Construction Materials

Houses are made from different materials; materials like stones, clay, husk, wood, concrete, bricks, cement and thatch. However many of these materials are not in use any more in most modern constructions. Now as we all know, that most structures are built with cement and concrete, but to save costs people still use other materials along with concrete, most notably wood. However in many poverty stricken countries, houses are built with whatever people could get.

most common materials used in construction Cement, Concrete steel wood/timber

used for additional works. Bitumen, Asphalt, Aluminium, plastic. ceramic, glass, PVC and Copper etc are also It is very important to know the properties of the materials before using them. The commonly used materials for construction should be tested for mechanical properties, thermal properties, chemical properties and electrical properties.

Concrete
Concrete is one of the oldest building materials, having been used by the Romans as early as 100 B.C. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse and fine aggregates, admixtures, and water. Varying the quantities and formulations of these ingredients will change the properties of the finished concrete. When first mixed, it is plastic (able to flow and be shaped) and can be cast to take the shape of the formwork provided. Hardening of the concrete is caused by a chemical reaction between the cement and water called hydration. Most mixtures of concrete set within 412 hours, depending on the temperature, the volume of the pour, type of cement, and admixtures. When the temperature is below 70F (20C), the reaction slows. Very little chemical reaction takes place below 40F (4C), and almost none occurs at 32F (0C). The rule of thumb is: if you are comfortable, the concrete is comfortable. Concrete continues to harden for months after the initial set, but most placements reach their compressive or design strength within 28 days. Forms can be removed after one to several days or when the concrete can support itself. This should be determined by an engineer. Concrete is commonly used for its compressive strength. It makes an excellent material for building projects, including pavement, foundations, buildings, dams, and bridges. However, its tensile capabilities are limited since it will crumble if too much tension is applied to the material. For this reason, rebar (steel reinforced bar) is embedded into the concrete when it is poured.

Types of Cement
Cement (hydraulic and non-hydraulic) is a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. Cement is the most important construction material which is used in the production of mortar and concrete. Cement is produced by heating together calcareous material (containing calcium carbonate) such as limestone and argillaceous material (silica and alumina) such as clay, shale etc from 1400 to 1550C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination. The resulting product is a hard substance, called 'clinker', which is then ground with a small amount of gypsum(4% to 6%) into a powder to make Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), the most common type of cement used.

Cement binds the concrete mix together. There are a number of types of cement. The most common, used for general construction, is called Type I Normal Portland cement. Another variation used in construction is white Portland cement. It is light-colored and used chiefly for architectural effects. White Portland cement is made from carefully selected raw materials and develops the same strength as the normal graycolored Portland cement.
There are two types of cement: Hydraulic Hydraulic cement hardens independently of the mixture's water content because of a chemical reaction known as hydration. Hydraulic cements can be used underwater. A common example is Portland cement. This is the type of cement used in the construction industry. Non-hydraulic Non-hydraulic cements, such as plaster, must stay dry to retain their strength. Non-hydraulic cements are cheaper but they are not as strong and take longer to cure. What Is Aggregate? Aggregate is defined simply as small particulate material. Construction aggregate is a very broad term and includes a number of different materials. It ranges from sand to crushed rock, fly ash, and slag. Recycled concrete can also be used as aggregate. Technically any particle can be used as aggregate. I have seen Styrofoam, shredded paper, and shredded cardboard used as an aggregate for lightweight concrete experiments. The aggregate you choose, as well as how much you use, affects the strength of the finished concrete. Cement vs. Concrete Quite simply, the difference between cement and concrete is the presence of aggregate. Aggregate is small particles that are added to the mixture before it is cured. Concrete is cement plus aggregate. Cement never contains aggregate

