocations, and, on the other hand, a set of all steady combinations of words of the language. The word phraseology has very different meanings. In Soviet linguistic literature the term has come to be used for the whole ensemble of expressions where the meaning of one element is dependent on the other, irrespective of the structure and properties of the unit (V.V.Vinogradov); with other authors it denotes only such set expressions which, as distinguished from idioms, do not possess expressiveness or emotional colouring (A.I.Smirnitsky), and also vice versa: only those that are imaginative, expressive and emotional (I.V.Arnold). A.V.Koonin lays stress on the structural separateness of the elements in a phraseological unit, on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its elements taken separately and on a certain minimum stability. All these authors use the same word phraseology to denote the branch of linguistics studying the word-groups they have in mind, it is a full-fledged linguistic discipline but in English and American linguistics no special branch of study exists and the term phraseology is a stylistic one, meaning mode of expression, peculiarities of diction. The problem of classification More or less detailed groupings are given in the books of English idioms by L. P. Smith. Jet even the authors themselves do not claim that their groupings should be regarded as classifications. They just collect set expressions, explain them, describe some of their peculiarities, as alliteration, rhyme, contrast and so on, threading these as devices assuring expressiveness. They also show interest in the origin and etymology of English phrases and arrange them accordingly into phrases from sea life, from agriculture, from hunting (198 p.). As to English language the number of works devoted to phraseology is so grea that it is impossible to enumerate them: suffice it to say that there exists a comprehensive dictionary of English idioms by A. V. Koonin, accompanied by articles of the theory of this part of the vocabulary and doctoral these by N. N. Amosova. B.A. Larins approach is diachranistic. His classifications reflects three consecutive stages a set expressions passes through its development. It originates as a free combination. The second stage is a clearly motivation of stereotyped metaphorical phrase. The third stage is that of an idiom with lost motivation. The meaning of the expression is not built up by the hearer from the meaning of its separate elements (words and inflexions), but grasped as a whole. The classification of academician V. V. Vinogradova is synchronistic. He developed some points first advanced by the linguist Charles Bally and gave a great impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of

the material. His articles on Russian phraseology produced an immense influence upon very many linguistic in this country and aboard. Thanks to him phraseological units were rigorously defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and accordingly classified.The stock of words of the language consists not only of separate words, but also of set expressions, which alongside with separate words serve as means of expressing conceptions. A set expression represents a set phrase. Stock of words of the language Separate words Phraseological fusions To make up ones mind To make friends Phraseological unities He plays with fire She burst into tears Phraseological collocations From head to foot To get on like a house on fire Stock of words of the language According to the Academician V.V. Vinogradovs classification phraseological units may be classified into three groups: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological collocations. Phraseological fusions/ Pure idioms are completely non-motivated word-groups, such as heavy father serious or solemn part in a theatrical play; kick the bucket die; and the like. The meaning of the components has no connection whatsoever, at least synchronically, with the meaning of the whole group. Idiomaticity is, as a rule, combined with complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion. Phraseological fusions are called traditional, set expression with fixed nomination, combinations, set expression in works of other researchers. Phraseological unities/ Semi-literal idioms are partially non-motivated, as their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit. For example, to show ones teeth, to wash ones dirty linen in public if interpreted as semantically motivated through the combined lexical meaning of the component words would naturally lead one to understand these in their literal meaning. The metaphoric meaning of the whole unit, however, readily suggests, take a threatening tone or show an intention to injure for show ones teeth and discuss or make public ones quarrels for wash ones dirty linen in public. Phraseological unities are as a rule marked by a high degree of stability of the lexical components. Phraseological collocations/ Literal idioms are motivated but they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valence, which accounts for a certain degree of stability in such word-groups. In phraseological collocations variability of member-words is strictly limited. For instance, bear a grudge may be changed into bear malice, but not into bear a fancy or liking. We can say take a liking (fancy) but not take hatred (disgust). These habitual collocations tend to become kind of clichs where the meaning of member-words is to some extent dominated by the meaning of the whole group. Due to this, phraseological collocations are felt as possessing a certain degree of semantic inseparability.* Phraseological combinations are often called traditional it is usually impossible to account logically for the combination of particular words. It can be explained only on the basis of tradition . E.g. to deliver a lecture (but not to read a lecture) In phraseological combinations words retain their full semantic independence although they are limited in their combinative power. E.g. to wage war (but not to lead war), to render assistance, to render services (but not to render Set expressions

