ethnical

esearch Bulletin No. 3-49

Marine Diesel Power Plant Practices

The Socie~ of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers

This Panel

Bulletln M-37

has been

prepared

by

(Diesel
of

Plant

Practices)

THE SOCIETY

OF NAVAL TECHNICAL

ARCHITECTS

AND MARINE PROGRAH

ENGINEERS

AND RESEARCH

Alan L. Roven, Working

Chairman

Committee:

Willlam L. McCarthy William S. Peters David R. Rodger Review John Jose A.A. Hans Louis M, Dabbar Femenia Freelund Klein Woud H. Hensen Reviewed SHIPS and Approved Committee: H. Wiboe Nielsen I. Hilary Rolih Joseph Tiratto William P. Towner La9kar Wech91er by

MACHIMERY

COMMITTEE

Thoma9 P. Mackey, Chairman Allen Chin, Vice Chairman RODert J. Bazzini John W. Boy19ton* Norman H. Brubaker William G, Bullock Harmon M. Burford* James E. COrliSS Pranci9 X. Critelli Allen E. Crout Robert M. Freeman Jo9eph D. Hamilton Richard W. Harking Carl F. Horlite* Everett C. Hunt* Chegter L. Long* L199a A. Martinez Robert M. Uorai9 Charle9 A. Narvicz Michael G. Par90n9* F. Everett Reed Alan L. Roven John T. Schroppe* John K. Stuart Gerald C. Sven90n Andrev A. Szypula Richard P. Thor9en Jo9eph Tiratto William Watson John D. William9 Charles W. Wi190n

Corresponding

Member

Franci9 M. Cagliari Deputy Executive Director

Technical

and Re9earch

Bulletin

3-49

MARINE

DIESEL

POWER

PLANT

PRACTICES

Preparea

by

DIESEL

PANEL M-37 PLANT PRACTICES

of the SHIPS MACHINERY COMMITTEE

Publis~ea

by

THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS 601 Pavonia Avenue, Jersey City, Nev Jer9ey 07306 June COpyright 1990 by The SOCiety 1990 Architects ana Marine Engineers

of Naval

DEDICATION edition of Marine Diesel Power Plant Practices is dedicated to the This memory of Professor Jens T. Helm, vho compiled the original edition.

DISCLAIMER

It 19 understood and agreed that nothing expregsed herein is intended or shall be construed to give any person, firm or any right, remedy, or corporation claim against SNAME or any of its officers or members.

1.0 2.0 3.0

INTRODUCTION DEFINITIONS STANDARD CONDITIONS 3.1 3.2 Ambient conditions Fuels

4.0

PROPULSION POWER REQUIREMENT 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Engine ratings Propeller-engine relationship Propulsion transmission power absorption Engine selection

j.O

ENGINE STANDARD PRACTICES j.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Effect of ambient conditions Fuel consumption Lubricating oi1 consumption Intake air requirements Exhaust gas Heat dissipation to cooling water and lubricating oil

6.0

AUXILIARY AND SHIPS SERVICE REQUIREMENTS 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Electric load Fresh water requirements Heating steam or thermal fluid demands Trade support service requirements Oil-fired boiler fuel consumption

i.O

WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION 7.1 7.2 7,3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Sources and uses of waste heat Exhaust gas beat recovery for basic ships services Enhanced heat recovery Heat recovery at the charge air cooler Waste heat turbogenerator cycles Exhaust gas turbines

8.0

~WER TAKE-OFF UTILIZATION 8.1 8.2 8.3 Power take-offs Electrical generation from power take-offs Pumps driven from power take-offs

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9.0

SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT Automation and control 9.1 Electric generating plant 9.2 Fuel systems 9,3 Compressed air systems 9.4 Lubricating oil systems 9.5 Fresh water generating plant 9.6 9.7 Fresh water cooling systems Sea water systems 9.8 9.9 Steam systems 9,10 Bilge systems 9,11 Engine room ventilation 9.12 Stores refrigeration systems 9.13 HVAC systems 9.14 Access and overhauling gear

MACHINERY LISTS 10.0 TYPIC.kL 10.1 Low-speed diesel engine propulsion plant machinery list 10.2 Medium-speed diesel engine propulsion plant machinery list NG 01L CONSUMPTION 11.0 OVERALL PI-ANTFUEL AND LUBRIC.ATI 11.1 11.2 Fuel and lube oil consumption of a low-speed diesel plant Fuel and lube oil consumption of a medium-speed diesel plant

l~,o WEIGHTS, CENTERS OF GRAVITY AND VOLUMES 12.1 Masses 12.~ ceter~ Of gra~, ity 12.3 Voltlme ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES APPENDICES A. B. c. o. The Ideal Gas Law WHTG Plants: Procedure for Heat Recovery Estimates Procedure for WHTG Performance Estimates Mollier Diagram

-ii-

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this bulletin is to set forth guidelines, practices and allowances suitable for use in preliminary stages of the design of marine diesel power plants for the propulsion of typical merchant ships. The bulletin is intended to aid the designer in tbe use of engine uanufacturers performance data and to report plant design practices. The earlier edition of this bulletin (Marine Diesel Power Plant Performance Practices, 1975) generalized performance data for the ranges of engine types then available. The rapid evolution of diesel engine design in recent years, leading to engines whose performance data are frequently very different from their predecessors, coupled with the ready availability of performance data published by the engine uanufacturer, renders this approach both less reliable and less necessary. Nevertheless, although some generalized data are included in tl]ebulletin, in very early design stages when a particular engine design has not yet been selected, better results are likely if data extracted from current specifications for an engine of the general type most likely to be fitted, can be used. The scope of this bulletin is generally limited to addressing diesel propulsion plants with main engines of the low-speed, crosshead type, and trunk piston engines with outputs as low as 100 bkW (brake kilowatts) per cylinder at speeds up to about 1200 RPM. In attempting to generalize data, uncommon engine types and those not in current production have not generally been included, For the most part, only turbocharged engines have been considered.

-1-

2.0

DEFINITIONS

Brake power is the power available at an engines output flange, before deductions for the power consumption of speed reducing devices. A clarification will be necessary in regard to auxiliaries directly driven by the engine, in order to determine if a stated brake power is bare engine or net. Shaft power is the net power supplied to the connected load after passing through all speed-reduction and other transmission devices and thrust bearings, and after power for auxiliaries directly driven by the engine or transmission equipment has been subtracted, but before subtracting the power consumed in stern tube bearings and (as used here) line-shaft bearinga. A clarification will be necessary in regard to shaft-driven auxiliaries. Maximum continuous rating (MCR) is the highest power which an capable of delivering continuously, at a stated engine speed, stated by tbe manufacturer. In an alternative definition, it condition for engine-associated equipment, including shafting engine is under conditions is the design and auxiliaries,

Brake mean effective pressure (B~P) is a derived parameter roughly indicative of engine loading. It is the ratio of the work done per working cycle corresponding to the brake power, to the displacement volume of the engine (i.e.; the volume of all of the cylinders, calculated from the bore and stroke). If the BMEP were applied to a piston through its power stroke, it would produce the work equivalent to the brake power. 1S0 is the International Organization for Standardization, a worldwide federation of national standards bodies. ISO standarda are recognized, but without complete compliance, by many manufacturers. Distillate fuel, as used here, is the pure, clean, clear refined petroleum product, without traces of residuum or heavy fuel, suitable for uge without heating, at normal ambient temperatures. Heavy fuel, as used here, is any fuel oil containing more than trace quantities of residuum, likely to require heating before use.

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3.0 3.1

ST.4NDASDCONDITIONS Ambient conditions

Standard ambient conditions shown below are derived from International Standard Organization (1S0) Stmdard 3046/1, Reciprocal Internal Combustion Engines-Performance-Part 1.. Total Barometric Pressure Outside Air Temperature Outside Air Relative Humidity Charge Air Coolant Temperature 750 25C 30% 25c
u

m Hg

While 1S0 Standard 3046/1 is almost universally accepted and utilized by diesel engine manufacturers internationally, any adjustment of engine output or fuel rate due to hon or anticipated variations from standard ambient conditions should be uade only after establishing the sctual quoted mbient reference conditions for the specific engine in question. Paragraph 5.1 of this document provides guidance for making these adjustments, Typically, for marine applications, such adjustments may include quoted engine power output and fuel rate variations due to anticipated barometric pressures, machinery space air temperatures and relative humidities and charge air coolsnt/sea water temperatures which are significantly different from an engines quoted ambient reference conditions. Additionally, ranges of typical sea level and engine room ambient conditions are presented below which can be utilized ag a basis for initial engine performance adjustments where actual in-service conditions are known. Engine Room Air Temperature Engine Room Air Relative Humidity Outside Air Temperature Outside Air Relative Humidity Sea Rater Temperature Barometric Pressure 3.2 Fuels 25C to 45C 35% to 55% -5C to 30C 60% to 85% OC to 32C 730 to 790 mm Hg

Most uarine diesel engines are capable of operating on fuels of varying quality ranging from distillate to lower quality grdes of heavy fuel. The selection of a particular fuel is primarily m economic one, influenced by such factors as availability, the fuel oil treatment snd conditioning capabi1ities on board the vessel and the tolerance of the engine to contaminants md variations in fuel properties which will directly influence the amount of maintenance required by the engine. For the purpose of preliminary design evaluations as in actual practice, fuel grade selection should be based on expected fuel properties and contaminmts that are within the limits established by the manufacturer for the spacific engine being considered. Four grades of marine fuels, including a distillate and three grsdes of intermediate fuels have been identified in Table 3-1 for reference purposes. These fuels have been taken from 1S0 Standard 8217, Petroleum Products-Fuels (Class F)-Specifications for Marine Fuels. Section 5.2 provides guidance for making adjustments to brake specific fuel rate for operatiorion other than an enginea reference fuel.

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TABLE 3-I 1S0 STfiNDRRO MARINE FUELS LIMITS ON PROPERTY (I) ISO-F-DMX 5 43 0.2@ (j) 0.01 ISO-F-RME-25 ISO-F-RMG-35 ISO-F-RML-55 I80 ?.5 EO jO 15 0,951 @l@ (4) 1.0 (5) 5.0 500 i6i 380 35 60 ?0 IR 0.991 @.15 (4) 1,0 (5) 5.0 600 (s) 700 55 EO 30 (6) (i) 0.20 (4) 1.0 (5) S,@ E@@ (s) below 39300 Nc~teS:(1) Ma..lmun or minimum values are shown. Actual values wiIl vary. !~j Uaiue5 listed are Ram5bottcm, % mass, e?, cept for DMX, uhlch ~S ~ 10% res~due. (7) No limit IS set by 1S0; typical values are 0.82 to 0.89. by 1S0; a value for water plus (4) No sediment values ere pro~ided 5ediment of 2tiby ma~~ IS often used for hezvy fuels. (5) Cetane numbers are not provided as procedures do ot apoIY, Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Inde;;(CCfi I ) may be listed. (6) No llmit iS set by 1S0; values may exceed the 22% ma~:imumof the ne::t better grade. (7) No limit IS set by 1S0; CIMAC recommends a ma:<imumof I.010. (8) Aluminum is used as an index of catalytic fines contamination. No limit is set by 1S0: CIflfiC recommends a ma>:imumof 30 PPM.

45 !.0

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4.0 4.1

PROPULSION ~WER REQUIREMENT Engine ratings

The rating gi~,enan engine by its uanufacturer and approved by the regulatory bodies reflects their confidence that the engine will perform reliably at that level, under stated conditions. The rating of any particular uodel may be increased as time passes, to reflect component improvements or service experience. The rating is usually expressed as a continuous power output at a specific engine speed, usually called the uaximum continuous rating (MCR). An engine may be given different ratings depending on application, for example, a high performance rating may be given an engine intended for a warship application in which the engine may be operated under conditions of auatained overload for limited periods of time, and with reduced intervals between overhauls. This might be in contrast to a lower rating given the same engine for a merchant ship propulsion application, where the engine will be operated for long periods at output levels well within the uanufacturer s experience, and with component lives and service intervals acceptable in a commercial operation. Similar considerations sometimes lead to the definition of a continuous service rating, lower than the MCR by a percentage called the engine margin, The pressure in the cylinder of a diesel engine, averaged over the entire cycle, including the compression stroke as well aa the power stroke, is the mean indicated pressure (MIP). When the MIP is uultiplied by the uechanical efficiency of the engine, the result is the mean effective pressure (MEP). The MEP is directly proportional to the torque applied to the drive shaft, so that the product of MEP and RPM ia directly proportional to bkW, Stated al~other way, the MEP is directly proportional to the bkW divided by the RPM. This relation is shown in Figure 4-1: when the engine is run at its rated RPM a~]dits rated torql~e(100 percent MEP), the rated brake output (bkW) is de\reloped, Figure 4-1 shows that an engine can only achieve its rated power output at, or above, its rated RPM: at lower RPM the power that the engine can develop is limited by the MEP. The uaximum torque that a cylinder can develop, and therefore its limiting MEP, is a direct result of the amount of fuel which can be burned in the cylinder in each cycle. This mount ia 1imited on the one hand by the amount of air trapped in the cylinder (and by tbe ability of the fuel to combine with sufficient oxygen in the time available), and also by the ability of the CY1inder components to withstand the higher temperatures ad extended duration of high cylinder pressure which reaulta. Sustained operation above the fuel raCk setting corresponding to rated MEP will result in poor combustion (reflected by carbon deposits and perhaps smoke), higher exhauat gas temperatures, higher metal temperatures and shorter component lives of pistons, cylinder heads, cylinder liners and exhaust valves and seata, and greater-than-anticipatedwear rates of piston rings sod grooves, cylinder liners and bearinga. An engine may be derated, or given a rating lower than normal, to optimize it for a particular application. This uay or may not result in component

-5-

FIGURE
PROPELLER

41
REMTION

ENGINE

MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING (MCR)

RANGE OF OPERATION, CLEAN HULL, LOADED

60

70

80

90

110

ENGINE RPM, PERCENT -6-

changes different from the standard outfit. of the following patterns:

In general, derating follows one

- An engine may be derated to a lower power output at rated RPM, so that MEP is reduced. The SFC is likely to be reduced and lower maintenance costs can be expected. - An engine uight be derated to a lower RPM, but at the rated MEP. In the case of engines directly connected to the propeller, a higher propeller efficiency may then be possible, SFC will most likely be reduced, but maintenance cost will most likely be unaffected. - An engine may also be derated to develop a reduced ~P at a reduced RPM, thereby yielding all of the above advantages, i.e.; reduced RPM, lower uaintenance costs and the potential for higher propeller efficiency. When a given amount of power is to be obtained from a derated engine, that engine will generally be larger, heavier and have a higher acquisition cost per bkW than the normally-rated model of the same engine. Auxiliary sizing and shafting design are based on the MCR, The ability of a derated engine to be upgraded to its normal rating to meet a future requirement may jl]stify the use of the normal MCR for these purposes. 4.2 Propeller-engine relationship

The amount of power &hich a propeller will absorb at a given ship speed will vary with the condition of the propeller, the surface condition of the hull, the draft and trim of the ship, and the sea and wind conditions, A typical propeller power absorption characteristic for a trial condition, with the hull and propeller clean and smooth, at a particular draft and trim, and in calm sea and wind conditions, is shown in Figure 4-z. In service, the power absorption characteristic (at the same draft and trim, and even in calm Seas and winds) will mo~,eup ad to the left as ~hon, reflecting the fact that at any particular service speed, an increased amount of power will be absorbed by the propeller as the condition of the hull and propeller deteriorate through roughenin~ and fouling. The sea margin is defined as the difference between the power required to achieve a particular speed in tbe trial condition, and the poer required to acbie~, e the same speed i service. The extent and rate of increase of prOpeller power absorption in service ca be limited bY the US= of advanced hull coatings and by frequent cleaning or other reconditioningof the hull and propeller. Sea margins of up to 20 percent are common when weather effects are limited, but when allowances for extreme weather are included the uargin will be higher, The lower portion of Figure 4-2 shows the relation between the RPM of a fixed pitch propeller md the speed of the ship. This relation enables the power requirements of the ship to be correlated with the output of the engine, as in Figure 4-1. Controllable pitch propellers permit adjustment of the propeller power absorption curve to help to compensate for deteriorating condition of the hull and propeller, but this alone ia usually not sufficient reason to fit one.

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FIGURE
SPEED -

42
CURVES

POWER

MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS PDWER

!
SEA MARGIN /

AVERAGE SERVICE POWER

1/
AVERAGE SERVICE CONDITION

SHIP SPEED -8-

4.3

Propulsion transmission power absorption

The following paragraphs summarize the features and performance of directdri~,e,geared and diesel-electric propulsion installations. The power absorption addreased here is only that associated with the transmission of net engine brake power to propulsion shaft power: power absorbed in non-propulsion loads, such as attached pumps and auxiliaries are discussed in Section 8,0, and should be deducted first when determining the net power available for propulsion. While the information presented here is adequate for initial estimates, uanufacturers data should be utilized when available. 4.3.1 Component allowances

Recommended allowances for power absorbed in various propulsion trmsmisaion system components are listed in the Table 4-1, These components, alone or in varying combinations, are commonly utilized in direct, geared or dieselelectric transmission systems, and the power that each component absorbs is in addition to power absorbed in the basic transmission system. The power absorbed is generally the result of surface friction, hydraulic slip or windage and ultimately results in increases in lubricating oil, hydraulic fluid or air temperature. TABLE 4-1 Transmission component allowances COM~NENT PowER coNsuMED (AND TRANSMITTED) AS A FRACTION OF INPUT,MWER 0.005 (0.995) per shaft line O (1,0) if non-slip 0403 (0.97) 0.01 (0.99) for each mesh or stage

propeller thrust bearing friction clutches and mechanical couplings hydraulic couplings gears

These allowances are sufficient to estimate shaft power from net engine brake power and vice versa. Power consumed in line shaft bearings, stern tubes snd strut bearinga may reduce the abaft power by a further l%, The allowance in Table 4-1 are intended for use at rated power: they will have to be corrected for other output levels using a load correction factor from Figure 4.3-1. Applications of the components are discussed below. Propeller thrust bearing: The propeller (or main) thrust bearing transmits propeller thrust in both the ahead snd astern direction, to the ships structure. In multiple-shaft installations, one thrust bearing per shaft line is required. For direct drive the uain thrust bearing is usually integral with the uain engine, built into the aft end of the engine bed plate. In some diesel-electric plants, the main thrust bearing is installed aft of the propulsion uotor as a separate component. However, in uost installations utilizing reduction gears, and in uany of -9-

FIGURE
MECHANICAL DRIVE SYSTEM

4.31
LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR

20

io

60

80

100

X RATED SHAFT POWER

-1o-

the more recent diesel-electric installations, the uain thrust bearing is integral with the gear set or propulsion motor. Friction clutches and mechanical couplings: Friction clutches, selfs>mchronizing and other uechanical couplings have no mechanical losses once engaged. Pneumatically-operatedfriction clutches are easily adapted to remote control and are commonly utilized in uultiple-diesel engine, geared installations, Pneumatic friction clutches cannot tolerate slip, In applications where some slip is anticipated (cable laying, trawling, ice operations, etc.), hydraulically-actuatedfriction clutches have been employed, and in these cases an allowance would have to be retie, Hydraulic couplings: Hydraulic coupling systems are frequently employed in special-purpose ships fitted with geared-diesel installations, typically to obtain very low shaft RPMs, reduction in alternating shock loads between the engine and propeller (as a result of such problems as propeller fouling or blockage during ice breaking, fishing, cable laying or similar operations), improved acceleration and reversing times for fixed pitch propeller systems and rapid shaft-braking capabilities, Reversing gears: In geared-diesel, fixed pitch propeller installations, when non-reversing engines are fitted, a reversing element is incorporated in the gear set, Generally, the gears are in constant mesh, and the choice of ahead and astern operation is made through the selection of the proper clutch. The continuous ueshing of the gears Oal results in a transmission 10ss, which should be take as ~ additi gear mesh allowance. Two-speed gears: Two-speed gears are sometimes employed in geared-diesel engine, fixed pitch propeller installations where the operating profile requires significant amounts of time in more than one speed and power range. For example, in tug boats, one gear ratio would be used for running free and mother towing. In a father and son engine installation, the use of a two-speed gear and associated clutches can allow either engine to run at its rated output when clutched-in, while producing different propeller (vessel) speeds. 4.3.2 Direct Drive

In direct drive, the engine is directly coupled to the propeller shafting. Direct drive is uost commonly utilized with low-speed, direct-reversingdiesel engines, whose relatively low RPM is a suitable match to propeller requirements. In fixed pitch propeller installations, these engines are direct reversing. There is generally no clutch, but there will always be a propeller thrust bearing, It should be noted that the thrust bearing, although integral with the engine, will not normally be loaded when an engine is run on a test bed. The power consumed by the thrust bearing must be taken into account when determining available shaft power from installedengine brake power, as explained in Section 4.3.4, 4.3.3 Geared Drive

Medium and high-speed diesel engines offer advantages, in comparison to low-

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speed engines, which include reduced volume, weight and acquisition cost per kW, but because they operate at speeds well above those which would result in good propeller efficiency, they are most often geared to the propeller shaft. The gear set uay permit even lower propeller RPM than might have been possible for a low-speed direct-drive engine in the same application. The gear set permits the output of two or more engines to be combined to drive a single propeller. The engines are typically connected with friction clutches to a multiple-input, single-output reduction gear. When a uultipleengine installation is fitted with a controllable pitch propeller, flexibility is enhanced because, regardless of the number of engines in use, they can operate at or near their rated RPM while ship speed is varied. Single reduction gear sets can provide engine-to-propeller RPM ratios as high as 9:1 or 10:1 and are normally used. Idler wheels are utilized in uultipleengine installations where the distance between engine and shaft center lines is large (for example, for high-output, uultiple V-engine configurations). Geared diesel engine installationsrequire a propeller thrust bearing. Clutches will be present in multiple-engine installations and uogt singleengine installations. Where manufacturers data are not available, the allowances of Table 4-1 can be utilized for the gearing and additional components but must be corrected by applying a load correction factor aa illustrated in Section 4.3.4. 4.3.4 Calculation of shaft power

The following relation illustrates the procedure for calculating the available shaft power of each shaft line, from net engine brske power: skw = (bow) k,here: skW bkW Ft Fg Fh FL = = = = = = available shaft power per shaft line, in kW total available engine brake power per shaft line, in kW factor for thrust bearing power transmitted, from Table 4-1 factor for reduction,gear power transmitted, from Table 4-1 factor for hydraulic coupling power transmitted, Table 4-1 load correction factor, from Figure 4.3-1