Masonry Masonry structures are made from a number of smaller units held together with a bonding material known as mortar. Masonry units are manufactured as brick, concrete block, stone and clay tile. Mortar is a cementitious material that bonds the individual units together. Almost all masonry construction must be reinforced with metals. Like concrete, masonry as good compressive strength and poor tensile strength. Brick Masonry Brick masonry uses units (bricks) that are manufactured, rather than removed from quarries. There are many types: Adobe brick. Natural sun-dried clays or earth and a binder. Kiln-burned brick. Natural clays or shales (sometimes with other materials added, such as coloring) molded to shape, dried, and fired for hardness. Sand-lime brick. A mixture of sand and lime, molded and hardened under steam pressure and heat Concrete brick. A mixture of Portland cement and aggregates, molded into solid or cored units and hardened chemically. There are many types and sizes of brick. Most are either building brick or face brick. Some special types are used to a lesser extent. Building brick. Usually called common brick, this is the most-used type. It is used for walls, backing, and other applications where appearance is not important. Face brick. This material is manufactured under more controlled conditions to produce bricks of specific dimensions, colors, and structural qualities. Face bricks are more expensive than building bricks, because of the care going into their manufacture. Face bricks with defects are often sold as common bricks. Glazed brick. Finished with a hard, smooth coating, these bricks are used for decorative and special service applications. Firebrick. Used where masonry units are subjected to extreme heat, such as fireplaces, incinerators, and industrial furnaces.

How Bricks and Tiles Are Made

Bricks and tiles are made from finely ground clay or shale in three steps: forming, drying, and firing. Forming. Forming prepares the clay or shale for molding and produces soft, unfinished brick and tile of the desired size and shape. There are three different methods of forming: the stiffmud, or wire-cut, process, the soft-mud process, and the dry-press process. In the stiff-mud process, heavy cast-iron rollers pulverize clay or shale in a large cast-iron pan 7 feet to 9 feet (2-2.7 meters) in diameter. The ground clay is forced through holes in the bottom of the pan into a circular mixing device called a pug mill. In the, pug mill, rotating knives cut the clay and blend it with water, forming a plastic mass containing about 20 percent water. This mass is forced out through a rectangular hole and emerges as a continuous ribbon of clay with the cross section of a brick. This ribbon is carried by rollers to a cutting table where a rotating wire "knife" cuts it into individual bricks ready for drying. In the soft-mud process, a soft, easily molded mass containing more than 20 percent water is formed in the pug mill. The wet clay is shaped in molds that have been coated with sand or water to prevent the clay from sticking. The bricks are then removed from the molds and dried. In the dry-press process, as little water as possible is added to the clay. The prepared clay, which contains no more than 10 percent water, is then poured into a strong steel mold. The top

and bottom of the mold are powerful plungers that compress and form the clay under pressures from 500 to 1,500 pounds per square inch. Drying. Slow drying, the second step in making brick and tile, evaporates most of the water from the brick and tile and helps prevent cracking and warping during firing. Unfired, or green, bricks are dried in one of several ways. Sometimes the wet bricks are stacked in chambers called humidity dryers. There they are heated to a temperature of 250 to 300 F. (170 C. to 200 C.), in air that is saturated with water vapor. Controlled currents of dry air heated to temperatures up to 390 F. (250 C.) are then blown through the chamber, drying the bricks quickly without warping or cracking them. Drying is also done in covered sheds where hot steam is used to dry the bricks. It usually takes about three days to dry bricks by either method. Firing. The hardening of brick and tile is effected by burning or firing. This process reduces the tendency of the finished product to absorb water and brings out the color of the clay. Firing of dried, or green, bricks is done in ovens called kilns. During firing, which may take several days, the bricks are baked at 1600 to 3000 F. (800 C. to 1140C.). The exact temperature depends on the kind of clay in the bricks and the use for which they are intended. The bricks are first preheated to a red heat to drive out any water remaining in them, then fired until hard, and finally cooled. Stone Masonry The most common materials used in stone masonry are granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, and slate. Like concrete, stone has been used as a building material for many centuries. In the past, stones were used for structural members, roofing, and finishing. Due to the development of new materials and methods of construction, stones are now used mainly for their decorative value. Most stones are removed from a quarry and sent to a finishing mill for final dressing. Some stones are used in their original shapes and surface finishes. Others are cut to a specific shape, size, and finish. These are known as cut stones. Stone masonry can be laid as solid walls of stone or as composite walls backed with concrete block or tile. It is also used as a veneer. Stone walls are classified according to shape and surface finish of the stone, such as rubble, ashlar, and cut stone, Figure 10-13. Rubble consists of stones as they come from the quarry or are gathered from a field or stream. Such stones may be smooth with rounded edges or may be rough and angular. The random rubble wall consists of stones laid in an irregular pattern with varying sizes and shapes. Other rubble patterns are coursed, mosaic, and strip.