pleasure). In phraseological combinations one of the components (generally the components which is used figuratively) can be combined with different words: E.g. to talk sports, politics, business (but to speak about life), Leading worker, leading artiste, leading article (but not the leading problem, we can use: the main problem) Deadly enemy, deadly shot (but a mortal wound), keen interest, keen curiosity, keen sense of humor (but great surprise). Words of wide meaning, as to make, to take, to do, to give, etc. from many phraseological units. E.g. to take an exam, to take a trip, to take a chance, to take interest, to make fun of, to make a statement, to make friends, to make haste. Sometimes traditional combinations are synonyms of words. E.g. to make inquiries = to inquire; To make haste = to hurry. Some traditional combinations are equivalents of prepositions. E.g. by means of, in connection with. Traditional combinations often have synonymous expressions. E.g. to make a report = to deliver a report. Phraseological combinations are not equivalents of words. Trough the components of phraseological combinations are limited in their combinative power, that is, they can be combined only with certain words and cannot be combined with any other words, they preserve not only their meaning, but all their structural forms. E.g. nice distinction is a phraseological combination and it is impossible to say nice distinction, nicer distinction, etc. In prof. A. Smirnitskys opinion traditional combinations are not phraseological units, as he considers only those words combination to be phraseological units which are equivalents of words. * In phraseological unities the meaning of the whole word combination is not the sum of the meanings of its components, but it is based on them and the meaning of the whole can be inferred from the image that underlines the whole expression E.g. to get on ones nerves, to cut somebody short, to show ones teeth. Phraseological unities are equivalents of words as: 1) only one of the components of a phraseological unity has structural forms; E.g. to turn (turned, will turn, etc.) a new leaf (but not to turn newer leaf, or new leaves). 2) the whole unity and not its components are parts of the sentence in syntactical analysis. E.g. he took the bull by the horns (attached a problem boldly). There are only two parts: he the subject, and took the bull by the horns the predicate. * In phraseological fusions the meaning of the whole word combination cannot be derived from the meaning of its components. E.g. to pull ones leg (to decide) at sixes and seven (in confusion) to show the white feather (to show cowardice). Phraseological fusions are the most idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units. Phraseological fusions are equivalents of words: fusion as well as unities from a syntactical whole in analysis . According to prof. A. Smirnitsky a phraseological unit is a combination of words which is a word equivalent. Prof. Smirnitsky classifies phraseological units by notional elements present in them, dividing them into those which have one notional element and those which have two notional elements. Phraseological units with one notional element are subdivided into: 1) Verb-adverb phraseological units in which the semantic center is the first component, and which are