When available, uanufacturers data should be utilized in this calculation in lieu of the values from Table 3-1 and Figure 4,3-1. Care uust be taken when using manufacturer data for basic transmission systems to determine if allowances for components are included. 4.3.5 Electric Drive Diesel-electric drive is common in special-purpose built vessels, including research ships, ice breakers, cable layers and ferries, where the advantage of precise speed control, rapid reversing, low machinery noise, high torque at low propeller RPM and flexibility in machinery arrangement have mde them attractive alternatives. Diesel-electric drive has become incresaingly attractive in large passenger and cruise ships, where there ia additional

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advantage to be gained by integrating propulsion and ships service electrical systems so that power to all services is provided through a single distribution bus by one or more diesel-generators. With this arrangement, through proper load uanagement, a minimum number of generators, each operating in its most efficient range, can be utilized to obtain the lowest fuel consumption over a wide operating range of ship speeds and ships service loads. Various power conditioning components, including transformers, filters, rectifiers, frequency converters and motor generator sets, may also be employed in these systems to meet specific requirements. Compared to geared drive and to lower output direct-drive installations (3,000 kW or leas), electric-drive systems are generally heavier and more expensive, per kW installed. At the same time, electric-drive tranamisaion systems are typically five to ten percent leas efficient at rated output, than comparable geared or direct-drive systems. Along with the electrical and electronic components, varioua mechanical transmission components discussed in Sections 4.3.1 and 4,3.3 are commonly utilized in electric-drive systems, including a thrust bearing. Some electric-drive systems also include reduction gears. The power consumed by all components must be included when determining the overall efficiency of an electric-drive system. Three electric drive systems, AC/AC, DC/DC and AC/DC, are discussed below in their uost common configurations. Figure 4.3-2 and Figure 4,3-3 provide data suitable for initial estimates. However, overall electric-drive system efficiency is very sensitive to the combination of components, and each eff~ciency curve contained in Figure 4.3-3 is therefore shown with a shaded envelope. When available for tbe specific system being evaluated, manufacturers data should be utilized. Available shaft power can be calculated from installed engine brake power using the sme method as in Section 4,3.4, AC/AC Drives: The basic AC/AC electric transmission system consists of
uultiple diesel-driven salient-pole synchronous generators, a low-speed

smchronous motor driving each propeller, associated switch gear, propulsion control and excitation components. Compared to DC/DC and AC/DC systems, AC/AC installations are generally more efficient, cheaper to purchaae, operate and uaintain, and weigh less per installed kW. AC/AC drives are well suited for use with integrated electrical power generating systems. Synchronous propulsion motors with outputs aa high as 45,000 bkW are in service. For low and moderately powered AC/AC installation, a reduction gear incorporated between the motor and propeller allows the use of a lower cost, higherRPM, synchronous motor. Acquisition cost can alao be reduced by employing off-the-shelf induction uotors and a multiple-input reduction gear, The difficulty of obtaining speeds below 20% to 30% of rated RPM with synchronous motors can be overcome by operating the uotor as an induction uotor at low RPM, or by fitting a controllable pitch propeller. In high power, fixed pitch propeller installations, more expensive cycloconverter systems ca be used to obtain high torque at low RPM, DC/DC Drives: DC/DC drive has been employed in installations of less than 7,500 skW, although single motor installations of up to 11,000 akW have

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FIGURE
ELECTRIC
95

4.3-2
VS. RATED SHAFT POWER

DRIVE

EFFICIENCY

90

85

80

75 o RATED SHAFT POWER X 1000,kW

FIGURE
ELECTRIC
1.00

4.33
LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR

DRIVE

SYSTEM

0,95

0.90

0.85

0.80

20

40

60

80

100

Z RATED SHAFT PDWER -14-

been delivered. They are considerably more expensive than equivalently sized AC/AC and AC/DC systems in terms of acquisition and uaintenance costs and typically have the lowest efficiencies, However, DC/DC drive systems can provide precise propeller RPM control down to 1% of rated RPM, while transmitting 100% of rated torque, uaking them an attractive alternatilre in such applications as ice breaking, A typical DC/DC drive system consists of multiple generators, uost commonly connected.in series, a single or double-armature,low-speed propulsion motor coupled directly to a fixed pitch propeller, a generator excitation gystem and a voltage control system to control the RPM and direction of the propeller, To reduce acquisition cost, uultiple, lower output, off-the-shelf DC motors can be mounted in tandem and directly coupled to the propeller shaft, or et,ensmaller, higher RPM motors can be utilized with a uultiple-input gear set. Electrical power for ships gervices in ships with DC/DC drive is usually provided by separate AC diesel generators. AC/DC Drives: In most low and uoderate power applications, AC/DC drive has become preferable to DC/DC drive because of the lower acquisition cost of AC generators and tbe advantages offered by an integrated electric power system supplying both DC power for propulsion ad AC power for ships services, The basic AC/DC drive consists of multiple AC, salient-pole diesel generators, switch gear, drive transformers (if required, depending on generator voltage), power converters and a DC prop~llsiol> motor directly coupled to each fixed pitch propeller, To reduce system weight, volume and acquisition cost, generator voltage is usually higher for higher-powered plantg. In systems employing generator voltages higher than 600 volts, drive transformers are usually utilized to step the voltage down to 600 \,olts,suitable for input to the power converters. Semi-conductor controlled rectifiers (SCRS) usually form the bagis of power converters employed to convert the 600 volt AC input to regulated 750 volt DC output. Typically, six SCRS are grouped together on a single bridge (a six-pulse converter) with several bridges being paralleled to provide the current required to drive the proplsiOn motor. The SCRS also incorporate solid-state microprocessor-based re~lator circuits to provide for control of motor RPM or voltage, field reversal for braking and change of direction, current rate, acceleration rate, voltage drop and current and active and reactive power limitation. DC propulsion motors employed in these systems are usually shunt wound and are limited to about 4,500 kW output as standard design and production models. Higher power requirements can be met by mechanically coupling smaller standard motors in tandem on the propulsion shaft, using dedicated groups of six-pulse SCR bridges for each motor. At considerably greater expense, high output motors employing 12 pulse pwer converters and phase-shifting transformers can be utilized, Because of the power bus spikes, dips and harmonics associated with this type of drive, AC generators and DC propulsion uotors uust be specifically designed for tbe service, while attention must be paid to the quality of ships service power supply. Depending on the nature of the nonpropulsion loads, clean ships service power cm be provided by motorgenerator acts, electric line conditioners or isolatora and/or uninterruptible power supplies.

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4.4

Engine selection

Normally, an engine will be selected so that the power absorbed i driving the propeller, including transmission and shafting losses and any attached auxilisry losds, will be between 80 and 90 percent of the engines rated power, at rated RPM, in the trial condition of hull and propeller, atloaded draft and trim (see Figure 4-2), This will generally result in sdequste engine margins, ses uargins and propeller msrgins. For special applications, such ss towing and icebreaking, other rules apply, The power absorbed under the conditions cited above may be limited to the lower portion of the 80 to 90 percent range, or to an even lower level, if: - the ship must operate at constant speed - the long-term effects hull and propeller roughness increase not recoverable in normal drydockings are to be taken into account - it is anticipated that the ship will be drydocked infrequently
-

a large allowance for adverse weather conditlOns is lncOrpOrated

- the intended trade will take the ship into warm weather ports for extended stays The power absorbed under the conditions cited above uay be ln the uPPer portion of the range if: - operation at ever diminishing ship speeds during an interval before hull and propeller reconditioning ia tolerable - sophisticated hull coatings are to be applied - the ship will operate only in fresh water

-16-

5.0 5.1

ENGINE ST.4NDARD PRACTICES Effect of ambient conditions

Most manufacturers state fuel consumption at low temperatures, most often the 1S0 conditions cited in 3.1. Most engines will be subject to different ambient conditions in service however, and the operating par~etera must be corrected for this change, preferably using correction methods recommended for the particular engine by the manufacturer. In most marine applications (i.e.; typical merchant ships operated at sea level) the ambient conditions most affecting engine performance are intake air and, for engines with turbocharging and aftercooling, charge air cooling water temperatures. Only if the manufacturers data are unavailable should the guidelines cited below be used. A rise in intake air temperature at constant power output will: increase fuel consumption by O.2 to about 1.0 percent for every 10C rise in air temperature decrease air ~d exhaust gas u ass flow rate, approximately i direct proportion to the ratio of absolute air temperatures increase exhaust gas temperatures by about 1.5C to 2.OC for every degree of air temperature increase A rise in charge air cooler cooling water temperature at constant power output will: increase fuel consumption by 0.2 to 0,6 percent for every 10C rise in water temperature decrease air and exhaust gas mass flow rate by O.5 to 2 percent for every 10C rise in water temperature increase exhaust gaa temperatures by about 3C to 6C for every 10C rise in water temperature It is usually not necessary to correct engine output for service conditions as most engines are designed to achieve their rated output at elevated ~bient conditions, uost often cited as am intake air temperature of 45C md a charge air cooling water temperature of 32C. Depressed intake air pressure (below normal barometric pressure at sea level) and elevated exhaust back pressure each increaae fuel consumption and increase exhaust temperatures, but as long as the deviations are not severe, the effecta are less significant than those of the air and water temperature changes. If the intake depression exceeds about 0.01 bar, or the exhaust back pressure exceeds about 0.03 bar, performance characteristics, including the engine output, uay require correction. The effect of humidity is not usually significant, especially for turbocharged engines.

-17-

5.2

Fuel consumption

The specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the amount of fuel consumed over a period of time, di~, ided by the power output of the engine, It is uost often quoted as kilograms or pounds of fuel per hour, per brake kilowatt or brake horsepower. The quoted value will usually have been derived from test bed measurements, on distillate fuel and under controlled conditions, in accordance with an established power test code. In using the quoted values, the points listed below must be considered, and appropriate adjustments made. The units must be clear: in particular, an SFC quoted per metric horsepower will be numerically lower than if quoted per British horsepower. The SFC will vary with engine output md RPM, generally being lowest at about 75 to 85 percent MEP and about 90 percent R~. Most engine builders will quote the SFC at rated output, while others furnish data covering the output range. The SFC at rating uay be up to five percent higher than the lowest value, with all other factors equal. The SFC of a bare engine, without any attached pumps, will be lower than thst of the engine with pumps attached. Most engine builders will quote the SFC for their standard configuration, or for the bare engine as well as for other configurations. Guidance values for power absorbed by attached lubricating oil pumps, fresh water pumps or sea water pumps are given in Section 8.3. Differences from one power test code to another resulting from different ambient conditions, should be normalized using correction methods recommended for the particular engine by the manufacturer, which are also used to permit adjustment of the SFC to expected service conditions. Only-if the uallufacturerl s correction factor= are unavailable should the factors of SectiOn 5,1 be used. To normalize a difference in SFC arising from varistion in the heating value of the fuel, the SFC should be uultiplied by the ratio of the heating value of the subject fuel to that Of the specified fuel, noting that it is the lower heating value which is used. To determine the ,SFC of an engine capable of blended or other heavy fuel operation, when operated on heavy fuel, the SFC should be multiplied by the ratio of the heating value of the heavy fuel to thst of the specified fuel, It is not usually unnecessary to apply any further margin for poorer combustion conditions. In cases where fuel consumption is quoted on a volumetric basis the quoted value must be adjusted by the ratio of fuel densities, In most cases the SFC will be quoted or ~aranteed with a tolerance of three to five percent. Because uost engine builders can be confident of achieving a test bed SFC within a fraction of one percent, some builders will deduct uost of tbe tolerance from their measured data before publishing the results. Therefore, until proven unnecessary, the tolerance should be added to the quoted SFC.

-18-

In general, diesel engines must be kept in reasonable repair if they are to operate at all. The addition of a further margin to the SFC, once the above adjustments are made, is usually unnecessary, Most fuels, including clean distillates, will contain some water and solids as purchased (see Table 3-1). Most of this water and sediment will be removed ln settling, purification and filtration, together with any additional accumulation during storage aboard the ship, This removal of impurities from the fuel, which leads to an apparent increase in consumption, should not be charged against the SFC of the engine, but should be counted in determining the overall fuel consumption and storage capacity. 5.3 Lubricating oil consumption

The amount of lubricating oil consumed by a diesel engine will generally be one-half-to-one percent of the fuel consumption, but because of the higher unit cost of the lubricating oil, the cost of its consumption will be a much more sigllif icant percentage of the cost of the fuel consumed. Lubricating oil consumption rates are generally quoted by engine uanufacturers for guidance only, and are usually derived from service experience or, for new engine models, extrapolations of experience with similar engines. In some cases it has been found necessary to use substantially greater rates than those published. The rate of lubricati!]g oil consumption can be varied over a wide range, under the control of the operator, with effects which are evident only in the long term. It has been demonstrated that increased lubricating oil consumption frequently correlates with lower wear rates for affected components. Lubricating oil is consumed in diesel engines as follows: - Crosshead engines, and some of the larger trunk-piston engines, are fitted with separate cylinder oil systems for lubrication of tbe piston rings. In engines in good condition the cylinder oil consumption may range from below O.7 to about 1.4 g/bkW-h. - In trunk-piston engines without separate cylinder oil systems, cylinder lubrication consumes up to 1.5 g/bkW-h or u ore of circulating oil. - In crosshead engines the circulating oil rarely requires replacement in the normal course of events. An allowance of O.5 to 1 kg/bkW-y, prorated from the full year down to a uinimum of perhaps 0,25 kg/bkW-y, but based on the bkW at MCR, might be reasonable for preliminary estimates. - In trunk piston engines, contamination of the oil by combustion prducts is usually inevitable and the oil uust be renewed periodically. The renewal interval will depend on many factors, among them the service that the engine sees, the type of fuel used, the amount of oil in circulation, the rate at which fresh make-up oil is added to compensate for oil consumed in cylinder lubrication, the lubricating oil filtration mmd purification equipment, the condition of tbe engine and the practices of the operators. In the absence of better information, an allowance of 1 to 2 kg/bkW-y, prorated from tbe full year down to a minimum of perhaps 0.25 kg/bkW-y, but based on the bkW at MCR, uight be reasonable for

-19-

preliminary estimates. Methods of reducing the consumption by extending the renewal interval are discussed in Section 9.5, 5.4 Intake air requirements

I!]takeair flow rates are specified by the manufacturer, usually derived from test bed ueasurements, with an engine run on distillate fuel md under controlled conditions, in accord with an established power test code. In using these quOted values, the following points should be noted: - The value must be adjusted for mbient conditions as explained in Section 5.1, Some recommendations for ambient conditions likely in service are made below. - A volumetric flow rate can be converted to a u ass flow rate by using the density calculated from the ideal gas law (see Appendix A) at appropriate conditions of absolute temperature ad pressure. Wllerethe intake air is taken from the engine room (the typical case), it should be noted that it is common practice in the design of machinery space ventilation systems to duct fresh air to the vicinity of the engine intakes. II>s well designed engine room intake air temperatures in service will therefore represent an average between outside air and general engine room temperatures. Reasonable values might be 35c and 25c, summer ad ~iter, respectively, If there are constraints on the fresh air supplied to the engine, intake air temperatures can exceed the 45C value for which uany engines are rated. Where the intake air is drawn directly frOm the eather the flow rate may require adjustment for an anticipated pressure drop in the intake ducting, as well as a correction for ambient temperature. Marlufacturer s data for intake air requirements should be used, as even superficially similar engines may require significantly different specific air quantities. This warning must be borne in mind in using the generalized data for air-to-fuel weight ratios (R) of Table 5-1. The data in the table are at 1S0 conditions and the highest MCR, and are derived from characteristics of a wide range of engines in current production. Adjustment to an air intske temperature of 45c will alone cause these ratios to fall by seven percent or u ore. In some engine designs the ratio exhibits a flat characteristic versus load, while in others it tends to rise as load is reduced, Engines which are derated to lower valuea of MEP tend to have higher air-to-fuel ratios throughout their load range than the higher-rated models of the same engines, TABLE 5-1 Air-to-fuel weight ratios (R) for turbocharged engines These ratios apply to engines at their highest MCR, using distillate fuel, at 1S0 conditions. two-stroke, low-speed, crosshead engines four-stroke, medium-speed engines two-stroke, uedium-speed engines 40 to 50 30 to 43 33 to 39

-20-

5.5

Exhaust gss

Exhaust gas temperature and flow rate are among the data available from engine manufacturers, and it is this source which should be used. If the exhaust gas mass flow rate is not given, it can be obtained from the air flow by adding the fuel flow, calculated from the adjusted SFC, unless a charge air waste gate or dump valve is fitted. If manufacturera data are una~,ailable, the exhaust gas mass flow rate at the highest MCR of the engine can be estimated using the generalized air-to-fuel ratios of Table 5-1, as follows (this method fails if a charge sir waste gate or dump valve is fitted): mg = (Rtl)(SFC)(bkW) where: ma = R= SFC = bkW = gas mass flow rate, kg/h air-to-fuel ratio, from Table 5-1, adjusted in accord with 5.1 specific fuel consumption of distillate fuel, kg/bkW-h, adj~]stedin accord with 5.2 engine brake output at load under consideration, in kW

The behavior of the gas mass flow rate at partial powers and fOr derated egi],eswill essentially parallel that of the air flow, as described in, Section 5.4. Where manufacturers data are unavailable, an estimate of the exhaust gas temperature at standard conditions, when run at the highest MCR snd on distillate fuel, can be uade using one of the following relations (these methods fail if a charge air waste gate or dump valve is fitted): T, = TO t [(L}IV)(SFC) - 860](fla)/(sFc )( Rtl)(cP) or: where: T, TO LHV SFC = = = = exhaust temperature at standard conditions, degrees C j.ntake temperature at standard conditions, degrees C lower heating value of distillate fuel, Table 3-1, in kJ/kg specific fuel consumption, kg/bkW-h, on distillate fuel and at standard conditions, but otherwise adjusted in accord with Section 5.1 0.47 to O.56, the fraction energy released by the combustion of the fuel which is not converted to brske output, which is carried off by the exhaust gas; for a wide range of mediumand low-speed engines, this fraction is ss shown, but it can be considerably lower for higher speed engines the fraction of heat released by the combustion of the fuel which is carried off by the exhaust gas, from Fi@re 5-2 air-to-fuel ratio, from Table 5-1 without adjustment specific heat of the exhaust gaa at ita average temperature, estimated from Figure 5-1 T, = T. t (LHV)(flb )/( Rtl)(cP)

fla =

flb = R= CP

-21-

FIGURE
SPECIFIC HEAT

51
OF GAS

1.20

1,15

1!10

1.05

1.00 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600

GAS TEMPERATURE, C

To adjust,the estimated temperature to different intake air temperatures the guidelines of Section 5.1 can be used. When heavy fuels are used, the exhaust gas temperature at equal output will usually be higher, typically by 10C to 20C, than when burning distillate fuel. The behavior of exhaust temperature at partial power output of the engine is highly engine-specific, in some cases falling as output is reduced while displaying a rising characteristic in other cases, It is safe to assume, for many turbocharged engines direct-connectedor geared to fixed-pitch propellers, that the temperature is roughly constant over the top of the load range, from MCR down to 75 percent. For engines unloaded at constant RPM, tbe gas temperature usually drops from MCR down to 50 percent output, typically by 5C to 15C for every 10 percent load reduction. Engines which are derated to lower values of MEP tend to have lower final exhaust temperatures throughout their load range than the normally-rated models of the same engines. j.6 Heat dissipation to cooling water and lubricating oil

The amounts o.fheat dissipated to an engines cooling water and lubricating oil are among the data available from engine manufacturers, and it is tbi~ source which should be used. If uanufacturers data are unavailable, estimates of the amount of heat dissipated at the various cooling circuits can be uade as follows: Q = fz(LHV)(SFC)(bkW) where: = amount of heat dissipated to coolant (or LO), kJ/h Q fz = the fraction of energy input to the engine, obtained from the percentages of Figure 5-2, at the appropriate percentage of rated engine output. LHV = lower heating value of fuel used, Table 3-1, in kJ/kg SFC = specific fuel consumption, kg/bkW-h, adjusted in accord with Section 5.1 bkW = engine brake output at load under consideration, in kW Figure 5-2 was derived from data for a wide range of engines in current production, with the 100 percent rating corresponding to the highest MCR model of each engine. Some manufacturers estimate heat radiated to surroundings, which is not incuded in the fi~re, at up to 5 percent, but more commonly, a value of one-to-two percent is used. Given the approximation inherent i this generalized approach,.Figure 5-2 csn be used with intake air temperatures from 20C to 45C, cooling water from 25c to 38C at the charge air cooler inlet, when burning distillate fuels or heavy fuels and for partial output along a propeller characteristic or at rated RPM, even though each of these factors has an effect on the actual heat balance. In general, when output is reduced along a propeller characteristic the heat dissipation fractiona are higher at ~Y given Percentage output than when RPM is uaintained,

-23-

FIGURE
HEAT BAMNCE

5-2
ENGINES

FOR TURBOCHARGED

50

40

a L n E + s I

E
10 -

CHARGE AIR COOLING

o 10 -. J

1
_WITH WATER 50 COOLED PISTONS~ 60 70

LUBE OIL COOLING WITH OIL COOLED PISTONS>

\ //////////////////,/,,,,,,,

80

_ 90 100

PERCENT OF RATED OUTPUT -24-

The temperatures at which heat is dissipated to coolanta are among the data available from engine manufacturers; and it is this source which shOld be used. If manufacturers data are unavailable, the values belo, determined from data for a wide range of engines, can be used. Jacket cooling water generally leaves an engine at about 80C to 90C. The temperature is usually maintained in this range by temperature regulating valves at the cooler, and is therefore independent of engine output. At rated engine output, lubricating oil uay leave a low-speed engine at about 50C to 60C, and a medium-speed engine at about 70C to 80C. In the case of the LO, it is usually the engine inlet temperature which ia maintained, generally at about 15c below the maximum engine ~tlet temperature, yielding a LO outlet temperature which declines s engine output is reduced. Air leaving the turbocharger compressor and entering the air cooler will be at a temperature which is mostly dependent upon the boost ratio of the compressor. The boost ratio is the.ratio of compressor discharge pressure to inlet pressure and is usually only slightly greater than the ratio of air manifold pressure to ambient pressure, which can be used in its place as an approximation. Figure 5-3 can be used to estimate the temperature of the air entering the cooler, entering the figure at a boost ratio appropriate to the engine and its percentage output, The boost ratio declines as engine output is reduced, roughly in proportion to the percentage of rated engine output.