Metal Metal is used in construction of huge structures like big buildings or skyscrapers. It is used for external finish and support. For the purpose of construction, there are many types of metals used depending upon the nature of work. Selection of metal depends upon its resistivity against corrosion. On these criteria, steel stands above all others as steel is a strong alloy of iron which is, durable and lasts long, but only if it is well refined, well treated and alloyed perfectly. Various types of steel alloys are used in construction, where some of them are even custom manufactured to cater the needs of certain complex structures. One of the most popular types of steel used in construction is the hot dip galvanized steel; this type of steel is particularly used in buildings where the building's metal structure has to be protected from corrosion

Metal is used extensively in the construction industry. Large commercial buildings use structural steel. Construction jobs make use of metal windows, doors, studs, beams, joists, wall facings, roofing, plumbing, and hardware. Steel in Construction Steel is the most widely used metal in construction, with applications ranging from structural support to reinforcement to decorative uses. Structural steel is the term applied to hotrolled steel sections, shapes, and plates, This includes bolts, rivets, and bracing. manufacture Structural steel shapes are formed by passing heated strips of steel through a succession of rollers that gradually form the metal into the required shape. Structural steel shapes are available in a number of sizes and weights. Wood Wood continues to be one of the chief building materials, Figure 10-20. It is used for structural framing (rough carpentry), trim, floors, walls, and cabinetry (finish carpentry and architectural woodwork). Relative to its weight, wood has high strength in compression, tension, and bending. It also has excellent impact resistance. While steps have been taken to substitute other materials, wood remains a valuable and widely used residential construction material. Wood Classification Woods are broadly classified as either hardwoods or softwoods. There are many varieties used for construction. These classifications are not an exact measure of hardness or softness (because this varies) but a general classification based on type of tree. In addition to hardness or softness, woods vary in strength, weight, texture, workability, and cost. Building specifications usually indicate the type and grade of lumber to be used in different parts of the construction. Lumber When wood is cut into pieces of specific thickness, width, and length, it is called lumber. Lumber products include rough framing members (at least 2 thick), such as beams, headers, and posts; finished lumber, such as flooring, door and window trim, paneling, and moldings; and specialty items, such as decorative panels, carved doors, ornamental overlay designs, and turned balusters (stairrail posts) Lumber is classified as rough-sawn or surfaced to size. Rough-sawn lumber has been cut to size but not dressed or surfaced. Surfaced lumber has been dressed or finished to size by running it through a planer. The designation S2S is used for lumber dressed on two sides, and S4S for lumber that is surfaced or planed on all four sides. Plywood is a wood product made of several layers of lumber arranged with the grain at right angles in each successive layer and bonded with an adhesive. An odd number of layers is used, so that the grain of the face and back are running in the same direction. The panels are usually 4 8 in size, and are available in finished thicknesses ranging from 1/8 to over 1. Because of its modular size and uniformity, plywood speeds construction and is considered an economical building material.