equivalents of verbs, as to give up, to make out, etc; 2) Phraseological units in which the semantic center is the second component, and the structural center is the first component as to be tired; 3) Phraseological units consisting of prepositions and nouns, with the semantic center in the nominal components and without any structural center. Such units are used as equivalent of link-words. E.g. in order that, by means of; The lather type is nearer to words. Phraseological units consisting of adjectives and nouns, which are used as equivalents of nouns. E.g. common sense, first night, black art. The first component of phraseological units of this group may be used in free word combinations: E.g. high road (a phraseological unit), high house, high tower (free word combinations); first night (a phraseological unit), first day, first morning, first evening (free word combinations). In prof. Smirnitskys opinion such formulations as: to have a smoke are very nearer the latter type of phraseological units, but they cannot be considered phraseological units as they are not idiomatic. Prof. Smirnitsky considers such components as a man of war to be phraseological units as this type. 2) Phraseological units consisting of verb and nouns, which are used as equivalents of verbs. As we already know, the vocabulary consists of single words and multiword expressions. Idioms (While the cat is away, the mice will play; the coast is clear; thats a good question; guess what?; smell a rat; red herring; bread and butter; at the same time; as good as gold; the simple life; a war of attrition; etc.) would not exist were it not for the tendency of words to co-occur, yet any juxtaposition does not result in locutions having the status of conventionalized multiword expressions in a language. Four factors appear to favour the acquisition of such a status. They are discussed below. Multiword expressions need to conform to the grammatical rules of the language. *The purplish to eating (Determiner (Det) + Adjective (Adj) + Verb (V) or *lock the luckily (V + Det + Adverb (Adv)) are not likely candidates for multiword expressions, though grammatical idiosyncrasies do appear in some well-known ones: waste not want not, long time no see, guess what?, be that as it may, beside oneself, white lie, foot the bill, fancy free, etc. However, these are not as flagrant in their non-canonical grammar as the invented ones cited above; their unusualness arises from deletion (waste not want not, guess what?, etc.), illogicality (beside oneself), figurative use (white lie), or the presence of a specialized subsense (foot the bill) 'pay' in a restricted context. Nothing loath, happy-go-lucky, etc. are examples of more extreme departures which, like the others, are conventionalized by usage. The majority of multiword expressions in English conform to the grammatical rules of the language as even a cursory scan of collections of idioms and dictionaries will show. Adj + Noun (N) (sacred cow, white elephant, red herring, etc.) is a common pattern of many phrasal multiword expressions conventionalized by usage. Commonest, perhaps, is the semi-clausal pattern V + Det + N (pass the buck, smell a rat, spill the beans, catch one's breath, do one's bit, tighten one's belt, etc.). Less frequent is Preposition (Prep) + N + Prep (on behalf of, by way of, by dint of sth., in case of sth., in the name of sb/sth., etc.). Prep + Adj ... Prep + Adj (at best ... at worst) is an infrequent pattern in the formation of conventionalized idioms. Invariance or the fixity of the words making up the expression, combined with non-literalness in many cases, are two other factors favouring conventionalized multiword status. Such fixity and nonliteralness are a matter of degree. Consequently, idioms can range from the completely fixed, semantically non-literal, e.g. pins and needles the tingling sensation following numbness, through the possibility of some grammatical changes like those for tense, e.g. spill/spilled the beans commit an indiscretion, to lexical variation from the restricted and semi-literal, e.g. blue film/joke, etc. obscene, explode a myth/belief/theory/ notion/ idea debunk, to the unrestricted semi-literal, e.g. catch a bus/train, etc. be in time for. In this context the fourth factor favouring the emergence of idioms is culturally salient encodings, that is, the expression captures some phenomenon prominent in the collective consciousness. Blue blood (le sangre azur) was originally used to signify the blue veins of the Spanish showing through their white