-25-

FIGURE
APPROXIMATE ENTERING

53

TEMPERATURE OF AIR CHARGE COOLER

240 230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 1!5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4,0

BOOST RATID -26-

6.0 6.1

AUXILIARY AND SHIPS SERVICE REQUIREMENTS Electric load

A preliminary estimate of the electric load is required in the initial stages of design, before a detailed electric load analysig can be performed,. For such purposes, the following relation gives a reasonable estimate of the average service eiectric lnad for most merchant ships: kWe = 100 + 0.55 MCR07 where the MCR is taken in kW. This relation asaumes that all pumps are separately driven by electric motors. Normal propulsion, navigation, HVAC and other ships service electric loads are included; cargo service loads (cranes, cargo refrigeration, cargo hold ventilation, etc.) and other special loads (thrusters, for example) are not included. Where pumps are attached, the service load can be decreased accordingly; some guidance ia given in Section 8.3, For ships with special cargo service requirements, see Section 6,4. The average service electric load tan be considered constant over the upper load range ofthe main machinery (70 to 100% MCR) , where the installation em]?loyspredominal]tly constant-speed pumps. Where multi-speed pumps or parallel pumps in sequential operation are fitted, adjustment of the average service load may be necessary. In installations with multiple uain engines, if o]]eengine is sl]utdo~n in some modes of operation, the service load in these modes may be reduced to reflect any auxiliaries which can then be shut down. \lariationsin the electric load over the course of a day, and ~ariations imposed by changing ambient conditi~s, may be in the range of +/- 10% for modern merchant ships, excl[]sive of variations imposed by special machinery. Electrical generating plants are further discussed in Section 9.2. 6.2 Fresh water requirements

Freshwater requirements may be affected by tbe following factors: ship type and operating profile crew and passenger complement and nationality type of sanitary system machinery type and configuration cargo service requirements The allowances below are recommended for use in preliminary design determinations of anticipated daily freshwater consumption, in metric tons per day (MTPD). If actual rates are known, or if estimates can be based on experience with similar ships or equipment, these should be used instead. Any significant freshwater requirement resulting from cargo service demands must be separately determined and added to the consumption calculated from these allowances.

-27-

Propulsion plant without a central freshwater cooling system with a central freshwater cooling system Steam, feed and drain systems system losses (leakage, blowdon, etc.) steam soot blower losses (if fitted) steam atomizing losses (if fitted) Hotel consumption all ship types but passenger ships fitted with seawater or vacuum type sanitary systems all ship types but passenger ships fitted with freshwater sanitary systems passenger ships 0.12 MTPD/WrH (2 ) O.12 MTPD/MTH 0.06 MTPD/MTH 0.25 MTPD/1000 bkW (1) 0.5 MTPD/1000 bkW

O.2j MTPD/person (3)

0.40 MTPD/person O.4j MTPD/person

Notes: (1) The bkW at installed rating should be used. (2) MTH is the combined, rated boiler evaporation rate, in metric tons per hour. (3) The number of people to be used is tbe largest number realistically expected to be on board at sea. Traveling work squads, families of working crew, relief officers, observers and passengers are some people outside the ships complement who should reasonably be counted in assessing consumption. Means of meeting fresh water requirements are discussed in Paragraph 9.6. 6.3 Heating steam or thermal fluid demands

Reference will be made to values of specific heat. For convenience, some values, approximately correct in the range of temperatures and pressures usually encountered, are listed in Table 6-1.

TABLE 6-1 Approximate values of specific beat fluid fresh water sea water distillate fuel oil heavy fuel oil lubricating oil air Cp, kJ/kg-C 4.2 3.9 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.0

-28-

6.3.1

Fuel heating requirements

Distillate fuels are normally used without heating, but heavy fuels uust be heated in the tanks, pipelines, at the purifier and at the engine. Guideline temperatures at various points in a IIeavyfuel oil system for use in preliminary estimates are: idle storage tanks ready storage tanks settling and day tanks purifier heater 10C above pour point, or the surrounding sea water temperature 40C 40C to 60C 98C

The temperature required at the engine is determined from a viscosity diagram such as Figure 6-1. It can be see; that the heaviest fuels require heating to 150C to 160C. The heat required for fuel heating can be estimated from the following relationship: Q = f3(mf)(Cp<)(Th-T. ) where: Q f3 mf Cpf Th T, = = = = = = heat required, kJ/h a factor to account for losses from tanks and piping to surroundings; see discussion below the mass flow rate of fuel to be heated, kg/h specific beat of the fuel oil, kJ/kg-C (see Table 6-I) the temperature to which the fuel is to be heated, degrees C the temperature from which the fuel is to be heated, degrees C

In estimating the total amount of heat required for fuel heating: The factor f3 will have to be assumed. Until better data are available, a value of 1.25 to 1.5 may be appropriate. When the surrounding sea water temperature is less than 10C above,the pour point and idle storage tank heating is necessary, values of 1.5 to two may be used. The higher values should be used in cases where there is substantial heavy fuel oil storage in tanks with high surface-to-volume ratios, such as dOble bottom tanks. T. should be taken as equal to the ambient sea water temperature for the conditions under consideration, i.e.: in winter conditions, conceivably as low as -2C in icy sea water, mf should include all the fuel to be heated, fOr axiliary engines and oil-fired boilers as well as main engines if appropriate, with each at the output appropriate to the conditions under consideration. To determine the u ass flow rate of steam or thermal fluid required, the following relations apply:

Q
where: ==m= -29-

Q
C*AT

T 87,7-7 [ 1 I ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! I ! { ! ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! 1 1 I ! I 1 1 1 1 I 11 0 mnxw%wmww mmmw.ommtmrnw ~2mz40mmow 3203.0 T

Exan]ple: TO obtain therecommendedviscosity before fuel injec[ion pumps a fuel oil of 150mmzls(cS() a[50C mustbe Ilea[ed 10 108[o 120 SC.

I
-30-

DePt.0756

87.7037

m, Ah

= =

CP AT

the mass flow rate of steam (or thermal liquid), kg/h the available enthalpy drop of the steam, or for saturated steam, the latent heat of condensation, kJ/kg; until better data are available this can be taken aa 2100 kJ/kg for saturated steam at pressures ranging from 3 to 8 bars the specific heat of the thermal fluid, kJ/kg-C; where pressurized fresh water is used as the thermal fluid, use 4.2 kJ/kg-C the available temperature drop of the thermal fluid, degrees C

As a rule, steam used for final heating of heavy fuel oils will have to be at about 7 to 8 bars to ensure that the heaviest fuels can be sufficiently heated prior to injection, (In general, it is the saturation temperature of the steam, and therefore its pressure, which is important in achieving required fuel temperatures. ) If only lighter blends are to be considered, the steam pressure can be reduced accordingly. Steam for fuel oil heating in tanks and piping can be at lower pressure, in the range of 3 to 5 bars or less. 6.3,2 Lubricati. ng oil heating requirements

Lubricating oil for the main engine is normally heated for purification on a continuous basis. When auxiliary engines are arranged tO burn heavy fuel, tl~eirlubricating oil sumps should be continuously purified as well. The heat required for lubricating oil heating can be estimated from the following relationship:

Q = f,mticptiA T
where: = Q f4 = heat required, kJ/h a factor to account for losses to surroundings; as long as the exposed surface is limited and well insulated, or the temperatures are uoderate, a value of 1.01 is sufficient. mass flow rate of oil to be heated, kg/hr (See Section g.5 ) specific heat of the oil, kJ/kg-C (see Table 6-1) the required temperature rise of the oil, degrees C, from the preValliug temperature in the engine sump (See Section 5,6) to about 85c,

M1o = cpl. = AT =

To determine the mass flow rate of steam or thermal fluid required, the following relations apply:

Q_Q m== - Ah

Cp AT

where the terms are defined in Section 6.3.1 above. Steam used for lubricating oil heating is usually at a pressure in the range of 3 to 5 bars.

-31-

6.3.3

Hotel services

For hotel services, the following parameters may be used: low-pressure stea for hot water heating for galley services Total for hotel services 0.4 kg/h-person 0.2 kg/h-person 0.6 kg/h-person thermal fluid 850 kJ/h-person 475 kJ/h-person 1300 kJ/h-person

Generally, quarters heating in cold climates, and air conditioning reheating ided by steam or electric heaters, via a central in warm climatea, will be pro~, HVAC system, If steam is used for quarters heating an additional allowance must be made. Two alternative formulations are suggested belOw for typical merchant ships; for passenger ships the parameters in the table can be halved. gross interior deck area of accommodation !{interquarters heating summer air conditio]]ing 0.15 to 0.3 kg/h-m2 0,08 to O.15 kg/h-m2

per person 5 to 10 kg/h-person 3 to j kg/h-person

In using these parameters, the number of people to be used is the largest nl!mberrealistically expected to be be on board at sea. Traveling work squads, families of working crew, relief officers, observers and passe~ers are some people outside the ships complement who might reasonably be counted illassessing consumption. Steam used for hotel ser!, ices is typically at a pressure in the range of 3 to 5 bars or less. 6,3.4 Heating of water and other fluids

Situations other than thOse cited, in which a fluid requires heating are frequently encountered. TWO examples are feedwater heating in draincollecting tanks or feed heaters, a[ldsea water heating for a distilling plant. Similar relations apply:

A TI Q= f5m1cp1
where: = Q f5 = heat required, kJ/h a factor to account for losses to surroundings; as long as the exposed surface is limited and well insulated, or the temperatures are moderate, a value of 1.01 is sufficient. the u ass flow rate of the fluid to be heated, kg/h specific heat of the fluid, kJ/kg-C (see Table 6-1) the required temperature riseof the fluid, degrees c

ml = Cp1 u ATl =

TO determine the mass flow rate of steam or thermal fluid required, the following relations apply, where the terms are defined in Section 6.3.1 above. Q-Q m== - Ah Cp AT

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6.4

Trade support service requirements

Except where cited, the allowances of the preceding sections will enable reasonable estimates to be made for electrical load, fresh water and heatlg needs of ships without high requirements for services in support of their trade, i.e.: for servicing cargo or passengers. The paragraphs which follow are intended to identify some of the more common situations where these allowances may require adjustment as a result. It should be noted that additional equipment will generally require additional maintenance, which uay in turn affect manning levels, 6.4.1 Thrusters

Ships of any type may be fitted with bow thrusters, or bw and stern thrusters. Thrusters generally have high power requirements which can be met by electric motors, hydraulic motors or independent diesel engines, Because the thrusters are used while maneuvering, even when the thrusters impose additional electrical demands, it is not the at-aea electrical load that will be affected. If the thruster is accepted as a non-vital load, and the standby generating capacity is adequate for the thruster load, then additional generating capacity will be unnecessary. 6.4.2 Tankers

Tankers, and combination carriers such as OBOS, may require the following cargo services: cargo heating cargo and ballaat pumping inert gas tank cleaning additional fire exting!]ishing Cargo heating is generally restricted to crude carriers in certain trsdes and heavy products carriers, The ucst common method of cargo heating is by steam, and in a large vessel the boiler plant can be substantial and sophisticated, with one or two large, HFO-fired boilers, often of the double-circuit type (see Section 9.9). The availability of large quantities of steam in these tankers makes steam turbines the obvious choice for cargo and ballast pumping. In the typical case the pumps are located in a single pump room forward of the engine room at the lowest level, with the turbines in the engine room, driving the pumps through shafts penetrating the bulkhead. Tankers not required to heat their cargo may nevertheless have steam-driven cargo and ballast pumps, or they uay have pumps driven by electric or hydraulic uotors or by ~0 from the uain or auxiliary engines. The pumps uay be located in a pump room as described above, or they may be distributed: in one frequently used arrangement a pump is located in each tank. Steam pumps will require a boiler plsnt. Electric uotor-driven pumps or hydraulic power packs may dictate larger or additional SSDGS. Large tankers carrying volatile products are required to inert the cargo tanks, For crude carriers and most petroleum products carriers fitted with boilers, exhaust gas from the boilers will be sufficiently low in oxygen to

-33-

enable its use as inert gas, after scrubbing to remove sulfur compounds. Where cleaner inert gas is required, or where large boilers are not fitted, or to enable tanks to be topped-up with gas without firing the boilers, an independer, t inert gas generator may be fitted, Tank cleaning systems vary with tanker type, but uay involve a dedicated tank cleaning pump and steam heater, Crude carriers tend to be outfitted for crude oil washing (COW) during discharge, with a dedicated COW pump, Chemical and clean petrolel]m product carriers may require substantial fresh water generating capacity for flushing of tanks and lines, depending on the nature of the trade. Tankers carrying flammable cargoes are generally required to be fitted with a fixed foam fire extinguishing system on deck, supplied with sea water via the fire main. Tankers with pump rooms may require additional fixed C02 or Halon storage. 6.4.3 Dry b~]lkcarriers, break-bulk cargo ships and container ships

The simplest examples of dry bulk carriers (including colliers and ore carriers), break-bulk cargo ships and container ships have few cargo service requirements beyond the following: ballast pumping cargo hold bilge pumping cargo hold ventilation cargo hold fire extinguishing hatch cover operation cranes or other cargo-handling gear Because these services are required intermittently or in port they are not likely to affect estimates of at-sea ships service loads. Ballast pumps are usl!ally motor-driven and located in the engine room, Often the ballast pumps can be identical to tbe main aea water circulating pumps, albeit operating in a lower discharge pressure/higher flow rate region of the performance curve, and at less-than-optimum efficiency. In this case one ballaat pump can be piped as a standby uain circulator, thereby eliminating one pump and easing tbe spare parts inventory. Some dry bulk carriers are fitted with self-unloading systems. Most such systems affect the basic internal configuration of the ship and msy also affect engine room arrangement and even basic machinery selection, but will not increase the at-sea electrical load. Containerships are permitted to carry certain classes of dangerous and hazardous cargo below in compliance with SOLAS regulations, but must be fitted for mechanical ventilation of the designated holds. For break-bulk cargo ships ~d containerships with refrigerated cargo space or liquid cargo capacity, see the appropriate paragraphs.

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6.4.4

Roll On-Roll Off (RO-RO) Ships

Generally, RO-RO ships and ferries require high volume cargo hold ventilation systems for the removal of fuel vapors and/or exhaust fumes and heat resulting from the stowage and movement of internal combustion engine-powered vehicles during transit and loading and discharging cycles, respectively. It should also be noted that some current regulation require RO-RO ship cargo hold ventilation systems to be operated continuously at sea and in port when vehicles are stowed aboard ship, below the weather deck. The safety aspects associated with vehicular stowage and operation aboard ship, especially for gasoline-fueled automobiles and trucks, also require significant additional engine exhaust gas (carbon monoxide) uonitoring and smoke and fire detection system capability as well as increased fire-fighting system capacity. In addition to an expanded sea water fire-fighting system, RO-RO ships and ferries are usually also fitted with temperature-activated sprinkler systems or fixed chemical fire-fighting systems installed throughout the cargo hold/vehicle deck areas, The ships ser~, ice compressed air and fresh water systems may be extended throughout the vessels stowage areas to service vehicle maintenance needs (e.g., flat tires, battery water, etc. ). Depe]]dil)g UIIramp configuration and cargo hold separation and penetration through watertight doors, a RO-RO ship uay also require an increased hydraulic system capability and capacity. If the ship is to call regularly in colder regions, provisions are usually made to prevent ice and snow accumulation on exposed cargo hold access ramps through the use of electric resistance, heated glycol or other thermal fluid type ramp de-icing systems. RO-RO ship cargo service requirements will increase the ships electrical service load. 1f cargo hold ventilation uust be uaintained at sea, the at-sea ships service load and generating plant size Iiillbe affected. 6.4.5 Refrigerated cargo ships

Refrigerated cargo (Reefer) ships may be break-bulk or container ships, or a combination of these, and may have RO-RO features, The effect will be increased electrical generating capacity to meet the demands of the cargo refrigeration equipment and, often, extensive cargo hold ventilation requirements. The electrical demand will be a function of not only the cargo capacity and stowage, but alao of cargo type (frozen goods, bananas, citrus or deciduous fruit, meat or dairy products) and the ambient conditions for cool down and maintenance. The cargo refrigeration control system may be extensive, especially when carrying different cargoes requiring different refrigeration zones. The most common type of refrigerated container has its own refrigeration unit and requires an electrical supply from the ship. Reefer containers stowed below deck will require hold ventilation. Reefer ships may carry their own fork-lift trucks to stow palletized cargo below deck. Some reefer ships are fitted with cranes for working cargo, which may further increase the in-port burden on the electrical plant.

-35-

If tilepeak electrical load is incurred in port and can be met with the total ge]lerator capacity available in port, then sufficient at-sea standby capacity is likely to exist and additional generating capacity will be unnecessary, In selecting generators for reefer ships, consideration uust be gi~,ento meeting the low electrical load which will occur when the refrigeration plant is secured (see Section 9.2). 6.4.6 Passenger Ships

Paasenger ships, including cruise ships and ferries (refer to Paragraph 6.4.4 for the requirements of vehicular ferries) will have considerable additional auxiliary system loads associated with providing adequate passenger safety and comfort. Typically, these services include the availability of unlimited potable water for bathing, drinking, swimming pool uake-up, etc., and steam and fresh water for laundry operation, deck wash down and bar, restaurant and galley services. A large air-conditioningdemand, a large provision refrigeration plant and multiple elevator installation can increase required electrical service loads significantly. The size, arrangement and passenger safety requirements for passenger vessels also result in u ore extensive fire and smoke detection systems, fixed fire-figbting systems and numerous hydraulically-actuatedwatertight door installations. 6.4.7 Gas Carriers

Liquefied gases are normally transported as saturated liquid at the temperature and pressure appropriate to the gas. Small quantities of less volatile gases are generally carried at ambient temperature in pressure vessels. Large quantities of gas, and very volatile gases such as methane and ethane, are generallY carried at reduced temperature in low pressure tanks. The larger LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) ships generally maintain the temperature and pressure of the cargo in insulated tanks by uechanical refrigeration. The common LPGs are propane, butane and ammonia. The refrigeration system may be direct, in which the cargo is used as the refrigerant, or indirect, in which a refrigerant is expanded into coils within the cargo tanks. LPG vapors evolving as a result of heat ingress are reliquefied by refrigeration and returned to the tanks. Methane ia normally mixed with uinor percentages of heavier gases and referred to as LNG (liquefied natural gas). Because the critical temperature of methane is well below ambient temperature, it can only exist as a liquid at reduced temperatures. Cargo tanks are designed for ullage pressures only slightly above atmospheric and are heavily insulated to control heat ingress and, therefore, the rate of boil-off. It is possible to reliquefy the boiloff vapors, but becauae of the low saturation temperatures of the LNG it is usually more economical to use the boil-off gas as fuel. If fuel requirements are below the boil-off rate, alternative u eans uust be provided to dispose of the boil-off gas. Cargo pumps are normally inside the tanks to eliminate tank boundary penetrations below the liquid level. LNG pumps are generally of the submerged motor-driven type, while ammonia pumps are of the deep-well type because of the corrosive effect of ammonia on copper. LPG pumps of both types are

-36-

common. Provision must be made for tank level ueasurement while loading and discharging as well as in transit. During loading and discharge provision ml]stbe made to control the cargo vapor pressure, often by exchanging cargo vapor with shore. Thermal stress and pressure rise considerations may limit the rate of liquid loading into a warm tank, or they uay require that the tank be cooled down by spraying liquid into the tank before loading commences. Common practice with LNG is to uaintain tank temperature during the ballast voyage by retaining a quantity of the cargo, which is circulated through spray nozzles by spray pumps. The resulting boil-off m~y be used for propulsion. Prior to loading the first cargoor after a tank has been gas-freed, the tank atmosphere will be completely changed to the cargo vapor or to an inert gas, usually nitrogen, at ambient temperature, before the introductionof liquid into the tank, Provision must also be made to warm the tanks and cb~nge the atmosphere back to air prior to entering the tanks. The equipment required to change tank atmospheres may include high-capacity compressors, inert gas sources, cargo vaporizers, warm-up heaters and special venting arrangements. This equipment uay be installed aboard the ship or be shore-based. Other cargo service machinery installed abOard a gas ~arrier incltides pumps and compressors, and will uost likely be driven by electric motors, although other prime movers may suit particular applications. The likely effects of cargo service reqlrements of a gas carrier therefore include an increased electrical load. In addition, reliquefaction condensers will require increased sea water pumping capability, while boil-off gas heaters require steam, 6.5 Oil-fired boiler fuel consumption

Oil-fired boiler use aboard motorships ranges from low output units in dry cargo carriers, fired intermittently to supplement waste heat boilers in the coldest weather and to provide heat in port, to larger, more heavily utilized boilers found on tankers and passenger ships, where they may be required tO ion of provide cargo and passenger services (see Section 6.4). In considerate the generally low utilization of these boilers, ad the low Output relative tO propulsion requirements, it is usually the case that compact dimensions, simplicity of operation and low maintenance requirements take higher priority than fuel-efficiency. In config~lration, commercially available designs range from fire-tube types to two-drum, watertube types. Economizers are not normally fitted to these boilers. For tankera, standard desi~s include double-circuit boilers, i.e., those with an integral low-pressure steam generator supplied by the primary, oil-fired high-pressure circuit which operates in a closed loop. Moat boilers are needed for saturated stem supply, but where superheated steam ia preferred (as it often is for tanker cargo pump turbines), an interdeck or superposed superheater will be fitted. While some boilers are designed for distillate fuel use, most are suitable for pre-heated heavy fuels when suitably equipped. . Boiler efficiency is normally referenced to the lower heating value of the fuel, in contrast to typical steam plant practice. Efficiencies referenced tO

-37-

the higher heating val(lewill be approximately five percentage points lower, For a wide range of currently available boilers, efficiencies based on the lower heating },alueof the fuel range from about 7j to 82% at 20% evaporation rate, 80 to 8j% at 50% and 78 to 83% at rating, the peaking characteristic resulting from the absence of an economizer. The efficiency is related more to the details of the particular design than to the size or evaporation rate. Boiler fuel consumption callhe estimated from the following relation: mf = m. (h. -hfd) n (m = = = = fuel consumption, kg/h evaporation rate, i.e.: steam output, kg/h enthnlpy of steam, kJ/kg enthalpy of feedwater, kJ/kg, at conditions actually anticipated boiler efficiency, based on LHV of fuel (see above) lower heating value of fuel used, Section 3,2, kJ/kg

wkere: mf m, 1)s hfd

n= LHV =

Where an efficiency based on the HHV is used, the same relation appliea with the HHV.stibstituted for the LHV, Enthalpies for steam are determined from steum tables or a Mollier diagram (a Mollier diagram is included as Appendix of water in units of kcal/kg are approximately equal to the D). Enthal.pies temperature in degrees C at the temperatures and pressures of likelyinterest. Tl]ereare 4.189 kJ/kcal. Excess air use will range from less than 10% to over 40%, and like the efficiency, is related more to the details of the particular design than to the size of the boiler or its evaporation rate. Khere the flue gas will be used for inerting cargo tanks, the excess air must be restricted to five-tote]lpercent.