Interior plywood is bonded with an adhesive that is water-resistant. It is used for cabinetry, rough flooring, and finished walls. Exterior or structural plywood is bonded with a waterproof adhesive. It is used for wall sheathing, finished walls, roof sheathing, and concrete forms. Glue-laminated Timber The process of laminating (bonding layers of lumber together with adhesive) has made it possible to span larger distances and change traditional construction techniques.Wood beams, arches, and other members of nearly any size and shape can be fabricated. These laminated products are made of kiln-dried lumber and prepared for interior and exterior use. These beams are usually prefinished at the factory and delivered to the job with protective wrapping.

Glass
Glass is a ceramic material formed at temperatures above 2300F (1260C). It is made from sand (silica), soda (sodium oxide), and lime (calcium oxide). Other chemicals can be added to change its characteristics. Types of glass Float glass is the most common type of glass. A continuous ribbon of molten glass flows out of a furnace and floats on a bath of molten tin. Irregularities melt out and the glass becomes flat. The ribbon of glass is fire-polished and annealed, without grinding or polishing. Over 90% of the worlds flat glass is made by the float process. After the float process, other processes can further modify the properties of the glass, producing several types: Sheet glass is commonly used for windows in thicknesses of 3/32 (single strength, or SS) and 1/8 (double strength, or DS). Thick glass is sheet glass that is 3/16 to 7/16 in thickness. Plate glass is sheet glass that has been heat-treated during forming, producing a brilliant surface that is ground and polished when cooled. Bent glass is produced by heating annealed glass to the point where it softens so it can be pressed over a form. Safety glass was developed to overcome the hazards of sheet glass in large, exposed, or public areas. Three types of safety glass are available: tempered, laminated, and wired glass. Tempered glass is developed by heating annealed glass to near its melting point, then chilling it rapidly. This creates high compression on the exterior surfaces and high tension internally, making the piece of glass three to five times as strong as annealed glass. Tempered glass can be broken, but it shatters into small, pebblelike pieces rather than sharp slivers. Tempered glass must be ordered to the exact size needed before tempering, because it cannot be cut, drilled, or ground after it has been tempered. Laminated glass consists of a layer of vinyl between sheets of glass. The layers are bonded together with heat and pressure. This glass can be broken, but the plastic layers hold the small, sharp pieces in place. Wired glass has a wire mesh molded into its center. Wired glass can be broken, but the wire holds the pieces together. Wired glass can be obtained with an etched finish, a sandblasted finish, or a patterned finish. Insulating glass is a unit of two or more sheets of glass separated by an air space that is dehydrated and sealed. These units serve as a good insulator for heat and sound transfer. Patterned glass is sheet glass with a pattern rolled into one or both sides to diffuse the light and provide privacy.

 Stained glass, sometimes called art or cathedral glass, is produced by adding metallic oxides in the molten state. This glass can be used in sheets or cut into smaller pieces and made into leaded glass for windows and decorative pieces. Plastics Plastics have many uses in construction. Plastic laminates serve as counter tops, door veneer, and wall surfacing. Panels of wood or gypsum are printed, textured, and given a plastic vinyl coating. Plastic rain gutters and downspouts collect and distribute rain water. Plastic pipes are used for water-transmission, sprinkling, drainage, and sewage systems. Plastics are also used for many trim and ornamental items, such as moldings on doors and simulated wood carvings. Plastic materials are usually noted on the drawing and detailed in the specifications. Insulation The purpose of thermal insulation is to reduce heat transmission through walls, ceilings, and floors. When the outdoor temperature is warm, insulation keeps the heat from entering the structure. When the outdoor temperature is cool, insulation helps keep the warm air indoors. Insulation is manufactured in a variety of forms and types to meet specific construction requirements. Each type will have an R-value (resistance to heat transfer), depending on the manner of application and amount of material. A high R-value means good insulation qualities. Insulation materials are classified as: Flexible (blanket or batt). Loose-fill. Reflective. Rigid (structural and nonstructural).