skins in contrast to the invisibility of those of the swarthy Moors. Later on, it came to signify 'aristocratic birth' regardless of colour. Current locutions on the way to gaining status as conventionalized multiword expressions are fat cat person in a sinecure position compassion fatigue reluctance to continue charity, a war of attrition a war which will continue indefinitely as neither side is strong enough for victory. These expressions could qualify as conventionalized multiword expressions for they are likely to be recognized by members of the language community as a standard way of referring to a familiar concept or situation. The multiword expressions that we cited above show a variety of structural types: compounds (happygo-lucky), phrases of various types (red herring, bread and butter, on behalf of, at best ... at worst), semi-clauses of various types (guess what?; waste not, want not; do one's bit, spill the beans), and full clauses of various types (the coast is clear; while the cat is away, the mice will play). These structural types may also be categorized as lexical types, a categorization which, from the point of view of how people use words, is much more illuminating: idioms and their sub-classes as well as collocations and their sub-classes . What these lexical types all have in common is that they show the regular cooccurrence of words in a specific form and order, habitual word combinations, so much so that the presence of one sets up an expectancy of the other. Thus, waste not will very likely elicit want not from anyone familiar with English; fat chance will elicit only you've got; at best will be followed by at worst, etc. If variable, such variations occur only within definable constraints. For example, catch a ... will elicit either a word signifying some form of public transport bus/train, etc. or an ailment, such as cold. Idioms yield three sub-classes: pure idioms, semi-idioms and literal idioms. a) Pure and Semi-Idioms We have found that pure and semi-idioms are non-literal and, consequently, could be opaque to language-users in respect of all or some of the words that make them up. Mitchell (1975) sees an idiom as a cumulate association and as an assemblage of roots, roots being his term for the base word forms (morphs) constituting the idiom. In other words, an idiom is formally a multiword expression (an assemblage of roots) functioning as a single semantic unit (a cumulate association). A working definition of a pure idiom which is adequate for the present is a type of conventionalized, non-literal multiword expression. Spill the beans, for example, has nothing to do with beans. In contrast to its literal counterpart meaning letting fall leguminous seeds, a non-literal meaning is imposed on the idiom as a whole: commit an indiscretion. A semi-idiom has one or more literal constituents and at least one with a non-literal subsense, usually special to that co-occurrence relation and no other: drop has the meaning overuse only when it cooccurs with names. Other examples are catch one's breath check, foot the bill pay, etc. Some of these semi-idioms, like their kin, restricted collocations with specialized subsenses, permit lexical variation, for example, blue obscene film/joke/gag/story/comedian. Smell a rat being a pure idiom and not an ad hoc construction, like the cat sat on the mat, means become suspicious, not sense rodent with olefactory organs. Other examples of such opaque nonliteral pure idioms are: twist sbs arm coerce, cajole; break the ice deformalize; pins and needles the tingling sensation following numbness; by heart memorize; pick up collect, improve in health, etc., you can say that again one agrees, etc. What is evident in all these idioms is that a single meaning different from the separate meanings of each word is imposed on the whole unit. Though this sort of semantic unity is most clearly seen in pure idioms, it is also evident in semi-idioms. Thus, the semi-idiom blue film has the specialized sense obscene film only when these two words occur together. This kind of unity brought on by habitual co-occurrence is also seen in the pure idioms by heart memorize; red herring decoy; or the semi-idiom rain cats and dogs rain heavily. The typical result of such semantic unity in all these idioms is non-literalness complete in pure idioms, partial in semi-idioms. Yet even a completely literal idiom such as try, try and try again because of its currency in this fixed form has become a synonym of persevere in the same way that the non-literal

you can say that again signifies one agrees. There is, of course, a difference between literal and nonliteral idioms. Literal idioms (e.g. on foot; try, try and try again, etc.) can be interpreted on the basis of their parts: they are transparent; non-literal pure or semi-idioms (e.g. smell a rat, blue film, foot the bill, etc.) are opaque, completely or partially. Non-literalness, and its result, semantic opacity, has already been identified as a salient, though not invariant feature of idioms. There are many literal expressions which are regarded as idioms only on the criteria of compositeness and fixity (e.g. try, try and try again-zoom along; arm in arm); on the other hand, there are also large numbers of common idioms which have the additional property of partial or complete non-literalness (e.g. rain cats and dogs, red herring, at the same time, blue film, drop names, etc.). It is these wholly non-literal pure idioms that will be looked at below. b) Literal Idioms Literal idioms (on foot; tall, dark and handsome; waste not, want not; on the contrary; a (very) happy birthday; a merry Christmas and a happy New Year, etc.) can be interpreted on the basis of their parts: they are transparent. They are less semantically complex then pure and semiidioms.