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7.0 7.1

WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION Sources and uses of waste heat

The points of heat rejecti~n from diesel engines which are normally considered to have practical potential for waste heat recovery are the exhaust, the charge air cooler and the jacket coolant. Heat is usually recovered from the exhaust gas of a uain propulsion engine to generate steam for fuel and LO heating and hotel services. Excess steam ca contribute to cargo heating or other cargo service needs where this is appropriate. In some cases a proprietary fluid is used instead of steam. Where the diesel plant is large enough and the electrical needs sufficiently limited, enough steam can be generated by the exhaust gases to ueet the electrical load with a waste heat turbogenerator (WHTG), Where a WHTG can meet only part of the demand with steam from the waste heat boiler, it may still be economically justified, with the balance of the electrical demand uet by supplemental steam from oil-fired boilers, from an attached generator or from SSDGS. Heat recox,ered from the charge air cooler of a main engine is most often considered for pre-heating of feedwater for an exhaust gas boiler, for fuel tank heating, for LO purifier heating, for absorption refrigeration systems, for quarters heating or for hot water heating. Heat is most often recovered from the jacket water of a main engine for use in fresh water generating plants. The practicality of waste heat recovery from auxiliary engines depends on their size and utilization. Passenger ships, with their large electrical plants and a high demand for heat for fresh water generation, are likely candidates for auxiliary engine waste heat recovery. Increased use of waste heat, beyond ueeting the basic needs for fuel and LO heating and hotel services, will require a recovery plant of increased complexity, size, weight and cost. The extent to which this is justified is a matter which must be resolved from an examination of the trade-offs involved, which may be largely economic in nature, The uaximum temperature of the medium used to recover heat will always be less than the temperature of the source, a difference called the terminal temperature difference (TTD), which will be determined largely by the size of the heat exchanger involved. Guideline uinimum values for preliminary work are given in Table 7-1. TABLE 7-1 GUIDELINE TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES gas or air tO/frOm water gas or air tO/frOm steam water tO water oil tO/frOm water 10C 20C 5C 10C

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7,2

Exhaust gas heat recovery for basic ships services

In examining the potential for exhaust heat recovery, it is usually best to first determine if sufficiel]t heat will normally be available to meet the basic needs of the ship, and only then consider the feasibility of recovering any excess. The following procedure is applicable to typical waste heat steam generation plants, and can be used as a foundation for evaluating more elaborate steam plants and those which use thermal fluids. Further examples appear in Appendix B. More detailed information on waste heat bilers be found in SNAME T&R Bulletin 3-38. than that presented here can

Exhaust heat quantity and temperature and steam demand vary with ambient conditions and with engine output, and it will usually be useful to uake separate estimates for winter and summer conditions, and over a range of engine outputs, Table 7-2 shows, by example, one way to achieve this; the notes which follow are keyed to the table. 1. Summer and winter characterize two extreme sets of ambient conditions to be examined. The table can be expanded to enable other conditions to be examined. Several main engine output levels should be considered, with 70 to 75%, 80 to 90% and 100% of MCR being ,typicalranges of interest. The 100% level is for reference, aa it usually does not represent a critical level for waste heat recovery. Steam demands for lube oil heating and for the hotel load are usually independent of engine output. Means of estimating these quantities are provided in Sections 6.3,2 and 6.3.3. Steam demand for fuel heating can be estimated using the procedure of Section 6.3.1, At either extreme of ambient conditions, this quantity will vary with engine output, and as a rough approximation can be taken as directly proportional to main engine output. Steam pressure must be high enough to ensure that the heaviest fuels can be adequately heated. Saturated steam generated at 8 bars will reach the fuel oil heaters at about 170C, which should ensure this, Temperatures and enthalpiea for steam are determined from steam tables or a Mollier diagram (a Mollier diagram is included as Appendix D), The simplest heat recovery cycles usually feed the boiler directly from an atmospheric drain tank. Typically in these simple cycles, the average temperature of the returning drains is above 100C, maintaining the drain tank at saturation, which provides a u easure of deaeration, If additional feed heating is provided the temperature and enthalpy of the feed will be higher. Enthalpies of water in units of kcal/kg are approximately equal to the temperature in degrees C at the temperatures and pressures of likely interest. There are 4.187 kJ/kcal, The product of the steam demand and the enthalpy difference at each condition yields the amount of heat required for steam generation, in

2,

3!

+.

5.

6.

7.

-40-

this case in thousa]]ds of kJ/h.

8.

COnservati\, e practice requires that the heat requirement reflect losses to surroundings, An allowance of l,j percent is usually considered adequate. The adjusted quantity is the amount of heat which must be extracted from the exhaust gas. The quantity of exhaust gas at each condition and its temperature are best obtained from an engine specification, Where these data are Ot available the guidelines of 5.5 can be applied. Most manufacturers warn of a tolerance on gas flOw rates of +/- 5%. If the gas flow rate is 5% higher than the specified flow, the gas temperature will be lower by 10 to 15C. Conser\rative practice calls for these estimates to be based on the worst case, which is usually with flow increased by 5% and gas temperature reduced by ljC, The drop in gas temperature in the waste heat boiler can be estimated from the following relation:

9.

10.

where: AT = the gas temperature drop, C H=ew = the adjusted heat requirement, kJ/h the mass flow rate of the gas, kg/h mg = the specific heat of the gas at the avera%e temperature in the CP = boiler, from Figure 5-1. 11. The waste heat boiler contains water and steam at the saturation temperature corresponding to the steam pressure, so that heat Can be reco~, ered only up to the point that the exit gas temperature is reduced to the saturation temperatllre of the steam plus the terminal temperature difference, The saturation temperature at 8 bars is 170C, so that in the example of Table 7-2, using the guideline temperature difference of 10C from Table 7-1, the lowest achievable gas temperature would be abOut 180c. As long as the calculated gas temperature at the boiler exit exceeds this value, sufficient heat can be recovered to meet the specified demand,

When lower generating pressures are used or for bilers fitted with ycOnOmizers (see below), lower gas exit temperatures are possible, In anY e~. ent, however, the gas exit temperature should not be permitted to fall below about 160C because of the danger of acid attack when sulfur-bearing fuels are used. It should be noted that even distillate fuels can contain sulfur (see Table 3-l). Usually, the results of the preliminary investigation will indicate that sufficient heat can be recovered for basic ships services at most or all expected operating conditions, Thisalone may be an adequate preliminary conclusion. Alternatively: If the gas temperature is well above the minimum for uost of the conditions, the Potential of further recovery may be considered, with the -41-

TRBLE 7-2 PRELIMINARY EXHfiUST G6S HERT BALANCE main engine: !O,000 bkW 10U speed diesel ambient condition: winter main engine output, %MCR steam for LO and hotel needs, kg/h steam for fuel oil heating, kg/h total steam demand, kg/h steam pressure, bars absolute steam enthalpy, kJ/kg feeduater enthalpy, k. J/kg enthalpy increase in boiler, kJ/kg heat for steam generation, 1000 kJ;h adJusted heat requirement, 1000 k. J/h adjusted e.haust gas flow, mg, kg/h adJusted e>:haust gas temperature, C specific heat of gas, k: J/k. g-C e..hau5t gas temperature drop, C esiimated ga5 temper~ture ?.iboiler s..:it ,C 10j4 1050 61000 255 70 80 360 440 85 80 440 520 B 2769 419 2350 I3a7 1407 74000 a7000 255 25s 1.0s 16 i5 240 I00 80 510 590 (1) (2) (3) (4)

(5) (G)

(7) (8) (9) (9)

16 233

(10) (11)

-42-

additional steam uost likely used for cargo services or for a waste heat turbogenerator. A detailed exploration of this potential might be premature if the data used in the preliminary analysis are too general. If it appears that sufficient heat can be recovered for basic aervicea for some conditions but is uarginal for others, and the extent to which the data used are general or approximate has been taken into account, then modest sophistication of the recovery cycle uight be justified, along the lines laid out in Section 7.3, If the uarginal condition would only occasionally be encountered, for example, only in the coldest environment, the likelihood of encountering tbe aasumed conditions and the potential use of an oil-fired boiler to supplement the steam supply should be considered, Enhanced heat recovery

7.3

7.3.1 Economizers A basic waste heat recovery steam system is shown in Figure 9.9-1, Where a boiler containa only water at the saturation temperature corresponding to the steam presstlre, heat can be recovered only up to the point that the exit gas temperature is reduced to tbe saturation temperature of the steam plus the terminal temperature difference. If the steam pressure is high enough so that the hea~, iest fuels can be heated, then the lowest gas temperature will still be in excess of the lower limit of about 160C cited above. This is illustrated in the temperature diagram of Figure 7-1, at the pinch point, Fitting an economizer in the gas path enables this residue of heat to be removed from the gas by the feedwater. h economizer ia shown in the waste heat boiler of Figure 9.9-2. When an ecorlomizer is fitted, with feedwater entering the economizer at drain tank temperature (or even up to about 140C), the outside surface of the economizer tubes Kill be below the acid dew point temperature even though the bulk temperature in the gas stream is above it, thereby inviting acid condensation and attack. One means of avoiding this problem is by economizer recirculation: in the form shown in Figure 9.9-2, water from the discharge of the circulating pump is injected into the feedwater stream at the economizer inlet. The addition of feedwater heaters to the cycle (see below) will also avoid this problem. 7.3.2 Feedwater heaters The amount of steam produced by a waste heat boiler can often be increased bs preheating the feedwater. It should be noted that if the feedwater ia preheated above a temperature of about.150C, it cannot be used to reduce the gas exit temperature leaving an economizer to the lower limit of about 160C so that, in terms of efficiency, nothing would be gained, although the problem of acid condensation would be avoided. With reference to Section 7.2, note 6, while simple steam cycles supplying heating needs enjoy a drain tank temperature at or near 100C, drain tanka of cycles incorporating a turbogenerator with a vacuum condenser will run at considerably lower temperatures. In these cycles, the problem of cold feedwater is more acute and therefore a feed beater uay be even more

-43-

FIGURE

7-1

TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR SINGLE PRESSURE SATURATED STEAM BOILER, WITH ECONOMIZER

L
z w
n z w +

ENGINE EXHAUST

TEMP

SATURATION TEMP WATER/STEAM .TEMP 1 q

*

GAS EXIT TEMPERATURE WITH ECONOMIZER FEED TEMP

GENERATING BANK

ECONOMIZER - ~-

FIGURE
TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM WASTE HEAT BOILER

7-2
FOR WITH DUAL PRESSURE SUPERHEATER

- ENGINE EXHAUST U u 3 + a w u L x u +

TEMP PINCH POINT

-SHTR OUTLET \ TEMP HP SATURATION TEMP S[:D STEAM

l/GAs

TEMP p;:?

4% LP SATD _ STEAM LP SATURATION TEMP II

~-

GAS EXIT TEMPERATORE FEED TEMP

SUPER HEATER

HIGH PRESSURE GENERATING BANK

LOW PRESSURE * GENERATING BANK

-44-

berleficial. Fitti]]ga deaerating feed heater in these cycles will also address the fact that the drain tank temperature ia depressed below saturation, eliminating any possibility of deaeration 1 the tank, 7.3,3 Iiulti-pressureboilers The qual)tityof steam produced from exhaust gas can be enhanced if it is recognized that, while there is a need for steam at a sufficiently high presst]reto ensure adequate fuel heating, other services can utilize steam generated at lower pressures, Figure 7-2 ia a temperature diagram for a dual pressure boiler fitted with a superheater, shown schematically in Figure 9.9-3. In this example, feedwater is supplied to both steam drums directly from feed heaters, already at 150c, With careful selection of parameters and the use of charge air feed heating, a dual pressure boiler uight produce 20 to 30 percent more steam than a single pressure boiler constrained to the higher pressure, for the same application. 7,4 Heat recovery at the charge air coolers

The temperature at which air enters the coolers of a turbocharged engine at high output may make it an attractive source for heat recovery. Most engines are designed for air manifold temperatures of 45 to 50C, although higher temperatures may be encountered in engines usi]lgoutput-dependent cooling systems when operated at reduced output. Because only a portion of the heat can be usefully recovered, a heat recovery cooler is built with its cooling side divided into sections, with the final section in tbe direction of air flow reserved for e]>ginecooling water. The heat recovery sections may be arra]~gedin series, xith the highest temperature section at the inlet, These sections may be circulated with the fluid being heated (feedwater, for a feed heater) or with an intermediate thermal fluid, which might be pressurized xater or a prol]rietary fluid. IIIi!~vestigati]~g tilefeasibility of heat reco~ery at the air coolers, the following procedure uight be followed: 1. Estimate the quantity of Ileatrequired for each of the uses under study, and at each output of the engine under consideration, For some uses, and in the absence of more specific data, Section 6.3 can provide guidance. Determine the temperature at which the heat must be available, bearing in uind the temperature difference between the air and the medium being heated, using Table 7-1 for guidance. Section 5.6 and Figure 5-3 provide guidance on air temperature to expect at the charge air cooler inlet. When several uses Bear in mind the effects of partial engine output. are contemplated, consider the use requiring the highest temperature first. Calculate the temperature drop of the charge air which will result from the heat extraction, using the following relation: AT=+ *P where: -45-

2.

3.

AT Q= ma =

CP

= tileair tempepatredrop, c the adjusted heat requirement, kJ/h the mass flow rate of the air, kg/h; manufacturers data should be used in preference to the approximations of Section 5,5; the mass flow must reflect the engine output under consideration the specific heat of the air at the average temperature over the range under considerate On (hi~h nay require ~ reiteration), from Figure 5-1

Subtracting this temperature drop from the temperature of the air entering the cooler will yield the temperature at which the air is available fOr t], e next use. 4. Repeat step 3 for successive uses,

As long as the temperature of the air calculated in step 3 above is in excess of the design air manifold temperature at the engine output under consideration, the contemplated use is at least initially feasible. i,5 Waste heat turbogeneratOr (wHTG) cycles

ihe polferlevel at which sl)fficient waste heat can be re~~ver~d to meet the electrical load is highly plant-specific,depending on exhaust gas quantity and temperature, on steam conditions, on competing needs for heating Steam, on the actllalconfigtlrationof the heat reco~,ery plant and on the efficiency of the turbogenerator, as well as on the ships electrical requirements, Generally a WHTG cannot supply even the basic electrical needs of ships with less than about 20,000 bkW at MCR under all reasonable ambient conditions unless regularly supplemented, perhaps by u eans suggested in Section 9.2. Fig~lre7-3 is offered as a example. For a particular range of low speed engi]les with dual presst]reboilers, using heat recovery at the engine air cooler aod operated at 85% of MCR, the available turbogenerator output under the most favorable ambient conditions (summer) matches the minimum average service load with a main engine output of some 8000 bkW (i.e., from an engine xith a rating of abolltg500 bkw: point A in the figure). The power level at which the electrical 10ad 1s completely cOvered under all rea~OIlable conditions and with sufficient margin to meet normal peak load peaks, is about liOOO bkW (from an engine rated at almost 20000 bkW, point D in the figure). These crossover points will be considerably higher with simpler cycles or higher electrical load, but can be lowered by further sophistication of the waste heat cycle or by reducing the electrical load by increased use Of poer take-off for auxiliaries. Schematic diagrams of WHTG plants appear as Figures 9.9-2 and 9.9-3. Guidance in the selection of steam and exhaust conditions and uethods of assessing ~TG performance and the output of these plants is presented in Appendices B and c, 7,6 Exhaust gas tllrbines High efficiency turbochargers are Ofte able to SUDDIY .== sufficient combustion air without using all of the exhaust gas flow. In these csses there is the potential for excess exhaust gas to be sed in an exhaust gas turbine -46-

FIGURE
OUTPUT

7.3

OF WASTE HEAT TURBOGENERATOR WITH DUALPRESSURE WASTE HEAT BOILER SUMMER AND WINTER; 85% MCR

1100 AVAILABLE (SUMMER) DUTPUT

900 1

AVAILABLE (WINTER)

DUTPUT LOAD

PEAK SERVICE 700 B AVERAGE

SERVICE LOAD

500 -A

1 300 8000

I 10000

I 12000

I 14000

I 16000

I 18000

I 20000

i 22000

MAIN ENGINE bkw AT MCR

driving a uechanical load. Three of the uany possible configurations are: (a) .Anexhaust gas turbine-driven generator (b) An exhaust gas turbine geared to the engine output shaft forming, in effect, a combined cycle or turbo-comuound arrangement. The Dower contributed by the turbine can be up ~o 5% of the total.
r.. -

(c) A combination of these, in which the exhaust gas turbine is connected at the power take-off gear of an engine fitted with a shaft-driven generator.

8.0 8.1

POWER TAKE-OFF UTILIZATION Power take-offs

Power take-offs (PTOS) uake use of the uain engine to drive auxiliary machinery. This allows the utilization of the-high thermal efficiency of the main engine for these services, as well as its ability to burn low-quality fuel. The use of gears in PTOS allows a near optimum speed to be selected for the driven unit. The mechanical efficiency of a geared PTO is in the range of 96 to 98%. There is flexibility in the location of the driven unit because the location of power take-off and the layout of the gears can be varied. PTOS using V-belts provide similar advantages, albeit at lower efficiency, and have been fitted in low power applications. 8.2 Electrical generation from power take-offs

If the uain engine is used to produce all of the at-sea electrical load through a PTO, the auxiliary diesels can be secured at sea. An engine-driven generator can be built onto a length of line shafting, or may be driven through step-up gearing to obtain a more economical speed. See Section 6.1 for the estimation of electric load. If the ship is fitted with a controllable-pitch propeller, the speed of the main engine is normally constant at sea. Constant generator speed and frequency can then be provided by a geared PTO. The efficiency of this system to the generator coupling is approximately 94%. (It should be noted however, that tbe efficiency of the controllable-pitch propeller can be expected to be less than an equivalent fixed-pitch propeller,) On ships with fixed-pitch propellers, where the speed of the uain engine varies, a method is needed to supply a constmt frequency. A variety of systems have been used to solve this problem, including the following: 1. DC generator-DC motor-AC generator system. The efficiency is approximately 80 to 85x to the AC generator coupling. 2. AC generator-DC rectifier-speedcontrolled DC motor-AC generator system. The efficiency is approximately 80 to 85% to the final AC generator coupling.

-48-

3. Thyristor frequency converter (AC generator-DC rectifier-DC to AC inverter). The efficiency is approximately 80 to 90% at the inverter terminals. 4. Varying frequency of ships service electrical supply. A variation in frequency from approximately 50 HZ to 60 Hz, corresponding to the ul]corrected variation in main engine speed over its normal range of operation, is acceptable if pump characteristics and margins are suitable.

5. Controlled-speed gear for constant-speed AC generator. Various forms of this system use an epicyclic step-up geara in series with hydraulic speed adjustment to provide a continuously varying ratio so that constant output speed for the AC generator is obtained with varying input speed. These units are normally matched to operate with an input speed of 70 to 100% of the main engine RPM, The efficiency is approximately 87 to 95% to the AC generator coupling, with peak efficiency obtained at input speeds requiring the least correction. 8.3 Pumps driven from power take-offs

Most low-speed engines are fitted with independent motor-driven LO, Fo, jacket water and sea water pumps, Many medium-speed engines and most high-speed engines are fitted with engine-driven pumps, although most uanufacturers will supply their engines with or without attsched pumps, When the auxiliary pumps are motor-driven, the power required to drive the pumps is not included in the engine power but must be supplied by the generators. The quoted power output is then the power available at the shaft and the quoted fuel consumption is for the hare engine. For engines with engine-driven auxilisry pumps tbe power required to drive the pumps 1s Ilornally subtracted from the engine power and the quoted power output of the engine is usually what is available at the flywheel. Because tbe practice varies however, even for a single engine model, performance data qOted by an engine uanufacturer must be checked to verify that it reflects the specific configuration under consideration. The power required to drive the auxiliary pumps varies with the engine uanufacturer and the size of the engine, Substantial variations in power to drive auxiliary pumps can occur in the same engine depending on the cooling system option chosen. The power required to drive the auxiliary pumps on a typical diesel engine can be estimated as 1.5 to 3.5 % of the maximum rating of the engine. The engine uanufacturer should be consulted to determine the specific pump performance requirements for the engine being considered. The figures above, while generally applicable to medium and high speed engines, do not include any allowance for reduction gear LO and cooling water pumps. If reduction geara are fitted, separate allowance should be made for these pumps,

-49-

9.0 9.1

SUPWRT SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT Automation and control

Marine diesel plants are generally designed with centralized and automatic control and uonitoring of functions and systems. Bridge control of the uain engine is normal. Most merchant ships are certified for operation under normal conditions with machinery spaces unattended. Details of these systems are considered beyond the scope of this bulletin: the user is referred to SNAME T&R Bulletin 3-46. 9.2 Electric generating plant

Regulatory body requirements generally demand a minimum of two ships service generator sets, each of sufficient capacity to carry the essential sea load. Conservative practice will usually increase the number of ships service generators to at least three. These ships service sets are in addition to the emergency electric power source (usually another generator) which is required to be independent and separately located. While the obvious prime mover for a ships service generator will be a diesel engine, alternati~,es include the following, also summarized in Table 9-1: Ships service diesel generators (SSDGS) may be intended for operation on distillate fuel, blended or other heavy fuel. Where the SSDGS are to be the normal source, there is an economic incentive to fit diesel engines suitable for heavy fuel, with the associated support systems. Support systems for HFO-burning SSDGS may include HFO tanks, purifiers, blenders and heaters, as well as a 00 system, all often in addition to main engine systems. If the SSDGS can be operated on the same grade of heavy fuel as the main engine, fuel systems can be combined. It should be noted that there may then be increases in acquisition and maintenance costs and in plant wei<ht and ~rolllme. Where the uain engine output is large enough and the electrical needs sufficiently limited, enough steam can be generated by the main engine exhaust gases to meet the essential sea load with a waste heat turbogenerator (see Section 7.5). In this case the waste heat turbogenerator (WHTG) may serve as one of the ships service generators. Even where a WHTG can meet only part of the demand with steam from the waste heat boiler, it uay still be economically justified, with the balance of the electrical demand uet by supplemental steam from oil-fired boilers, from an attached generator or from SSDGS. In addition to the reduced fuel use, a properly designed and attended waste heat steam plant can have lower maintenance costs than a continuously run diesel generator. Increases in acquisition cost, plant complexity, weight (especially the topside weight of the boiler) and volume are likely to be significant. Attached generators driven through power take-off (~0) gear (see SectiOn ,8.0) from the uain engine, reduction gear or line shaft offer an attractive alternative for one or more of the SSDGS, applicable to plats of any size. A key consideration is usually a means to uaintain constant frequency electrical supply, although floating frequency systems are

-50-

h iqhest
101., ma,y

10I.J t,,hi gh 1O&! may be 1oI,Jest 10LIto high 1Ow use SSDG CFP, speed or frequencg correct iC,I1

be lowest IOtl

1OLI

occasionally considered. Increases in acquisition cost and plant weight will be significant if main engine rating must be higher to accommodate the attached generator, and especially if frequency or speed correction is necessary. Maintenance and fuel costs of an attached generator are likely to be lower than those of a continuously run diesel generator. There is the possibility of combining prime movers for a single ship~s ~ervice generator. An example is an attached generator driven through a constant output speed transmission by the main engine, which also accommodates input from a waste heat steam turbine and perhaps from a waste heat gas turbine. While such systems can minimize fuel consumption by combining the positive features of the constituent prime movers, some of their negative features will also be present, and perhaps compounded. In the simplest case, all ships service generators will be of equal rated output to simplify uaintenance and provide flexibility in operation, In this case one generator is normally in service, with at least one SSDG on automatic standby. During maneuvering periods two SSDGS may be run in parallel, Shortterm peak loads encountered, for example while running a bow thruster or {$orkingcargo, might best be met by operating two or more generator either in parallel or with a split bus, As a rule of thumb, diesel generators should not be loaded to less than about 35% of their rated output in sustained operation. Where there is a disparity between loads at aea and in port, or between loads on one leg of a \,oyageand another, differently rated units may be installed to meet the differing demands, or units might be operated in parallel routinely during periods of high demand, The a~,eragesea load can be estimated from the guidelines of Section 6.1. The corresponding rated output of a generator to meet this load can be taken as a round number, 20 to 25% greater than the avera%e load, allowing for fluctuate. ons in the load and to provide a mar~in for limited future growth, SSDG fuel consumption can be estimated from one of the following relations: Mf = SFC kWe
n ga m, =

(SFC,, t)(kWe)

where: mf SFC = = fuel consumption, kg/h brake specific fuel consumption of the engine, kg/kW-h, adjusted in accord with Sections 5.1 snd 5,2 specific fuel consumption of the generator set, kg/kWe-h, adjusted in accord with Sections 5.1 and 5,2 average electrical load carried by the SSDG, kWe generator efficiency; unless better data are available, valuea can be taken from Figures 9.2-1 snd 9.2-2

SFCset = kWe nga = =

Because of the high noise level of diesel generators, and because one or more will be running in port even when the main plant is available for maintenance, there is an incentive to locate the SSDGS together, behind an acoustic

-52-

FIGURE 9.2-1
AC GENERATOR EFFICIENCY

)0

1500

2( )0

2500

3000

RATED GENERATOR

LOAD, kWe

FIGURE 9.2-2
AC GENERATOR LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

PERCENT OF RATED LOAD

partition. The same purpose uay be served f the SSDGS are placed low in the engine rOOm, For ships fitted with diesel-electric propu.sion, consideration should be given to integration of the ships service requirements with the propulsion plant. See Section 4.3.5.
9.3

Fuel systems

A typical fuel system must be capable of handling blended and other heavy fuel oil (HFO) as well as distillate fuel oil (M) and can be subdivided into separate filling and tranafer systems, treatment systems and a fuel oil forwarding (or service) system. 9.3.1 Fi11ing and transfer systems

The filling and transfer system enables all bunker tanka to be filled from pumps aahore or aboard a bunker barge. The arrangement of the system should enable fresh fuel to be bunkered with minimal mixing with fuel already on board. There should be the ability to transfer fuel from bunker tanks back aahore or to a barge alongside. The DO filling and transfer system is a simplified version of the HFO system, with fewer tanks and no need for heat tracing or isulatlon. g.3,~ Fuel-treatment systems

Fuel treatment systems (Figure 9.3-1) include the settling tanks and purifiers which enable uoat of the water and solids in the fuels to be removed. While clean distillate fuels are sometimes considered suitable for cOmbuatiOn in diesel engines without any treatment other than settling and filtration, given current refining practices it is advisable to centrifuge even the distillate fuel. In normal operation fuel is transferred directly into the settling tanks from the bunker tanks, but passes to the day tanks only via the purifiers. Where space permits, two HFO settlers should be fitted, each of 24 hour capacity, so that fuel can settle undisturbed for an extended period. This will reduce the burden on the purifiers. To avoid drawing settled water and sediment into the purifier, settling tanka should have sloped bottoms, with the suction connection at the upper end, rising about 50 mm into the tank, At least two purifiers should be provided, intended for full time operation in either series or parallel. The rated capacity of each purifier should at least meet the uain engine consumption at MCR with at least a 10% margin to allow for cleaning and other maintenance. It should be noted that, at their rated throughput, some purifiera will provide only marginally acceptable performance, necessitating higher margins. Moat purifiers are sludge-ejecting units which operate automatically between manual cleanings, which may occur monthly, weekly or u ore often, depending upon the quality of the fuel, Frequently, one of the HFO purifiers ia arranged to standby for a single DO purifier, as shown, Alternatively, a duplicate LO purifier may be be~ter matched for standby DO service.

-55-

FROM FILL & TRANSFER SYSTEMS c MOISTURE TRAP m

+

T
MIXING

I
I

COLUMN

HFO DAY ,TANK

J HFO SETT TANK

HFU SETT TANK

DiY TANK

DO SETT TANK \

METER I

TO SS Gs AND B[ LER

SUCTION STRAINER BOOSTER PUMPS

FILTERS HEATERS w

FIGURE
TYPICAL FUEL TREATMENT

9.3-1
AND FORWARDING SYSTEM

Purifier feed PUMPS uay be attached, positive displacement units, with throughput controlled by dumping back to tbe suction, or they may be independent, motor-driven, variable displacement units. In most installations, oil leaves the purifiers under sufficient head to reach the day tanks but where this is not the case discharge pumps uust be fitted. If the day tank is fitted with overflow lines to the settlers, the purifiers can run continuously, independent of main engine consumption. HFO must be heated close to the boiling point of water to facilitate purification and this hot oil input to the day tank can alone force the day tank temperature above the flash point. Consequently, some installation are fitted with a fuel cooler in the HFO purifier discharge line. 9.3.3 Fuel forwarding system

The fuel forwarding system (Figure 9.3-1) supplies fuel to tbe engine at the correct viscosity, To limit tbe cooling of HFO between the heaters and the engine, and to ensure constant pressure at tbe injection pumps, a flow rate equal to two or three times engine consumption at MCR ia maintained, with the unconsumed excess recirculated. Recirculated fuel usually returns to a uixing tank to join fuel from the day tank. The mixil]gtank helps to avoid overheating of the day tank, ia intended to enable the change over from hot HFO to cold DO to occur gradually and to permit vaporized lighter fractions in recirculated HFO to vent. In some plants there is no mixing tank and recirculated fuel returns directly to the day tank. In the arrangement of Figure 9.3-1, the uixing tank is supplied by gravity from the day tank and ita bottom must therefore be lower than the bottom of the day tank, while the top must be higher than the top of the day tank. gevertheleaa, to faci1itate a reasonably rapid changeover from one fuel to the other, the volume of the mixing tank must be limited, and consequently the mixing tank is uost often configured as a pipe column. Because of the high temperatures to which the heavieat fuels uust be heated and the increased amount of gas formation which would occur at atmospheric pressures, some engine uanufacturers recommend that the hot circuit of the forwarding system be designed as a closed and pressurized loop. This requires an additional set of low pressure booster pumps to feed the mixing tank from the day tank, but the mixing tank can then be u ore conveniently proportioned and located. Venting of gas which forms in the pressurized loop uust be through a relief valve. Booster pumps are fitted in duplicate and are usually of the positive displacement, rotary type. While the booster pumps will normally handle partly preheated oil, they must also be capable of handling DO on occaaion, as well as cold HFO being recirculated while the system is brought up to operating conditions. At least two fuel heaters should be fitted, each with sufficient capacity to heat the heaviest fuels likely to be encountered, and each conservatively rated in regard to fouling margins. The steam supply to the heaters is controlled by the viscosimeter, which must be sited in close proximity to the injection pumps.

-57-

Fhen a ships auxiliary engines are fitted for operatiO on HFO, the forwarding system uay be duplicated on an appropriate scale, and may incorporate an on-line blending unit. If the auxiliary engines are to be operated on HFO when steam is unavailable, an electric fuel heater must be pro~, ided in parallel with the steam heaters, A final fuel filter is fitted after the heatera so that filtration is facilitated by the reduced viscosity. This filter serves principally as a backup to the purifiers. It may be a fine uesh, self-cleaning unit as shown, or a disposable-element type of even finer uesh. All of the HFO piping in the forwarding system, sometimes including the filters and pumps, is likely to be steam (or electric) traced and insulatea, 9.4 Compressed air systems

A typical compressed air system is shown in Figure 9.4-1. The system can be di~ridedinto three segments providing air for main and auxiliary engine starting, air for instrumentation and control and ,air for miscellaneous ships services. The miscellaneous services include: service air for hand tools, blowing down and cleaning blowing out sea chests pressl~rizing fresh and potable water tanks OPerating air for quick closing valves

Because the maneuverability of a ship is tied to the availability of starting air, the mi!]imum number and size of the starting air receivers uust comply with requirements of the regiatory bOdy. Typically, sufficient air uust be a~, ailable to enable at least six consecutive starts of a non-reversing engine, or twelve of a direct reversing engit)e. This volume of air must be available without recharging in at least two receivers. The main air receivers are tlormally high pressure, up to 30 bars, in order to reduce the size of the receivers. The uain air receivers will normally be filled by two large air compressors. Make LIPdue to normal usage is usually done by a smaller topping up air compressor. If normal ships service consumption is limited, this air may be supplied from the main air receivers. If the ships service usage is expected to be large, a separate low pressure air compressor may be pro~, ided. A separate, small auxiliary air receiver is usually provided for starting the auxiliary engines, normally supplied from the starting main air through a stop check valve. For cold ship start up the auxiliary air receiver may be supplied by a emergency air compressor which may be driven by, for e~~ple, ~ hand-started diesel engine or a motor supplied from the emergency switchboard. Other services are usually supplied at a lower pressure via a pressure reducing valve. The control air system is most often supplied from an independent, oil-free control air compressor end a separate receiver, via a drier. Standby service may be through a cross-connection from the ships service system or, through a reducing valve, from the starting air system. 9.5 Lubrication Systems

Motorship lubricating oil (LO) systems are complex because of the number of

-58-

.A

SAR = STARTING AIR RECEIVER SAC = STARTING AIR COMPRESSOR TAC = TOPPING AIR COMPRESSOR EAR = EMERGENCY AIR RECEIVER EAC = EMERGENCY AIR CDMPRESSUR SSAR = SHIPS SERVICE AIR RECEIVER SSAC = SHIPS SERVICE AIR COMPRESSOR CAR = CDNTROL AIR RECEIVER CAC = CONTROL AIR COMPRESSOR

E
SAR 1 SEPARATOR

MAIN ENGINE TO DISTRIBUTOR PILUT VALVES

TO STARTING AIR VALVES

*

GENERATUR

m VA
.-

SHIP,S SERVICES

AA

CONTROL 4 AIR

~{

FIGURE
TYPICAL

9.4-1
AIR SYSTEM
-59-

COMPRESSED

:rades of oil required. A geared, medium speed diesel plant may require different grades of oil for the main and auxilisry engines, and other grades for gearing and uiscellaneous uses. A LO system for a low speed diesel plant may invol~re at least two grades of oil for the main engine (one for the circulating system and the other for the cylinders) and another for the auxiliary engines. 9.5.1 Main engine LO circulating system

.4typical circulating oil system appears in Figure 9.5-1. Oil draining from bearings and cooling passages to the bottom of the crankcase passes into an , independent sllmpbuilt into the double bottom below the engine, from which it is drawn by the LO circulating pump for redistribution via a cooler and filter. The suction bellmouths clear the bottom by about 100 mm to avoid ingesting water or sediment. In smaller engines the additional cost and complexity of a drain tank is often eliminated in favor of a wet sump formed by the crankcase bottom. The drain tank or wet sump must be so designed that suction will be maintained at the most extreme conditions of list, trim and sloshing. For a wide range of low speed engines and large medium speed engines, independent drain tanks will contain O.5-to-l.5 kg/bkW, with the bkW taken at the highest p~]blisbed rating of the engine. The LO circulating pumps are most often positive displacement rotary pumps, and in larger plants are fitted in duplicate. Both pumps are motor-driven in installations with low speed diesels, but higher speed engines are often fitted with an engine driven pump, relying on the motor-driven pump for standby service. With very large engines, three motor-driven pumps may be ~]sed,with two rllnning and one on standby, to ease the starting load. Each pump will have a coarse suction strainer for its own protection. Providing each pump with its own suction line is an advisable precaution. As an ~~ternative to the positive displacement pumps, deep well centrifugal PumPs may be ~lsed. A full flow filter is provided in the PUMP discharge line. It may be of the duplex, basket type but better filtration will be provided by a disposableelement or self-cleaning simplex unit, with a standby filter in a bypass. Filtered oil is distributed to engine bearings, for governing and control service, to valve gear and, on trunk piston engines as well as some crosshead engines, for piston cooling. Some of these services may require higher pressure oil, which can be obtained by fitting booster pumps in the line orby providing a second, higher pressure circulating system. Usually LO ia silpplied to turbocharger bearings from the circulating oil system, but some turbochargers are provided with their own, self-contained LO system, permitting the use of differently formulated oil. In either case the turbochargers must be providedwith an emergency supply of LO, as they will continue to spin at high speed following a LO failure. The system shown includes a gravity tank for this purpose. In crosshead engines, the crmkcase and the circulating oil are isolated by the piston rod packing from contamination by combustion products blowing by the piston rings, whereas this kind of contamination in trunk piston engines

-60-

FROM DECK FILL CnNNFCTIDh --, ----- . . I

D
CYL OIL STG TANK CYL OIL STG TANK I I I

I .~

MEASURING TANK

DRAIN TO SUMP

LO COOLER TO<j-~ CYLINDER OIL INJECTORS

CRANKCASE VENT

TO GOVERNRR AND CONTROL CIRCUITS

\

/ ~~

TANK TOP / /

SUMP

STRAINERS CIRCULATING PUMPS

COFFERDAM

FIGURE
TYPICAL MAIN
-61-

9.5-1
LUBE OIL SYSTEM

ENGINE

is usually inevitable. Consequently, while a straight mineral oil with corrosion and oxidation inhibitors is usually recommended for the circulating oil of most crosshead engines regardless of the fuel in use, for trunk piston engines it is a detergent oil with alkaline additives (measured as total base number or TBN) uatched to the likely sulfur content of the fuel to be burned, which is usually recommended. While the circulating oil in a crosshead engine rarely requires replacement in the normal course of events, this is not usually the case with trunk piston engines, where, in most cases, the LO must be renewed periodically. The life of trunk piston engine LO, already extended by the regular addition of fresh make-up oil to compensate for oil burned in cylinder lubrication, can be further extended by taking such extra measurea as the fitting of additional, extra-fine filtration loops and, if necessary, the occasional addition of chemical additive packages to the oil. 9.5.2 Main engine cylinder oil system

Crosshead engines, and some trunk-piston engines, are fitted with independent cylinder oil systems for lubrication Of the pistO rings. A typical system ia shown in the Figure 9,5-1, The cylinder oil is stored in one or, preferably, two tanks and is transferred daily to a small capacity measuring tank, from which it passes by gravity to the cylinder lubricators on the engine. A separate tank, sized to meet the running-in requirements of one or two cylinders, uay also be pro}! ided. The lubricator are precisely calibrated injectors mechanically dri~, en by the engine, timed to inject a metered qua]]tity of the oil into the cylinder as the piston ring pack rises paat the injection points. The oil is ultimately consumed. Because the quantities of oil in,jected per stroke are small, the ueasuring tank enables consumption to be determined accurately as a drop in level over an elapsed time period. oil, with a TBN uatched to the Cylinder oil is a high viscosity mineral anticipated stllfur content of the fuel. Two cylinder oil storage tanks pro\, ide flexibility in this regard by enabling cylinder oil of different TBN t~ be carried, Cyli[lder oil storage tanks are often filled from deck by gravity, a fact which may preclude filling the measuring tank from the storage ta]]ks by gravity as well, necessitating a small hand or motor-driven transfer pump. In most trunk piston engines, cylinder lubrication is accomplished with circulating oil, which usually reaches the ring pack and cylinder liner walls by a controlled leakage from the wrist pin bearing. In some trunk-piston engines, oil is injected for cylinder lubrication in the same msnner as c~,lillder oil in low speed engines, in most cases using oil taken from the circulating system, although some engines have independent cylinder oil supplies. 9.5.3 LO storage, transfer and purification system

Smaller high speed engines uay rely solely on filtration and occasional oil changes to maintain the quality of the circulating oil, but most larger engines are arranged for continuous bypass purification. using centrifugal purifiers, aa shown in Figure 9.5-2, ~rifiers are usually sized to circulate the entire contents of the drain tank three or four times per day.
-62-

FROM DECK FILL

1
*

H
MAIN ENG. SET+!ING TANK

MAIN ENG. ST::AGE TANK

TO MISC SERVICES

TO DECK

L.D. RANSFE PUMP P

oo
t

LUBE OIL SEPARATOR

LUBE OIL SEPARATDR

TO / FROM ME SUMP ~

L
TYPICAL LUBE OIL

USZD LO TANK

FIGURE
STORAGE

9.5-2
AND
-63-

TREATMENT

SYSTEM

Two purifiers are shown but one is a standby unit. It may be possible, by means of blanked cross connections or shared components, tO rely on a reserve FO purifier for standby. Normally, tbe purifier draws from a bellmouth in the suction well of the drain tank or sump, returning the oil to the forward end of the same tank to avoid short circitig, The purifier suction will generally be located aft of the circulating pump suction, and lower, about 50 mm above the tsnk bottom, to draw water before it reaches the Circlatlng pump suctions. The suction line size uust small enough to produce a velocity sufficient to carry water and sediment to the purifier. The main LO storage tank, with a capacity at least equal to one charge for each engine it serves, plus sufficient margin to meet miscellaneous needs, is filled from deck by gravity, while the settling tank is normally empty. Should an engines circulating oil be massively contaminated, for example by water, it can be transferred to the settler using the transfer pump, and fresh oil brought down from the storage tank. If the oi1 cannot then be redeemed by a combination of settling and purification, it can be discharged ashore or to a barge for reclamation, Modern purifiers tend to be self-cleaning and fully automated, Generally purifier feed pumps are attached, positive displacement units, requiring the LO purifiers to be located on the floor plates to uinimize the suction lift required from the main engine drain tank, An alternative arrangement would place a motor:-driven purifier feed pump on the floor plates, to provide u ore flexibility illpurifier location. In moat installations, oil leaves the purifiers under sufficient head to reach the settling tank but where thisis not the case! a discharge pump must be fitted. Each purifier is normally sized to circulate the main engine drain tank three to five times per day. Purifier connections can be provided for batch purification of auxiliary small quantities engine LO but are unlikely to be used, given the relati~,ely i]]~rolved, the fact that the alkaline-additive, detergent oil will require rene~al at intervals in any eve~]t,and the risk potential for contamination of the main engine oil. When auxiliary engines of substantial size are involved, however, a separate purifier may be justified, The fixed piping shown fOr filling and draining tbe auxiliary engine sumps may not be provided for smaller installations. AIIanalogous problem exists in medium speed diesel plants, where the reduction gear contains a straight mineral oil which is subject to water cotamlnati O from condensation within the gear case, but which would otherwise last indefinitely. Again because of the danger of contamination, in this case of the gear oil by the alkaline main engine oil, even when purifier connections are fitted they are unlikely to be used. Some operators fit water-absorbing filters in the gear lubrication system, others rely on occasional batch purification using a portable purifier or filter. 9.6 Fresh water generating plant

A shipboard fresh water production capability can be considered uandatory for oceangoing ships. Tbe selection and design of the fresh water generating plant and associated storage and distribution systems will be influenced by the required production rate, necessary water quality, ship tvpe and operating profile, the availability of a uotive heat source, reliability and acquisition

-64-

and operating costs. It should be noted that low pressure evaporators wil] not heat water sufficiently to kill bacteria, so that the distillate will require chlorination or other treatment to be potable, 9.6.1 Evaporator

The most frequently utilized fresh water generating plants are flash and submerged-surface low pressure evaporators. These units generally are operated with diesel engine jacket water aa motive heat sources and can be obtained in single, two or three-stage configurations. Single stage units are most common in uotor ships becauae of their lower first coat, weight and volume, and the facts that engine jacket water is available aa a uotive heat source while water quality requirements may not be particularly atrin<ent. Multi-stage evaporntora permit higher rates of production from a given amount of motive heat, and higher distillate quality at the expense of acquisition cost, weight, volume and complexity. Gel]erally, jacket water-heated evaporator are fitted with standby steam heating use in port at anchorages. The daily service load in uetric tons per day of fresh water generating plant production cu be estimated using the allowances in Section 6.2, To ensure that an adequate capacity will exist after the ship enters service, taking into consideration service load grol~th,peak demand periods and the effects of foulinq, aging, seawater temperature \rariations, etc., generating plant rated capacity should be calculated by multiplying the estimated requirement by 1.25. Tkis rated capacity ia based on the installation of two units each of which haa the output to meet the requirements. If a single unit, only, is to be installed, the above rating should be increased again by a factor of 1.25. For many ships with small complements and otherwise limited fresh water demand, the generating plant may be sized more to match the available heat tha!lthe act~laldemaild. The following information may be used in making preliminary estimates of steam consumption and/or engine jacket water flow requirements for flaah or submerged surface evaporator operation, baaed on service load and rated capacity estimatea. However, where possible and when available, manufacturer s data should be utilized to determine actual requirements.