Ex.1.Give equivalents of the following English proverbs and sayings. Memorize those you like best. 1. Proverbs are children of experience. 2. Knowledge is a treasure: but practice is the key to it. 3. Men make houses, but women make homes. 4. Two heads are better than one. 5. A man will never change his mind if he has no mind to change. 6. A fool's tongue is long enough to cut his own throat. 7. Little things please little minds. 8. Better die standing than live kneeling. 9. A candle lights others and consumes itself. 10. Use soft words and hard arguments. 11. Money spent on brain is never spent in vain. 12. A fault confessed is half redressed. 13. Good advice is beyond price. 14. A cheerful wife is the joy of life. 15. A man of words and not of deeds is like a garden full of weeds.

Ex.2. Give English equivalents of the following proverbs and phraseological units. Use them in sentences of your own. a citi printre rinduri - a pune bete in roate - a plati cuiva cu aceeasi moneda - bate fierul cit e cald - tacerea e de aur, vorba de argint - a fi intre ciocan si nicovala - nu sint roze fara spini - nu da vrabia din mina pe cea de pe gard - mai bine mai tirziu decit niciodata - nu tot ce straluceste e aur - semeni vint culegi furtuna - Ex.3. Complete the following similies, using words from the list below. as dull as ........ as fit as .......... as hard as ........ as open as ........ as wide as ......... as surly as ......... as cool as .......... as true as ......... as tender as ...... as false as ......... as constant as .... as merry (lively) as ....................... as green as .................................... as sharp as .................................... as weak as ..................................... as greedy as .................................. as silent as ..................................... as plentiful as ................................ as giddy as .................................... as wise as ....................................... as nimble as ................................... as thick as ......................................

as game as ......... as bold as .......... as sure as ...........

as busy as ..................................... as cold as ....................................... as safe as .......................................

a squirrel, a goose, a ditch-water, dicer's oaths, an owl, a post (stone, the grave), a needle, a hog, a bear, a cucumber, the Northern Star, a cockerel, a bee (a cockroach on a hot stave), charity houses, a cricket, the day, a gooseberry, nails, a chicken, steel, water, brass, a gun (fate), thieves, fiddle, the poles apart (asunder), blackberries. Ex.4 Give as many phraseological units as possible, using any of the following words: a) (v.) to beat, to catch, to draw, to keep, to mind, to run, to set, to take. b) (n.) eye, face, finger, life, love, mind, mouth. c) (adj.) dark, dead, safe. Ex. 5 Complete the following sentences, using the phraseological units given in the list below. Translate them into your native language. 1. If I pay my rent, I won't have any money to buy food. I'm between ............................................ . 2. It's no use grumbling about your problems - we're all ............................................. . 3. He's sold his house and his business to go to Australia, so he's really ..................................... . 4. She prefers not to rely on anyone else, she likes to ............................................ . 5. They didn't know whether to get married or not, but they finally ..................................... . 6. You can't expect everything to go right all the time, you must learn to ..................................... . 7. She was so embarrassed that she went as red as a .................................... . 8. I can carry the suitcase easily, it's as light as a ........................................... . 9. The room is as warm as .......................................... . 10. My sister does so many things that she's always as busy as a ................ . 11. He is as proud as a ................................ of his new car. 12. It's as cold as ....................................... in that office. 13. Once he's made up his mind, he'll never change it. He is as stubborn as ............................. . 14. She was so frightened that her face went as white as a ...................................... .

15. The postman always calls at 8 o'clock. He is as regular as .................................... . 16. However much he eats, he is always as thin as a ...................................... . to take the rough with the smooth, between the devil and the deep sea, to take the plunge, in the same boat, to paddle one's own canoe, to burn one's boats, ice, beetroot, mule, feather, sheet, toast, clockwork, bee, rail, peacock.