TABLE 9.6-1 MOTIVE HEAT REQUIREMENTS FOR EVAPORATORS

fD, MJ per kg of distillate produced number of stages 1 2 3 submerged tube 2.8 1.5 1.1 flaah 3.3 1.8 1.4

-65-

Using a factor from the Table 9.6-1 or the equivalent uanufacturers data, ,jacketwater flow or hourly steam consumption required can be estimated from tilerelatio]lsbelow,
rn3/h =

1000

WPD

f~

24 CP (Ti-TO)
~PD f~ 106

where
M3 /}, =

ma =

24 hi

m, MTPD fD CP Ti,To hi

= = = =
u

Required jacket water flow hourly steam consumption rate, kg/h evaporato~ output, metric tons per day heat required from Table 9.6-1 specific heat of fresh water, 4,2 kJ/kg-C ,jacketwater temperature at evaporator inlet and outlet, C inlet enthalpy of heating steam, kJ/kg

Most evaporators will be fitted with motor driven vacuum pumps or sea waterdriven edllctorsin lieu of steam jet sir ejectOr~. NO further addltlon to tne electric load estimate of Section 6.1 is necessary for this purpose. If steam jet air ejectorsare fitted an additional allowance uust be made for air ejector stea-m, 9.6,2 Other types of desalinization plants

Other types of desalinization systems than evaporators may be emplOyed in motor \,esselsbecause of limitations impOsed by such fa~tor~ as installed engine output and operating profile (which affect waste heat availability), minimal or no steam heating plant capacity or because of large potable water requirements. In these situations! vapor compression and reverse ~~mosl~ Units might be fitted, These (!nitsare generally dri~en by electricity, and this additio!]zlelectrical ioad mist be added to the electric load estimate of Section 6.1, Figure 9,6-1 has beerlincluded to provide a preliminary estimate of total electrical power consumption for all pumps, compressors, etc. When available, manufacturer!s data shOuld be sed, 9.7 Fresh Water Cooling Systems

Figure g.7-1 illustrates t~~ical fresh water cOOling systems for a plant with a crosshead engine with water-cOOledpistons, and three diesel generators. The systems can be divided into separate systems for cooling main engine cylil]derjackets, main engine pistons, main engine injectors and the generator engines. There is trend toward increased use Of fresh water COO1ing for equipment previously cooled by aea water, with the lo,gicalextrapolation being a complete central fresh water cooling system in which fresh water is circulated from sea water cooled central heat exchangers to main engine and auxiliary machinery coolers. The central system may be divided into separate high and low temperature subsystems. The benefit of a central fresh water cooling system is in reduced maintenance, since only the central coolers are exposed to sea water. The added acquisition cost of a central cooling system may be partly offset by the reduced use of high cost materials.

-66-

FIGURE
POWER CONSUMPTION AND REVERSE

9.6-1

FOR VAPOR COMPRESSION OSMOSIS DISTILLERS

300

250

200

I : 1

150

100

50

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

DISTILLER OUTPUT, METRICTONS PER DAY

MAKE-UP

SSDG COOLING SYSTEM

~,,,-,p
FEED EXPN TANK EXPN ~ TANK

INJECTOR CUOLING SYSTEM

MAKE-UP FEED EXPN TANK

INJECTUR WATER CIRC PUMPS w /

TURBOCHARGER

41 ,11 II II II II

~~

PISTUN CDDLER
@ .

PISTON ;~R PUMPS

PISTON
COOLING SYSTEM

JACKET COOLING SYSTEM

JACKET WTR CIRC PUMPS EVAP

WATER DRAIN TANK

FIGURE
TYPICAL FRESH WATER

9.7-1
COOLING SYSTEM

9.7.1

Jacket water cooling system

The ,jacketcooling system shown is independent of the LO cooler and charge air cooler, which are, in this case, directly cooled by sea water. In other arrangements the jacket water uay be the coolant for the LO cooler and charge air cooler. An elevated expansion tank maintains a static head on the auction side of the system, and provides a convenient point for collecting vents, adding make up feed and adding chemicala for corrosion and scale inhibition. The turbocharger supply and return 1ines are shown, since even turbochargers with uncooled casings usually require cooling water for the turbine-end bearing. In either event, water flow uust be forced by an orifice in the bypass line, as shown. The jacket water circulating pumps uay be arranged upstream or downstream of the cooler. They are usually centrifugal pumps, and in larger plants are fitted in duplicate. %th pumps are motor-driven in installations with low speed diesels, but medium and high speed engines are often fitted with an engine driven pump, with a motor-driven pump for standby service. Most seagoing ships recover heat from the main engine jacket water for fresh water generation (see Section 9.6). rhefresh water generator is usually located ahead of the jacket cooler, and uay be fitted with supplemental steam or hot writerIleating coil for use when insufficient jacket water heat is available. A jacket water heater is used when the engine is idle. Maintaining the engine in a warm condition assists in minimizing corrosion and facilitates starting. 9.i,2 Piston cooling water system

Khile all trunk piston engines, as well as some crosshead engines, use oil to cool the pistons, a number of crosshead engines use a cooling water system separate from the jacket water system, The water reaches and leaves the I)istonsthrough telescoping tubes enclosed within compartments inside the crankcase in order to avoid contamination of the LO should a gland fail. Because of the high water temperature draining from the pistons and the resulting potential for flashing at the pump auction, some manufacturers recommend that deep well pumps immersed in the tank be used. Both pumps will be motor-driven. 9.7.3 Injector cooling system

Some engines are fitted with fuel injector cooling systems and others are not. In some cases injectors are cooled only through conduction to the hesds: in other cases they are circulated with water as part of the jacket cooling system, and sometimes they are circulated with diesel oil in a closed loop. When a separate injector water circuit is fitted, it is a scaled-down version of the jacket cooling system, often without a cooler, and with a steam coil in the expansion tank to maintain temperature at low engine output when use of HFO is intended. -69-

9.7.4

Di,eselgenerator cooling system

Allxiliary engines tend to have self-contained cooling circuits, with charge air cooler, cylinder jackets and LO cooler circulated by a single cooling pump on each engine. The system shown in Figure 9.7-1 combines these circuits into a common system with a central generator engine cooler and expansion tank, with a uotor-driven pump for each engine. This offers the advantage Of circulating the idle generator engines with warm cooling water as protection against corrosion, and enables the standby engine to start and pick up load u ore rapidly. Other means of achieving this goal exist. For reasons of reliability, many operators prefer that the auxiliary engines have separate cooling systems, 9.8 Sea water systems

Sea water systems include cooling services in tbe engine room and such ship service systems as ballast and fire main. Figure 9.8-1 is a typical example Water enters the system through high a]]dlow sea chests on opposite sides of the ship. The low sea suction is used at sea where it is more likely to remain immersed aa tileship rolis and pitches. The sea chests are connected by a large diameter cross connection, in this case with a valve on the center line. Suction strainers are installed adjacent to each of the sea chests. Sea water pumps take suction from the cross connection. When duplicate pumps for the same service are fitted, they will take ~uctlon from Opposite sides of the center line valve. Each sea chest is fitted with sea valves, vents, valves for steam/air blow-out and grati]lgs mounted flush with the hull. On tankers the high sea suction should be on the opposite side of the ship from the pump room ballast discharge, since both are likely to be t]sedin port, Where operation i freezing water is freyuent, the sea chests may be fitted with piped connections to introduce hot water from the overboard discharge or from separate steam heaters. Sea water pumps illsalt water service tend tO be high maintenance items ~d a desirable design goal would call for pumps of similar capacity to be identical, simplifying spare parts requirements in service. The main sea water cooling system will normally co~ist of two full-size supply pumps and distribution piping. The system may supply water to the following services:
- main engine LO coolers - main engine fresh water coolers - main engine air coolers

In the system of Figure 9,8-1, the ballast pump requirement was sufficiently close to that of the main engine cooling pump to enable,three identical pumps to be fitted, with one ballast pump as standby for the main engine cooling pump. On tankers, the main sea water cooling system may also serve a condenser for tbe cargo and ballast pump turbines, or a separate circulating system uay be fitted.

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TO AFT PEAK TANK < i STARTING AIR COMPRESSOR STARTING AIR COMPRESSOR

SSDG FW CLR I I

1
[

TOPPING AIR COMPRESSOR

LINE SHAFT BEARING AIR CnND LO COOLER REFRIGERATION JACKET COOLER PISTON COOLER AIRI STM

FROM AFT PEAK TANK

--

-.,

t d 6
-

AUX CLG PUMPS

r
I I 1~< I I I

SYSTEM

v
T AIRI STM

--

GEN;L SERVICE- AIR STM SANITARY,

EMERGENCY BILGE SUCTION

r
/

FIGURE
TYPICAL SEA
-71-

9.8-1
WATER SYSTEM

The auxiliary sea water cooling system will normally consist of two full-size supply pumps and distribution piping. The system may supply water to the following services:
-

SSDG coolers atmospheric condenser and drain cooler air compressor fresh water coOler stern tube LO cooler shaft bearings provision refrigeration uachines air conditioning refrigeration machines deck machinery LO coolers

The heated sea water leaving most of the auxiliaries is usually combined with sea water leaving the main engine coolers upstream of a thermostaticallycontrolled three-way recirculating valve which can return Some of the heated water to the suction cross connection, discharging the rest overboard. This recirculation enables the sea water used for cooling to be maintained above 20 C, even in very cold ambient conditions. For the system to operate in port with the main engine secured, the thermostat should sense tbe sea water temperature in the auxiliary cooling system. Connections to and from the aft peak tarlkuay be provided from the auxiliary cooling water system to enable limited cooling services to be uaintained while in dry dock, Alternatively, hose connections may be provided in the piping to utilize k,aterfrom shore. Cooling water for refrigeration machinery, often on a higher flat in the engine room, may be supplied from separate PIIMPSto avoid imposing the higher discharge head requirement on the rest of the system. Other services for which separate pllmpsare often fitted include the following: - ehraporator feed, cooling and eductors - marine growth preventio]lsystem - inert gas system scrubber and deck seal .iseries of cross connections between the various sea water pumps is fitted to allow continuous operation in emergency conditions. Corrosion of uaterials is a problem in sea water systems. Piping is normally of copper-nickel, galvanized steel or steel internally coated with an inert material such as polyethylene. 9.9 Steam systems

Figure 9.9-1 illustrates a simple steam system, frequently used on ships where steam requirements are limited, in which the oil-fired package boiler serves as the steam drum for a forced-circulationwater tube waste heat boiler, This type of system is easily automated: excess steam produced is dumped tbrOugh a pressure regulating valve to the sea water circulated condenser, while a shortage of steam will trigger a pressure switch to supplementally fire the oil-fired boiler. The fact that the oil fired boiler is filled with saturated steam and water at all times results in a rapid response. Sometimes gas

-72-

- ------

s IL8M

t UK 3UU I BLUWING

---

------

-. . .

FU FINAL HTRS PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

UPTAKE

F
LO TANKS LO PURIFIER HEATERS ~ ME JACKET HEATER , DRAIN TANK HTG COIL HOT WATER HEATER EXCESS STEAM *
t

FO PURIFIER HEATERS

ENGINE EXHAUST /w GAS

WASTE HEAT BOILER

TBOILER FEED PUMP DRAIN TANK

MAKE-UP FEED

FIGURE
BASIC WASTE HEAT
-73-

9.9-1
RECOVERY STEAM SYSTEM

bypasses are fitted to the waste heat boiler to enable control of steam production. Some ships are fitted with waate heat boilers of the gas-tube type in which steam production can be controlled by varying the water level. The oil-fired boiler would not necessarily be in the circuit, but it can be kept warm by a steam heating coil. Where the steam demand is in the range of about 2000 kg/h or less (the usual case on dry cargo vessels), the oil-fired boiler is uost often of the fire tube type. The design pressure of a ships steam system may be dependent on its use for fuel heating: the heaviest fuels require heating to about 170C, in turn requiring saturated steam generation at about eight bar,s. Because of the danger of sulfuric acid attack on cold economizer tubes, the systems of Figure 9.9-2 incorporates an economizer recirculation valve which passes water from the saturated circuit into the feed upstream of the economizer, thereby e]lablingthe feed temperature to be maintained even at low engine output. Where sufficient waste beat is available for a turbogenerator to be fitted, the system can be as simple as in Figure 9.9-2 or more complex, as in Figure 9.9-3. These systems are discussed at length in Section 7 and Appendix B. A heating coil is fitted to the drain tank to maintain its temperature close to 100C to encourage a measure of deaeration. Figt]re9.9-4 i.sa typical tanker steam plant, supplying steam for cargo heating, cargo and ballast pumping and for tank cleaning. Two oil-fired boilers supply steam at a pressure sufficient for cargo and ballast pump turbines, and also serve to supplement the output of the waste heat boiler. Because the waste heat boiler is operating at lower pressure it is provided with its own steam drum, and the oil-fired boilers are fitted with beating coils. ~heoil-fired .boilerain this example are of the double circuit type: al]oil-fired, closed primary steam circuit generates steam in an attached secondary drum, precluding contamination of the primary circuit via a leaking cargo heating coil. The same results can be achieved using a contaminated evaporator (low pressure steam Eenerator) to supply cargo heating steam. 9.10 Bilge systems Bilge systems serve to remove accumulated liquids, usually water, from compartments not otherwise served by a suction or drain, including machinery spaces, dry cargo holds, cofferdams and similar void spaces. Aft ballast tanks may be served by the bilge system and on ships other than oil tankers, the bilge and ballast systems are usually inter-connected. Spaces remote from tbe bilge system,, typically far forward in the ship, may be independently served, often by eductors driven from the fire uain, Cargo pump room bilges on oil tankers and similar veasela must be served by an independent bilge system. For vessels carrying hazardous liquid cargoes, cargo pump room bilge wells are discharged to a dedicated holding tank for ultimate disposal aahore. Accumulated water may have come from rain, run-off from cargoes such as coal or ore, leaking hatch covers, condensation, wash down, leakage or routine discharges from systems or as a result of damage to the ship. Regulatory requirements specify conditions under which the bilge system must be capable of operation, including sufficient pumping capability and extreme conditions

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,c _

SOOTBLDWING FO FINAL HTRS y FD PRE-HTG+ LO HTG_ DRAIN TK+ HOT WTR HTR+ +

EGENGINE :XHAUST GAS

PRESS RED. VLV

MISC -

WASTE BOILER

EAT v&
BOILER FEED PUMP

1 GEN A ,,,

FIGURE

9.9-2

WASTE HEAT STEAM PUNT WITH TURBOGENERATOR AND SINGLEPRESSURE BOILER WITH ECONOMIZER RECIRCUUTION
-75-

WASTE HEAT BDILER

LP STEAM TO FO PREHEATING,ETC

\ HP STEAM TO FO FINAL HEATERS SDOTBLOWERS

HP FEED IULATOR r E 1 RETURNS

AIR FROM TURBOCHARGER

ENGINE EXHAUST GAS

COND

FEED HEATING SECTION FEED PUMP

AIR COOLER

PRESSURIZED HOT WATER OR THERMAL FLUID LOUPI LO HEATING HW HEATING DRAIN TANK HEATING SW COOLING SECTION AIR

F EN~!NE

FIGURE

9.9-3

WASTE HEAT STEAM PLANT WITH MIXEDPRESSURE TG, DOUBLE-PRESSURE BOILER; HEAT RECOVERY AT AIR COOLER FOR FEED HEATING AND LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICES
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IW PRESSURE
SDOT

-.

.. ---Q

HIbH

BLOWERS ~

STEAM MAIN

FRESSURE STEAM

--..

CARGO

PUMPS

MAIN

r r

% STM TRACING<

OFB PRIMARY+ CKT HTG COILS

L.0,

TANKS<I
PuRIFIERs-I HTR

~L.,.

~z
ME JKT DRN TK HTG COIL WATER HTR HOT CARGO HEATING SLOP TANK HTG TANK CLG HEATER

MAIN ENGINE EXHAUST GAS

MAKE-UPFEED

PRIMARY CIRCUIT MUF PUMP

w
1
? PRV

WASTE BOILER STEAM

HEAT EXCESS DUMP

WASTE BOILER

HEAT FEED

uIL-FIRED

BOILER FEED \ PUMP

v
PRV STRIPPING PUMP PRV=PRESSURE FWR=FEED

CARGO PUMP CDNDSR

CONDENSATE PUMP

?Pup

RAIN TANK~ FIGURE

TYPICAL

REDUCING

VALVE

WATER

REGULATOR

9.94
DUAL

TANKER STEAM SYSTEM WITH PRESSURE OILFIRED BOILERS

of trim and list. An attempt should be uade to run the bilge piping where it is protected from grounding or collision damage. Bilge manifolds and bilge pumps (other than oil tanker cargo pump room bilge pumps) are usually located in the machinery space. Between the bilge manifold and the bilge pumps, easily-cleaned strainera are fitted. Rules generally require at least two bilge pumps, a requirement usually met with one dedicated bilge pump, with standby provided by a general service pump. Positive displacement pumps may be used, or they may be centrifugal pumps fitted with self-priming equipment or connected to a central priming system. Ships with demanding damage control requirements, such as passenger ships, may have three or four bilge pumps. In addition, the ballast pumps are usually capable of taking suction through the bilge system in emergencies. Machinery space bilge wells are required to have an independent bilge system a]ldare sometimes fitted with independent, flost-operated sump pmps. I addition, most regulations require that the largest capacity pump in the machinery space be fitted with a direct emergency suction from the machinery space bilge. Throughout the machinery space, attention should be paid to maintaining clean bilges, with drains led to dedicated tanks or bilge wells. Equipment subject to minor leaks should be enclosed by a coaming and served by a drair]. Drains likely to be oily, such as those from cosmings and drip pans at oil filters and pumps, should be led directly to an oily drain tank. To prex,ent the overboard discharge of oily water, a separator is required. Most bilge oil and water separators are of the coalescing type. Generally, the o~,erboard discharge of the bilge pumps can be led to a bilge holding tank, usually in the machinery space double bottom. Space permitting, duplicate holding tanks may be fitted to permit more effective settling. A dedicated, positive-displacementpump draws from the holding tank to feed the separator, to which it is matched illcapacity. Separated water is discharged overboard via an oil conterlt uonitor arranged to stop the discharge if the oil content exceeds the set level, Separated oil is passed to a waste oil collecting tank pending discharge to a shore facility or to a waste oil burner in an incinerator or auxiliary boiler, 9.11 Engine room \,entilation systems

The engine room ventilation system supplies fresh outside air to the engine room for environmental control and combustion in the engines and boilers. Air for environmental control is distributed throughout the engine rOom by ducts with outlets located adjacent to operating stations md near heat producing equipment. Dampers are provided at duct outlets to allow for flow adjustment. Combustion air for engines and boilers is normally ducted to the vicinity of the intakes. See Sections 5.5 and 6.5 to estimate the amount of combustion air required. Ducts are normally made of galvanized steel, stiffened as necessary. Adequate flanged joints are fitted in the ducts for uaintenance. The ducts may be coated internally.

-7a-

Normally four engine room ventilation fans are supplied. One or two of the fans may be reversible to allow flexibility in ventilate O. Generally the fans are not interconnected on tbe discharge side, The exhaust air from the engine room not drawn out by exhaust fans will normally rise and exit, often through an opening in the aft side of the funnel or . Total fan capacity (including the reversible fans) uay be determined on the assumption of fifteen changes per hour. (Section 12.3 provides a means of estimating machinery space volume.) Alternatively, total fan capacity uay be estimated as doubleto-triple the total maximum combustion air requirements of main and auxiliary engines and oil-fired boilers (see Section 5.4 and 6.5), The engine control room will normally be air conditioned by packaged units. workst]ops and electrical store rooms uay also be air conditioned by packaged units. Where a separate purifier room is provided, it will normally be fitted with an exhaust fan which exhausts to the weather through independent ducting. 9.12 Refrigerated stores

Space is pro~, ided in the vicinity of the galley for the storage of dry and refrigerated provisions. The size of the spaces assigned for this purpose will depend upon the size of the crew and the anticipated trade route. Normally two refrigerating units of the vapor-compression type are provided, each comprising compressor, condenser and receiver. The condensers uay be circulated with sea water or fresh water. Generally, each unit will be sized to maintain the specified temperatures while running 12 to 18 hours per day, with the other unit as a standby. Both units may be used during initial temperature pull-down or when loading provisions. Alternatively, the units may be sized so that one unit can achieve initial pull-dOwn in 24 hours. 9.13 HI;ACsystems

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HV,AC)systems provide air conditioned spaces with treated air and other spaces with fresh air. Air conditioning involves temperature control, humidity control and fresh air exchange. Relative humidity levels of 40 to jO percent may be uaintained in cold weather, and 50 to 60 percent in hot weather. Air removed from the controlled spaces is recil.culated, but with at least 25 percent fresh air make-up, admitted before the cooling coils in warm climates and before the heating coils in cold climates. Excess air is discharged to the weather through exhaust ducts, When the refrigeration machinery is located in the engine room, at a distance from the air conditioned spaces, an indirect air conditioning system (Figure 9.13-1) may be used. A secondary fluid, often water, is then circulated to air handling units located in fan rooms near the air conditioned areas, where it absorbs the heat contained in the air removed from the conditioned spaces, In colder climates the same circulating system can be utilized to provide heat for these spaces. In this instance the refrigeration equipment is secured and the circulating fluid is heated by steam or electrically. As so alternative to the indirect system, the direct expansion refrigeration machinery may be

-79-

FIGURE
TYPICAL HVAC

9.13-1
ARRANGEMENT

SYSTEM

located in an air handling room in the proximity of the air conditioned spaces. The refrigeration equipment normally consists of a compressor, condenser, receiver, evaporator, expansion valve, chiller and controls. When smaller spaces are to be air conditioned, self-contained, directexpansion units uay be employed, installed in or near the spaces. Spaces whicl~are not air conditioned (i.e., storage areas, shops, lockers, etc.), require fresh air for ventilation. One supply fan may provide ventilation to several spaces thrOugh distribution ducting and dampers. Exhaust from these spaces can be accomplished through a similarly confi~ured ventilation exhaust ducting and fan system or through exhaust dampers placed in external bulkheads within the spacea. Heating of the flow of fresh outside air for \,elltilation of such spaces, when required, is usually accomplished with steam unit space heaters or electric resistance type strip heaters located within the space being ventilated. 9.14 Access and overhauling gear

D\lringthe life of a ship it is likely that almost every component on board will hax, e be repaired or replaced, Adequate lifting gear, designated landing and storage areas and stlfficient room for access uust be allotted in the early design stages, and will most likely be repaid by ease of repair or replacement in service. Normally a single o>,erhead gantry crane is installed over the main engine for main engine maintenance. By extending the longitudinal and transverse runs of the crane and providing sufficient wire to allow the hook to reach down to the floor plates, the crane will be useful for other purposes as well, A second carriage on the crane will facilitate maintenance by permitting simultaneous lifts. The lifting capacity of the crane must be matched to the heaviest component it might be used to lift. Removal of the intermediate and tail shafting ia best done by a geared trolley on the center line over tbe intermediate shaft in conjunction ith strategically placed pad eyes. While it uay be feasible to work out a removal route through existing hatches, most often shafting is removed from the ship through a temporary hole in the shell. Tbe location of the hole should be marked permanently on the shell. Piping, cables and equipment should be installed so that minimal removals are required during the shaft withdrawal or its removal from the ship. Trolleys, lifting hems or pad eyes should be located over the diesel generators and other large auxiliaries to facilitate their uaintenance. Pad eyes should be placed over each piece of equipment that cannot easily be moved by hand. Heat exchanger tube bundle removal normally requires uultiple pad eyes as well aa space to perform this operation without removing my other equipment or structure. Deck plating in designated lmding areas must suitably reinforced. At least one of the ships provision cranes should be arranged to allow direct transfer of parts and stores to the storeroom level of the engine room, often

-81-

through a hatch on deck and a vertical trunk. A trolley in the engine room can be provided to transfer these parts and stores to the engineers storeroom, or the main engine gantry crane may serve this purpose, To allow flexibility of use, sufficient wire should be installed on the drum of the provision crane to allow tbe hook to reach down to the lowest ~nglne room flat which it plumbs,

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10.0

TYPICAL MACHINERY LISTS

Machinery lists for two typical diesel plants are ln~lded below for ~;~:ynce only. Steering gear and deck machinery sre nOt i~lded in these The content of a machinery list for sny specific application may deviate significantly from these samples, reflecting such factors as shipa service, trade route and operating profile, the engine design and output, the degree and level of sophisticalion of waste heat recovery, attached auxiliaries, automation and uarming, the cargo services required, and the owners philosophy concerning equipment rellabllity and redundancy. 10.1 LOW-SPEED DIESEL ENGINE PROPULSION PLANT WCHINERY LIST

The following machinery list ia for a container ship with a single, low-speed diesel, an attached generator, central cooling system and limited exhaust gaa heat recovery. main propulsion engine shafting thrust bearing line shaft bearings stern tube, seals and bearings propeller exhaust gas boiler (silencer/spark arrestor) oil-fired boiler machinery control console switchboards and distribution panels main engine attached generator ships service diesel generator sets emergency diesel generator fuel oil heaters fuel oil purifier heaters main li]beoil cooler camshaft lube oil coolers lube oil purifier heaters central cooling system SW/FW heat exchanger uain engine jacket water heater ships service fresh water heater drain cooler distillers fuel oil purifiers diesel oil purifier lube oil purifiers starting sir compressors starting air receivers ships service air compressors ship service air receivers control air compressor control air receiver control air drier provision refrigeration compressors, condensers and receivers air conditioning compressors, condensers and receivers uachinery space ventilation supplyand exhaust fans fuel oi1 service pumps

-83-

fuel oil tranafer pump diesel oil tranafer pump main lube oil pumps camahaft lube oil pumps crosshead lube oil pumps
pumps auxiliary fresh water cooling pumps main jacket water pumps piston cooling water pumps main sea water circulating pumps auxiliary aea water circulating pump ballast pumps fire pumps general service pumps sanitary pumps

uain fresh water cooling

boiler feedwater pumps exhaust gaa boiler circulating

potable water pumps

pump

sludge transfer pump fresh water transfer pump machinery apace bilge pumps HFO storage tanka HFO settling tanks HFO service tank DO storage tanks DO settling tank DO aervice tank main engine LO sump tank LO storage tanks LO settling tank cylinder oil storage tanks cylinder oil ueasuring tank stern tube head tank waate oi1 storage tank central cooling system fresh water expansion tank main en<ine jacket cooling water expansion tank generator engine jacket cooling water expanaion tank atmospheric drain collecting and inspection tank potable water storage tanks reserve feed storage tanks purifier FW shot tanks purifier sludge tank potable water hydropneumatic tank sanitary system hydropneumatic tank fuel oil strainers/filters diesel oil strainers/filters lubricating oil strainers/filters main engine jacket water deaerator gantry crane, lifting beams and trolleys elevator oil and water separator sewage treatment plant trash/waate oil incinerator central hydraulic power packa

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10.2

MEDIUM-SPEED

DIESEL ENGINE PROPULSION PLANT MACHINERY LIST

The following uachinery list is for a single-screw, dry bulk carrier with two medium-speed diesel engines and limited exhaust gas heat recovery. main propulsion engines reduction gear clutches shafting shaft brake thrust bearing line shaft bearings stern tube, seals and bearings propeller exhaust gas boilers (silencer/spark arrestors) oil-fired boiler machinery control console switchboards and distribution panels ships service diesel generator sets emergency diesel generator fuel oil heaters fuel oil purifier heaters main lube oil coolers reduction gear lube oil cooler lube oil purifier heaters main engine jacket water coolers main engine jacket water heaters ships service fresh water heater drain cooler distillers fuel oil purifiers diesel oil purifier lube oil purifiers starting air compressors starting air receivers ships service air compressors ship service air receivers control air compressor control air receiver control air drier provision refrigerant ion compressors, condensers and receivers air conditioning compressors, condensers md receivers machinery space ventilation supply and exhaust fans fuel oil transfer pump fuel oil service pumps diesel oil transfer pump main lube oil pumps reduction gear lube oi1 pump uain jacket water pumps main engine injector cooling water circulating pumps auxiliary fresh water cooling pumps main sea water circulating pumps auxiliary sea water circulating pump ballast pumps

-85-

fire pumps general service pumps sanitary pumps boiler feedwater pumps exhaust gas boiler circulating pumps potable water pumps sludge transfer pump fresh water transfer pump machinery apace bilge pumps HFO storage tanks HFO settling tanka HFO service tank DO settling tank DO storage tanka DO service tank LO storage tanka reduction gear lube oi1 gravity tank stern tube head tank waate oil storage tank uain engine jacket cooling water expansion tank main engine injector cooling water expansion tanks generator engine jacket cooling water expansion tank atmospheric drain collecting and inspection tank potable water storage tanka reserve feed storage tanks purifier FW shot tanks purifier sl,udgetank potable water hydropneumatic tank sanitary system hydropneumatic tank fuel oil strainers/filters diesel oil strainers/filters lubricating oil strainera/filters main engine jacket water deaeratOra gantry crane, lifting beams and trolleys elevator oil and water separator sewage treatment plant trash/waste oil incinerator central hydraulic power packs

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11.0

OVER.ALLPLANT FUEL AND LUBRICATING 01 L CONSUMPTION

Fuel and lube oil consumption calculations for twO example cases are included in this section to illustrate the use of relevant material in this bulletin. It should be noted that the fuel and lube oil costs derived from these consumption calculations are only two of many constituent components which must be quantified in order to enable overall operating costs to be established. A list of cost components to consider in an economic analysis or feasibility study uight include the following: amortized acquisition cost fuel cost lube oil cost machinery maintenance cost, including non-crew labor and parts hull uaintenance cost crew wages, benefits, transportation and subsistence costs port and canal charges administration and overhead costs insurance premiums 11.1 il.l.l Fuel and lube oil consumption of a typical low-speed diesel plant Calculation of fuel consumption

As an example, consider a large single-screw container ship to be fitted with a low-speed diesel, intended for a trade which will keep the ship at sea at service speed 280 days per year. For the purposes of this example, there are no large cargo service loads such as those associated with refrigerated containers. What is usually sought is the average fuel consumed at sea, in uetric tons per day (t/d or TPD), separately for each grade of fuel. Performance projections indicate that with the hull clean and at a typical ser~>ice draft, the shaft power (i.e.; including allowances for shaft bearing losses but not for the thrust bearing) required to achieve 100% propeller RPM will be just under 15000 kW. Applying the allowance for thrust bearing power consumption (see Section 4.3.2), about 15000 bkW will be needed in this condition. Since the ship will uaintain a schedule, and to allow for the ion<-term degradation of hull and propeller beyond that recoverable in normal drydockings, then in accord with Section 4.4, a main engine capable of 20000 bkW at its installed MCR ia likely. If the ship were to be fitted with an attached generator or other ~0 equipment, an even larger engine would be required. Although the engine has not yet been selected, a survey of published data for several candidate engines indicates that, whichever engine is ultimately selected, it is likely to have a quoted SFC in the range of 170 to 175 g/bkW-h 3.1 ), when burning distillate fuel under 1S0 standard conditions (see Section with a calorific content of 42,700 kJ/kg. In service, the vessel will operate on HFO, represented as ISO-F-WG-35 Table 3-1) with a calorific value of 39550 kJ/kg, (see

The speed required to service the trsde wili be achieved at slightly less than 100% RPM, and it is estimated that before the ship is dry-docked again for

-a7-

hull cleaning, the time-averaged engine output will have reached 85% of McR, or 17500 bkW. With reference to Section j.2, the average SFC in service will therefore be slightly below the value at MCR, perhaps by two or three percent. The enqine will uost likely draw air directly from the engine room, at an average temperature of about 35C (see Section 3,1), 10c higher than the 1~ standard. Further, in anticipation of a central cooling system (see Section 9.7.6) it is estimated that the temperature of the charge air coolant will be 30C, 5C above the ISO standard. The actual SFC achieved in service can be estimated as follows: .97 to .98)(1.002 to 1.01)(1.001 to 1.003)(1.03) (170 to 175)(42700/39550)( = 184 to 193 g/bkW-h where: The first term is the range of likely SFCS, in g/bkW-h, as published, for distillate fuel and under 1S0 conditions. The second term is the ratio of calorific content of the fuels. The third term reflects the aforementioned two or three percent reduction in SEC at the average service output of the engine. The fourth and fifth terms are the correction factors for ambient conditio]ls, from Section 5.1. The final term restores the tolerance on quoted values of SFC, assumed to ha~,e been deducted, in accord with Section 5.2. The average daily fuel consumption of the main engine at sea can then be estimated, assuming 2% water and sediment in the fuel: (17500 bkW)(184 to 193 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(l,02)/(lo~ g/t) = 78.8 to 82.7 t/d, or about 81 TPD It is also necessary to calculate the fuel consumed in meeting the ships electrical load, In the absence of a large cargo service load the relation of Section 6.1 can be used directly,,yielding an estimate of the daily average load of 660 kWe. Because this load ia low relative to the main engine output, this plant should be considered as a candidate for a waste heat turbOgeneratOr (WHTG). This possibility ia explored in Appendix B, for both simple and sophisticated WHTG cycles. If the WHTG option is rejected, likely alternatives (see Section 9.2) include ships service diesel generators (SSDGS) run on distillate or blended fuel, or an attached generator. 1f an attached generator were to be considered, the required main engine output would be increased, and its.fuel consumption would be correspondingly higher, For this example, consider a plant comprised of three identical SSDGS arranged to run on a 50-50 blend of uain engine HFO and distillate fuel, blended on hard, with a resulting calorific content of 41125 kJ/kg.

-88-

In accord with Section 9.2, to generate the daily average of 660 kke each SSDG might be rated at 800 kWe. From Figures 9.2-1 and 9.2-2, the generator efficiency is estimated at 0.947 at rating and O.945 at the average service output, requirini an engine rated for 850 bkW and developing 700 bkW at the average service load. A survey of published data for candidate engines indicates that the engine ultimately selected might have a quoted SFC in the range of 190 to 210 g/bkW-h under 1S0 standard conditions (see Section 3.1), when burning distillate fuel with a calorific content of 42,700 kJ/kg. The actual SFC achieved in service can be estimated as follows: (190 to 210)(42700/41125)(.97to .98)( 1.002 to 1.01)(1.001 to 1.003)(1.03) = 198 to 223 g/bkW-h where the terms are as defined above. The average daily fuel consumption for electrical requirements at aea can then be estimated, assuming 1% water and sediment in tbe blended fuel: (700 bkW)(198 to 223 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(lo01)/(106 g/t) = 3.4 to 3.8 t/d, or about 2 TPD each, of HFO and distillate The ship can thus be expected to consume, on the average, some 83 TPD of HFO and some 2 TPD of distillate fuel, at sea. If the in-port electrical load is about half the sea load, it can also be estimated that the in-port consumption will be some 2 TPD. Whether this is of distillate or blended fuel will depend on provisions uade for heating HFO in port, and on the relative costs of distillate and heavy fuel. If the oilfired boiler is used in port, an additional allowance for boiler fuel will be required.

11.1.2

Calculation of lubricating oil consumption

In the absence of better information, lube oil consumption can be estimated from the data of Section 5.3. Because the quantities involved are low relative to the fuel consumption, it is often convenient to evaluate lube oil consumption on an annual basis. Cylinder oi1 consumption for the low-speed uain engine can be estimated over the course of a year as follows: (17500 bkW)(O.7 to 1.4 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(280 d/y)/(106 g/t) = 82 to 165 t/y where: The first term is the time-averaged main engine output, assumed to apply over the course of the year under consideration,

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The second term is the range of specific cylinder oil consumption values cited in Section 5.3. Main engine circulating oil and miscellaneous oil use is estimated as follows: (20000 bkW)(O.5 to 1.0 kg/bkW-y)(280d/36j)/(103 kg/t) where: The first term is the MCR of the uain engine. The second term is the range of values cited in Section 5.3, The third term prorates the consumption according to engine use, In this example, with three SSDGS installed, each oueratine about one-third of the year, their consumption can be estimated as follows: For cylinder lubrication: (700 bkh) (1.5 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(365/3 d/y)(3 engines)/ 106 g/t) = 9 t/y where: The first term is the average generator en~ine output from Section 11.1. = 8 to 15 t/y

The second term is the consumption cited in Section 5.3. The third and fourth terms reflect the fact that each engine operates one-third of the year. For make-up and renewal of oil: (850 bk~)(l to 2 kg/bkW-y)(l/3 Y)(3 engines)/(103 kg/t) where: The first term is MCR of the generator engine, from Section 11.1. The second term is the range of consumption values cited in Section 5.3. The third term reflects the fact that each engine operates one-third of the year. The total lube oil consumption of the SSDGS is therefore estimated as about 10 or 11 t/y. = 1 to 2 t/y

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11.2 11.2.1

Fuel and lube oil consumption of a typical medium-speed diesel plant Calculation of fuel oil consumption

As a second example, consider a dry bulk carrier to be fitted with two mediumspeed diesel engines driving a single fixed-pitch propeller through reversing, single reduction gearing, intended for a trade which will keep the ship at sea at service speed 260 days per year. The ship will be fitted with an attached generator. No significant trade support service loads are atlcipated (See Section 6.4). What is sought is the average fuel consumed at sea, in metric tons per day (t/d or TPD). Performance projections indicate that with the hull clean, and at the drafts expected in loaded and ballasted condition a, the power required at the propeller shaft to achieve 100% propeller RPM will be 9000 kW, Since the trade will permit a flexible schedule, then in accord with Section 4.4, two main engines capable of delivering a combined 10000 kW to the propeller shaft at their MCR are likely. The brake power used to drive the shaft under these conditions can be estimated as follows: (10000)/[(.99) (.99)(.995)(.999)] u 10265 bkW ~here: The first term is the projected shaft power required. ihe second and third terms account for the full load power cosmptiOn of the re~,ersing reduction gear, from Table 4-1. The fourth term accounts for the full load power consumption of the thrust bearing, from Table 4-1, The fifth term is the load correction factor, from Figure 4.3-1, used hecal!sethe gearing is likely to be rated to accept the full MCR of the main engines, with the attached generator de-clutched. It is assumed that the attached generator will be driven by a constant-speed transmission from a pinion on the reduction gear (ace Section 8.2). A first estimate of the average electrical load at sea, calculated in accordance with Section 6.1 but based on an installed MCR estimated at 11000 bkW (to include the generator requirements), and aasuming that other auxiliaries are electric motor-driven, is 470 kWe. From Section 9.2, the attached generator might be rated at j75 kWe. From Fi~res 9.2-1 and 9.2-2, the generator efficiency is estimated at 0.946 at rating and 0.942 at the average service output. From Section 8.2, the efficiency of the constant-speed step-up gear for the generator is estimated at 0.91. The increase in main engine power to produce the full generator output ia calculated as follows: (575) /[(.946)(.91)(.99)(.99)(.999)1 = 685 bkW where: The first term ia the generator capacity at rating. The second term is the efficiency of the generator at its rating.

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The third term is the efficiency of the constant-speed tran~mi~~ion, The fourth and fifth terms account for the full load power ~on~mption of the reversing reduction gear, from which the constant-speed transmission is driven, The sixth term is the load correction factor for the gearing, from Figure 4.3-1. Adding the generator power requirement to the propulsion 10ad yields ~ required combined main engine output at MCR of 10950 bkW or, realistically, 11000 bkW, consistent with the first estimate. (If it were not consistent, a reiteration would be necessary.) (If the engines were fitted with attached Pumps the daily average generator load might be reduced by the power required to drive the these pumps. From Section 8.3, the estimated amount of power required to drive the pumps is about 200 bkW. The estimated dailY average generator load is therefore estimated as some 270 kWe and the attached generator might then be rated at 330 bkW. From Figures 9.2-1 and 9.2-2, the generator efficiency would then be estimated at O.940 at rating and O.937 at the average service output, The increase in main engine power to produce the full generator output is calculated as above to be 390 bkW. When this is added to the propulsion load, a required combined main engine output at MCR of 10655 bkW results. However, it must be noted that this is the a~; ailable engine brake output at MCR, reduced from tl]ecombined bare enSine rating of some 108jj bkW hy the power u iverted to drive the attached pumps.) Although the engines have not yet been selected, a typical engine that might be suitable has published data that quotes a SFC of 185 g/bkW-h, plus 3 percent, for an engine with independently driven pumps, under 1S0 standard conditiorls (see Section 3.1), when burning distillate fuel with a Calorlflc COntefit of 42,700 kJ/kg. In service, the \,esselwill operate on HFO, typified by IsO-F-RME-25 (see Table 3-1) with a calorific value of 39,650 kJ/kg. The average service speed will be achieved at slightly less than 100% RPM, and it is estimated that before the ship is dry-docked again for hull cleaning, the time-averaged engine output for propulsion and attached generator drive will have reached 85% of the combined MCR, or 9350 bkW. With reference to Section 5,2, the average SFC in service will therefore be slightly belOw the value at MCR, perhaps by two or three percent. If the engines draw their combustion air directly from the engine room, ita average temperature can be taken as 35C (see Section 3.1), 10C higher thm the 1S0 standard. Further, in anticipation of a central cooling system (see Section 9.7.6) it ia estimated that the temperature of the charge air coolant wi11 average 30C, 5C above tbe 1S0 standard, The actual SFC achieved in service can be estimated as follows: (185)(42700/39650)(.97to .98)(1.002 to 1.01)(1.001 to 1.003)(1.03) = 200 to 204 g/bkW-h

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where: The first term is the SFC of the candidate engine in g/bkW-h for distillate fuel snd under 1S0 conditions. The second term is the ratio of calorific content of the fuels. The third term reflects the aforementioned two or three percent reduction in SFC at the average output of the engine. The fourth and fifth terms sre the correction factors for ambient conditions. The finsl term adds the tolerance.on quoted values of SFC, which was deducted from the published value (see Section 5,2). (Note that if the engines were fitted with attached pumps, either the SFC or the engine output would have to be ad,justed to reflect this, unless the quoted value already took this into accollnt. The average daily fuel consumption of the main engines at sea can then be estimated: (9350 bkW)(200 to 204 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(l.02)/(lOc g/t)
u

~~.7 to 46.7 t/d, or abOut 46 TpD

where: The first term is the time-avers~ed uain engine output. The second term is the range of specific fuel consumption values calclllatedabove, The fourth term is the assumed 2% ater and sediment content of the fuel In this case tbe attached generator supplies all auxiliary needs st sea, and the calculated main engine consumption is not normally supplemented by additional consumption for SSDG use. An additional allowance for the in-port use of the SSDGS will be required, however.

11.2.2 Calculation of lubricating oil consumption The published LO consumption of the candidate engine is given as approximately O.8 g/bkW-h, exclusive of sump changes. (In keeping with the comments of Section 5.3, this may be an optimistic assessment of tbe rste achieved in service.) Because the quantities of LO involved are low relative to fuel consumption, it is often convenient to evaluate the lube oil consumption on an annual basis, as follows: (9350 bkW)(O.8 q/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(260 d/y)/(106 g/t) = 47 t/y

-93-

where: The first term is the time-averaged main engine output, ~s~med to apply over the course of the year under consideration. The second term is the published range specific oil consumption values for the candidate engine. For make-up and renewal of oil, in the absence of guidance from the candidate engine manufacturer, the values of Section j,3 are used: (11000 bkw)(1 to 2 kg/bkW-y)(260/365)/(10J kg/t ) = 8 to 16 t/y where: The first term is the combined MCR of the main engines. The second term is the range of consumption values from Section 5.3. The third term reflects the operating days per year. The total lube oil consumption of the main engines is therefore estimated as j5 to 63 tly. Additional allowances for the in-port use of the SSDGS,,and for small quantities of LO used in the reduction gear and miscellaneous will be required, ailxiliaries,

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12.0 MASSES, CENTERS OF GRAVITY AND VOLUMES The l~urpose of this section is to provide a means for obtaining reliable preliminary estimates of machinery uass, vertical and longitudinal centers of gravity, and machinery space volume for typical merchant ships with diesel engine propulsion. 12.1 Masses The machinery u ass is defined as the entire contents of the uachinery space plus shafting, bearings and propeller(s) and thus will typically include the following items:
uain engines

.-

reduction gears power take-off(s) propulsion shafting boilers propeller(s) fuel oil systems fresh water system lube oil systems compressed air system steam system access and overhauling gear work shops macttinery space ventilation machinery automation and control equipment diesel generators turbogenerators machinery spares liqllidsin uachinery and piping For the purpose two parts. One while the other machinery which of estimating mass, the total machinery mass is divided into part is solely the dry mass of the main propulsion engine(s), is comprised of the remaining categories listed above. Other uay be required for trade support services is not included.

In the preliminary estimation of the machinery mass, several factors have strong influence: whether the engine is a low-speed crosshead engine or medium- or highspeed trunk-piston engine the number of propellers and shafts the amount of electrical generating capacity required above normal propulsion requirements the presence of spare propeller or tail shaft The location of the engine room, i.e.: fully aft, three quarters aft, or amidships

-95-

Other factors, sllchas whether or not a centralized fresh water coolig system is to be installed, have less effect. . 12.1.1 Low-speed crosshead engines

The dry mass of two-stroke, low-speed crosshead engines is correlated as a f~!nction of the torque at the highest rated o~?tputOf the engine, Engine mass is among the data available from engine uanufacturers, Only in the absence of this information shollldthe equation below be used, The equation was det,elopedfrom a broad range of engines i which the B~lEpwas 16 to 17 bar, at their highest NCR. The equation will yield low values for derated engines.
engine ~k~, mass = C (-M 0.89

where: engine mass = the dry mass of each low-speed engine, t C = 7.4 to 7.8 for stroke-to-bore ratios less than 2.8 C = 6.3 to 7.1 for stroke-to-bore ratios between 2.8 and 3.3 C = 5.3 to 6.2 for strOke-tO-bOre ratios above 3,~ bkK = brake outplltat the highest MCR Of each engine, kk RPM = engine speed at MCR The remaining machinery mass will vary significantly, reflecting different philosophies of owners and operators. The following equation will prox, ide an es~,i,natecl val~]efor single-screw ships with direct-connected 10w-speed c>llginc, s , satisfactory for prelin, illarypurpose*. remaining machinery mass
hfhere:

C(bkN)07~

remaining machinery maas will be in metric tons, t , C = 0.66 to 1.06 bkW = maximum,main engine output for which auxiliary systems are sized. For ships with uultiple propellers, the remaining mass should be increased by 5 percent, 12.1.2 Trunk-piston engines

A preliminary estimate of the dry engine mass for trunk piston engines may be obtained from the equations below, Engine masa is among the data available from engine manufacturers. Only in the absence of this information should the equations be used.

-96-

engine mass = c (g;)

where: engine mass = the dry mass of each enzine, t for V engines, C = 6.6 to 9.0, and a = 0,94

for in-line engines, C = 8.? to 11.2, and a = 0.91 bkti= brake output at the highest MCR of each engine, kU RPM = en~ine speed at
remaining machinery mass, preliminary purposes as:
MCR

which

includes

reduction

gears,

may

be estimatea

remaining

machinery

mass

= c(bkk)O.70

where:
remaininq c= machinery mass will be in metric tons, t

0.50 to 1.1 for large ships with complete machinery support systems 0.25 to 0.4 for vessels such as tugboats and workboats without extensive machinery SUPQOrt SYSteMS

c=

C = O.Oj to 0.1 !or small .essels with minimum machinery suppor~ systems
bkW =

maximum uain engine output for which auxiliary systems are sized.

ships =ith multiple propeller, the remaining masa sho[lldbe increaged by i ?ercent.

12.2

Center9 of gravity

The vertical center of gravity (VCG) of the total machinery mass for typical diesel plants can be egtimated using the relation beiow. Where uajor components are located outside of the machinery space or in an unusual location within the uachinery epace, the estimate must be adjusted accordingly.

0.23BD2 VCG = 0.72-=

[

-97-

where: 0= B=
\lcG

depth of hull to the main deck at the side, meters

beam, meters

= vertical center of gravity, ueters

The longitudinal center of gravity (LCG) of the total machinery mass uay be estimated as the LCG of the main engine, provided that ueet of the machinery mass components are located in the engine room.

12.3 Volume
A preliminary estimate of the gross uachinery gpace volume ca be obtained from the relation below. The machinery space is assumed to extend from sideto-gide of the hull, and from the tank top to the main deck or to the deckhead of a trunk. The volume includes any guch trunk but does not include casings or ghaft alleya. machinery sgace volume where: machinery space volume will
be

21.6

f@ f, fo(9.55~

bk~,

0.S3

in cubic meters

bkW = total brake output at the highest MCR of the resinengine(s), kH RPM is
engine

speed at MCR

f6 = :tO if machinery sDace is aft or three-ouartera aft: if the machinery is-am~dshipg or otherwise in a location unaffected by hull shape a lower value, down to 0.9, should be used f7 = 1.0 for single-screw ships; for ships with uultiple propellers a higher value, up to 1. lj, should be used fg = 1.0 for machinery spaces whose dimensions are constrained only by hull dimensions: if the machinery dimensions are so constrained that an inefficient layout results, a higher value, up to 1.15, should be used Ships that have additional auxiliary, for ex=ple for trade support gervicea, will require additional space. Large, aiow ghips over 60,000 tons deadweight often have machinery spacee that exceed the volume estimated from the relation,

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APPENDIX

A.

The Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law, u ore correctly called the ideal gas equation of state, provides a good approximate ion of the relation between pressure, temperature and density for uany gases at low-to-moderatepressures and temperatures. It may be stated as follows: W=RT where: P v R = = = absolute pressure, in N/m2 3/kg specific volume, the inverse of the density, in u the Gas Constant, a property of the gas equal to the universal gas constant, a.3144 N-m/mole-K divided by the molecular weight, yielding units of N-m/kg-K absolute temperature, in degrees K

T
In

applying the relation: - Convert the absolute pressure from bars to N/m2 by multiplying by 10-5. - For air, with a molecular weight of 28.97 kg/mole, R is 0.287 N-m/kg-K. The same value can be used for diesel engine exhaust gas with negligible error. - The absolute temperature in degrees K is obtained by adding 273 to a temperature in degrees C.

A-1

APPENDIX

B.

tiHrGPlants: Procedure for Heat Recovery Estiaate~

A typical steam plant incorporating a waste heat turbogenerator (WHTG) and a single pressure boiler ia shown schematically in Figure 9.8-2 and is examined in Table B-1. A more sophisticated plant, incorporating a dual pressure boiler and a mixed-pressure turbine, as well as a heat recovery at the charge air cooler, is shown in Figure 9.8-3 and is the subject of Table B-2. The notes below are keyed to both tables, It should be noted that the results of these analyses are very sensitive to all of the \,ariablesinvolved and that the use of generalized data may be very misleading. 1. Summer and winter characterize two extreme sets of ambient conditions to be examined. The engine is assumed to draw its air from a well ventilated engine room and air temperatures are taken in accord with the suggestions of 5.5. A range of engine output levels should be considered, with 70 to 75% and 80 to 90% of MCR typically being of interest, Heat requirements for lube oil heating and for the hotel load are usually independent of engine output. Means of estimating these quantities are provided in 6.3.? and 6.3.3, 1]1the dual pressure plant these needs are met using pressurized fresh water or a proprietary heating fluid, circulated in a closed loop through the middle stages of the charge air cooler. Steam demand for f~lelheating can be estimated using the procedure of 6.3.1. At either extreme of ambient conditions, this quantity will vary with engine output, and as a rough approximation can be taken as directly proportional to main engine output. In the dual pressure plant, the dema,d for fi]lal heating, from the sertice tank (assumed to be at 55C) to the ellgit]e, has been separated, to be supplied by the high pressure saturated steam. In both cycles, while heatil>greturns to the drain tank at about IOOC, condensate wi11 be at a lower temperature, at or slightly below the saturation temperature of the condenser. To maintain the drain tank at 100C to encourage deaeration, heating is necessary, in proportion to the co!ldensateflow rate, In the simple cycle this heat is supplied by steam, as noted in Table B-1, In the dual pressure plant this need is met using pressurized fresh water or a proprietary heating liquid, circulated in a closed loop through the middle stagea of the charge cooler, The quantity of steam or heating liquid required can be estimated using the uethod of 6.3.4. Saturated steam conditions for the simple cycle, and for the HP section of the dual pressure cycle, are selected to ensure adequate heating of the hea~, iest fuel oil under consideration. Steam conditions for the LP section of the dual pressure boiler were selected with minimum recommended gas temperatures in mind. Pressure, temperature and enthalpy of the steam are obtained from steam tables or a Mollier diagram (see Appendix D).

2.

3.

4.

j.

6.

B-1

TfiBLE FEASIBILITY main engine: low STUDY speed FOR 8 diesel sIMPLE

9-1 W6STE HEfi T TURBOGENERATOR 20000 660 winter summer 85 140 B80 490 1510 8 I 70 70 140 S9Q 470 1200 85 140 710 570 ]4~0 PLflNT

; bkW @ MCR load, kWe:

estimated average electrical

ambient main steam steam steam saturated condition: output, %MCR

(1)
(2) (3) (4) (5)

engine for for for

70 140 7z0 400 1260

LO and hotel needs , kg/h fuel oil heating, kg/h drain steam tank heating, kg/h kg/h demand,

steam pressure, bar5 absolute saturation temperature, C minimum <del;~T at pinch point, gas t=mp at generating bank e;.:lt tlng

(6) (7).

C , C valve, , C , C C

10 I 80 I 00 I 40 170 160 420 g 590 719 676 I.j? ?769 122000 !43000 I lEQOQ 143000 275 :55

feedwater feedwater saturation est feed

temp , at reclrcule, temp , at economizer temperature, C temp, at economizer at a?

(8) iiQ) (9)

Inlet outlet

feedwater feedwater saturated

enthalp:, enthalpy liquid

recirc valve, kJ/l:g economizer inlet , iJ/k. enthaloy, kjf}..g kJ/k, g

feed enthalpy at economizer outlet, eccn~mi:er rezlrculat ion ratio saturated ad Ju5 ted adjusted <del>T at steam gas gas enthalpy, l.g:h at boiler gas Inlet, Inlet, , C bar l, J/kg C C kJ;l,g

flow, temp

(Ii) (1?)

255 2;5 2918

superheater

superheater Suuh, tr outlet s{jphtr dll outlet

cutlet steam ter,? steam ~~essre, steam enthalpy, % kg/h

255 ?0 235 7.75 291a 1.5

275 255 ?961

(13) 2961 (lb)

Ouance

for

1055,
flow,

suphtd

steam

2970

3620 5130 6760 6 I74

8.0 450

3910 5110 67j4 8 172 a.0 490

4770 6190 8157 8 I 72 7.7 6~0

(16) (17)

feedwater recirculation temp ga5 drop temp

flow, of at

kg/h flow, kg/h in economizer, e:.. it , C C

gas

economizer rate

4230 5574 6 174

8.5

WHTG steam estimated

, kg/k We-h of WHTG, kWe

(18)

output

j50

B-2

TABLE FEASIBILITY 8ND main engine: low estimated average STUDY

B-2 TuREOGENERATOR COOLER PLANT

FOR h WASTE HEAT

WITH A OUAL PRESSURE BOILER HEhT RECOVERY fiT THE CHARGE AIR speed diesel electrical : bkW @ MCR load, k.We 20000 660

ambient main

condition: output, XMCR kg/h kg/h 70 410 j20

uinter 85 490 380 4.8 150 10 160 8 170 10 180 632 2747 k,J/l,g 12200Q inlet, , C C bar l,J/}:g 29!8 C 255 235 2769 146000 11 800@ 275 255 2961 70 260 320

summer
85 320 390

(1)
(2) (4)

engine for for

LP steam HP steam LP steam LP steam

HFO pre-heating, HFO final heating, bars absolute temperature

pressure, saturation

(6) (7)

minimum <del>T at pinch gas tem~ at LP gen bank HP steam pressure, HP ~tesm saturation mlnlmum <del>T at Qa5 temp at HP gen

point , C e>, it , C

bars absolute temperature, pinch point, bank. k.J/kg kJikg enthalpy, kg/h at boiler exit, C

(6) (7)

C C

feeduater

enthalpy,

(8)

LF steam enthalpy, HP saturated steam ad Justed ad Ju5 ted :.del>T at supe.-heater suphi~ suphtr allowan:e gas qas flow, temp

superheater outlet steam steam 105s,

gas inlet steam temp, pres~ure, enthalpy, Z kgih

cutlet outlet fcr

255 20 235 7.75 2916 1.5

14300@ 275

iii) (12)

255 (13) 2961 (14)

LP steam flow suphtd steam UHTG steam

to WHTG, flou, kg/h , LP

790 3930 , 1:. g/k. We-h kg/k kWe We-h 9.3 7.6 GOO

rate

steam steam, WHTG,

WHTG steam rate, estimated output

HP
of

970 4770 9.0 7.3 760

900 4810 9.G 7.5 730

1090 (15j 5820 (16) 9.3 (l~j 7.j 910

B-3

7.

(iastemperatllres leaving each generating bank will be limited by the lowest reasonable pinch point (see Figures 7,1 and and 7,2, ad the discussion at 7.3.1). The temperature difference at this point is taken at the g~lideline val,leOf in Table 7-1. The feedwnter temperature to the ecot~omizerof the simple cycle (ahead of the recirculation connection) reflects direct feeding from the drain tank without any feed heaters (see note 5 abo~, e). For the dual pressure boiler, the feedwater temperature ia higher as a result of the feedwater heater at the charge air cooler. Tbe feedwater temperatllre at the economizer outlet of the simple cycle can be uade to approach the saturation temperature if the economizer is made sufficiently large. In this table it is asaumed to be heated within 10C of the saturation temperature.

8.

9.

10. To keep the economizer of the simple cycle above the acid dew point, water is recirculated from the discharge of the boiler circulating pump. The ratio of ,recirculated water to feedwater is determined by the enthalpy rise needed to achieve the selected \,altle at the economizer il)let,140C in this case:
r
u

recirculation

ratio

h
h;

h~d

- hb

where: hf
hfd
hin

=
=
=

enthalpy

enthalpy of the saturated liquid, kJ/kg of the feed before mixing, kJ/kg enthalpy of the mixed stream at the economizer inlet, kJ/kg

11. The quantity and temperature of exhauat gas at each condition ar? best obtained flonb ~rie!,<ine speci[lcatiol]. Khere these data are ,10[ a~ailable the guidelines of 5.5 can be applied, but note should again be made of the misleading results likely to be obtained when slng generalized data. Most engine manufacturer varn of a tolerance on gas flow rates of +/-5%. If the gas flow rate is higher at any Coaition than specified, the gas temperature will be lower by Up to ljc. Conservative practice calls for these estimates to be based on the worst case, with gas flow increased by 5% and gas temperature reduced by 15C. 12. The,maximum achievable superheated steam temperature is governed by the gas temperature at the last paas of the superheater bank. If the superheater is counter flow, then the last pass is exposed to the highest gas temperature, The temperature difference at this point ia taken at the guideline value indicated in Table 7-1. 13,. Steam pressure at the superheater outlet will be slightly lower than the saturated steam outlet. The enthalpy at the superheater outlet is obtained from steam tablea or a Mollier diagram (see Appendix D).
from the exhaat 14. Conservative practice requires that the heat available gas reflect losses to surroundings. An allowance of 1.5 percent is usually considered adequate.

B-4

15.

In the dual pressure cycle, the LP steam flow available for use in the
WHTG ca be determjt, ed by calct,latin~ S~r the heating total Lp steam production total and

subtracting the production is:

amot]nt

requirti

services.

The

LP steam

mlp, total = where: ME

CP

.985mqcpAT AhBa,

=
=

ATg Ahnac 16.

= rise of steam in the generating bank, from = enthalpy .,. . .

Ieeawacer inlet to saturated steam outlet, kJ/kq

gas mass flow rate, kglh specific heat of the gas, from Figure 5-1, kJ/h-C gas temperature drop across LP generating bank, C

The superheated steam flow can be estimated by deducting, from the heat available in the exkaust gas, the heat required to meet the saturated steam demand, then dividing the balance by the heat required to generate each kilogram of superheated steam, In the single pressure boiler, the heat used to raise the feedwater temperature at the economizer inlet uust also be accounted for. The following relations accomplish this: For the single pressure cycle: . 985 MgC#T% - m.., [hg+rhf - (r+l) hdup+rhr - (r+l)hout ho,]

M,up =

For the dual pressure cycle: .985mgC

m sup =
where: msp m8 CP = = = superheated steam flow rate, in kg/h mass flow rate, kg/h specific heat of the gas, from Figure j-l, kJ/h-C = temperature drop of the gas froa boiler inlet to the (HP) generatirig bank exit, C saturated steam flow rate, kg/h; see the note below recirculation ratio, Note 10 above enthalpies for the saturated vapor and liquid, kJ/kg enthalpy of the mixed stream at the ecot]omizer outlet. kJ/kg = enthalpy rise of steam in the (HP) generating bank, from feedwater inlet to saturated steam outlet, kJ/kg = enthalpy rise of superheated steam, from feedwater inlet to superheater outlet, kJ/kg

ATg - m~atAh,,C Ah=up

ATg msat = r= hg, hf = bout = Ah,ac Ahaw

Note: In the case of the single pressure boiler, the saturated steam flow of interest is that required to ueet the demand. In the dual pressure boiler however, it is the HP saturated steam flow for final fuel heating

B-5

whic,his to be used, flos rate is equal to the sum of the superheater OtPt ad 17. The feetiwater the saturated steam demand, This was used to calculate the temperature drop of the gas across the economizer of the simPle cycle, ~Tg :
(mfd)( = ------__ AT --!f__!!!~!_!!!

AT. where:
Mfd =

!!1!!

.985(

mg)(cp)

ATfd us =
CD
u

flow rate, kglh feedwater = feedwater temperature rise in the economizer, C mass flow rate, kg/h specific heat of the gas, from Figure j-l, kJ/h-C

18. The steam rate of the turbogenerator was estimated by the methods of
Appendix kiloxatt C. Of This electrical approach yields at an the all-inclusive generator steam terminals, rate, Which output per includes

gear and generator 10 SSe S. The steam rate under summer conditions is adjusted to reflect the lower condenser \,acuumcauaed by the blgh Sea water temperature,

Although the intent of this appe]]dixwas to illustrate a procedure, a number of observations are warranted: The final gas temperature at the economizer exit of the simple cycle is well above the lower limiting value of 160c, confirming that heat recovery is limited by the saturation temperature of the steam despite the presence of the economizer. If a feed~ater Ijeateris incol.poratedin the cycle, as in the dual pressure cycle, the feedwater may reach the boiier close el>oughto saturated temperature to render an economizer redundant. When the available generator output is compared to the average electrical load (estiolated from 6.1), it should be borne in mind that assumptions have been made and margins have been applied which may turn out to be excessive as more accurate information becomes available,

AP

PE

N D I X

c.

Procedure for WHTG Performance Estimates

This procedure enables conservative estimates to be made of the efficiency and steam rate of multi-stage, condensing turbogenerators of conventional design. Commercially available units, optimized for the apPlicatiO, can have somehat better performance than these estimates indicate. The procedure requires the availability of steam tables or a Mollier diagram (a diagram is included as Appendix D). The steam rate of a turbine is the steam flow necessary, at the given supply and exhaust conditions, to produce the desired output, As used here it has units of kilogram of steam per hour, per kllOwatt Of electricity delivered to the generator terminals, i.e.; it includes allowances for Ot only trblne but also for losses i losses, including gland sealing and leaving losses, gearing and in the generator. A low steam rate for any Kiven set of conditions reflects a high unit efficiency. 1. Steam pressure and temperature at the throttle must be known, assumed or estimated. If the boiler conditions are already established (see Section 7.3 and Appendix B) and in the absence of better data, tbe following assumptions of pressure and temperature drops to the throttle uay be reasonable: a Pressure drop of 2.5% for superheated steam, a temperature drop of 5C for saturated steam, a drop to the saturation temperature at the reduced pressure 2< The exhaust or back pressure must also be known. Unless there is a long or convoluted exhaust duct (,notlikely in WHTGS, which tend to be compact) the back pressure can be assumed equal to the condenser pressure. Typical condex]ser pressure when sing cooiing water of p to
about absolute 2jC is 0.050 bars but absolute. lead to higher With cooling rates, water at 32C, 0.075 bars

is likely to be the lowest achievable. Higher exhaust pressures

uncommon, steam

are not 3.

The energy ideally available ,from each kilogram of steam is determined as follows, using steam tables or a Mollier diagram (refer also to Figure c-l!: determine the enthalpy and entropy at the throttle conditions at the same entropy (i.e.; downward along a vertical line on the Mollier diagram) and at the exhaust pressure, determine the ideal exhaust enthalpy The difference between the two enthalpies ia the energy ideally available per kilogram of steam, A~~ .

4.

The basic efficiency, Eb, of the turbogenerator is read from Fi~re C-2, entering the curve appropriate to the throttle pressure at the turbogenerator rated output. Unless better information is available, the rated output may be taken as a round number, 20 tO 25% greater than the

c-1

FIGURE

C-1

USE OF MOLLIER DIAGRAM TO FIND ENERGY IDEALLY AVAILABLE FOR A TURBINE

.
L 3 z ; J /

THROTTLE PRESSURE

THROTTLE THROTTLE

TEMPERATURE ENTHALPY

EXHAUST

PRESSURE

ENCRGY IDEALLY AVAILABLE

/ IDEAL EXHAUST ENTHALPY

ENTROPY

c-2

FIGURE
AC TURBOGENERATOR
,73

C-2
EFFICIENCY

,68

.63

.58

2s0

Soo

7s0

1000

1250

1s00

17s0

2000

RATED

GENERTOR

LOAD,

kWe

average service load calculated i 6.I.

j.

The temperature correction factor, ft, is read from Figure C-3, entering at the curve appropriate to the throttle pressure at the throttle temperature. The back pressure correction factor is taken from Table C-1.

6.

TABLE C-1

back pressure, bars absolute throttle pressure bars absolute 4.5 7.5 lj.O

0.050
0.984 0.987 0.989

0.075 or higher

1.00
1.00 1.00

7.

Tl]eload correction factor, fl, is read from Figure c-4, entering the curve appropriate to the generator rating at the percent of rated output under consideration. The steam rate, in units of kg/kWe-h, inclusive of all losses to the generator terminals, is calculated as follows: 3600 Steam Rate = ------------------------(Eb)(ft)(fb)(fl)( Ah~ )
where

8.

the terms are defined above. if the enthalpies are in kJ/kg.

The constant, 3600 kJ/kW-h, applies

c-4

-------

k IGUKL
STEAM
1.04

C-5

TURBOGENERATOR EFFICIENCY TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FACTOR

1.03

1.02

1,01

1!00

,99

.98

.97

.96

,95

.94

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275 C

300

325

350

375

400

TEMPERATURE,

FIGURE
TURBOGENERATOR LOAD

C4
CORRECTION FACTOR

1!00

,95

.90

,85

,80

,75 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

PERCENT

DF

RATED

LOAD

AP

PEN

D I

NTROPY,

JOULE PER QRAM DEGREE KELvIN

ENTROPY,

JOUM PER GRAM DEGREE KELVIN

D-1