Development of the concept Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "Six Ages" or the "Four

Empires", and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world.[3] When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".[4] In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to preChristian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to the Christian period as nova (or "new").[5] Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442).[6] Bruni and later historians argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarch's time, and therefore added a third period to Petrarch's two. The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season".[7] In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or "middle age", first recorded in 1604,[8] and media saecula, or "middle ages", first recorded in 1625.[9] The alternative term "medieval" (or occasionally "mediaeval") derives from medium aevum.[10] Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius (16381707) divided history into three periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.[9] English is the only major language that retains a plural form of the term.[11] In European history, the Middle Ages, or Medieval period, lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, and was followed by the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the traditional division of Western history into Antiquity, Medieval, and Modern periods. The period is subdivided into the Early, the High, and the Late Middle Ages. Depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasions, which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the Early Middle Ages. The barbarian invaders formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire.

In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East, once part of the Eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire), became an Islamic Empire after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break withAntiquity was not complete. The still sizeable Byzantine Empire survived and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the Code of Justinian, was widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated extant Roman institutions, while monasteries were founded as Christianity expanded in Western Europe. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, established an empire covering much of Western Europe; the Carolingian Empire endured until the 9th century, when it succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasionsVikings from the north, Magyars from the east, and Saracens from the south. Temples The Kandariy Mahdeva Temple (Devanagari: , IAST: Kandariy Mahdeva) is the largest and most ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group found at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is considered one of the best examples of temples preserved from the medieval period in India.[1]Khajuraho was once the religious capital of the Chandela Rajputs and today is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. The Kandariya Mahadeva temple is the largest of the Western group of temples and was built by Vidyadhara[citation needed], arguably one of the greatest Chandela kings. The temple was built around 1050 on Hindu beliefs dating back to 1000 BC; The main spire or sikhara rises 31 m to depict Mount Kailash, the Himalayan mountain abode ofShiva and is surrounded by 84 miniature spires (or Urushringas). Inside the sanctum

is a marble linga representing Shiva.[2] The Archaeological Survey of Indiaprotects the temple, which is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site at Khajuraho. Monuments Monuments of India's Medieval Period1 The Taj Mahal is a stunning example of India's Mughal-era architecture India's Medieval period is generally known as the Mughal Empire, a period that lasted from 1525 to 1860 A.D. During this era, India became united as a single nation and began to flourish economically and culturally. Builders and craftsmen, working on orders from the emperors of the era, expanded on traditional Persian styles to create palaces, mausoleums and fortresses made from gleaming white marble and and red sandstone. Today, these architectural masterpieces still have the power to leave visitors in awe of their beauty and design. Including Synonyms: include, comprise, comprehend, embrace, involve These verbs mean to take in or contain as part of something larger. Include often implies an incomplete listing: "Through the process of amendment, interpretation and court decision I have finally been included in 'We, the people'" (Barbara C. Jordan). Comprise usually implies that all of the components are stated: The book comprises 15 chapters. Comprehend and embrace usually refer to the taking in of subordinate elements: My field of study comprehends several disciplines. This theory embraces many facets of human behavior. Involve usually suggests inclusion as a logical consequence

or necessary condition: "Every argument involves some assumptions" (Brooke F. Westcott). Usage Note: Some writers insist that include be used only when it is followed by a partial list of the contents of the referent of the subject. Therefore, one may write New England includes Connecticut and Rhode Island, but one must use comprise or consist of to provide full enumeration: New England comprises (not includes) Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. This restriction is too strong. Include does not rule out the possibility of a complete listing. Thus the sentence The bibliography should include all the journal articles you have used does not entail that the bibliography must contain something other than journal articles, though it does leave that possibility open. The use of comprise or consist of, however, will avoid ambiguity when a listing is meant to be exhaustive. Thus the sentence The task force includes all of the Navy units on active duty in the region allows for the possibility that Marine and Army units are also taking part, where the same sentence with comprisewould entail that the task force contained only Navy forces. See Usage Note at comprise. medieval period stupas goes up in shelves with Stupa 2 situated on a lower shelf, Stupa 1, Stupa 3, the 5th century Gupta Temple No.17 and the 7th century temple No. 18 are on the intermediate shelf and a later monastery is on the crowning shelf. The balustrade surrounding Stupa 2, carved with aniconic representations of the Buddha, was added in the late 2nd century BC under the Satavahanas.

The adjacent Gupta temple no.17 was hailed by Sir John Marshall as one of the most rationally organized structures in Indian architecture. Though small, it was a herald of all the principles which went into the engineering of an Indian temple in the early medieval period. The Buddhas in the perambulatory surrounding Stupa 1 are not contemporary with the Stupa but belong to the Gupta period in the mid-5th century AD. The monastery and the temple with the tall pillars adjacent to Stupa 1 and the temple near the monastery on the crowning shelf illustrate the evolution of the architectural form after the 5th century Gupta temple. Facts / Did you know? A Chunar sandstone pillar fragment, shining with the proverbial Mauryan polish, lies near Stupa I and carries the famous edict of Ashoka warning against schism in the Buddhist community. Stupa 1 was found empty, while relics of the two disciples of Buddha enshrined in the adjacent Stupa 3 were carried away to England. The nearby modern temple has a reliquary containing the remains of a Buddhist teacher from another Stupa outside Sanchi. Forts The capital of each raja or chieftain was a fort around which a township grew and developed; this pattern can be seen in many South Asian cities such as Delhi, Agra, Rajasthan,Lahore, Pune, Calcutta and Mumba i. Two forts in India are UNESCO world heritage sites the Agra fort and the Red fort. The oldest surviving fort in India is the Qila Mubarak atBathinda which had it origins in

100 AD during the Kushan empire, The Kangra Fort in Kangra believed to have been built by the still surviving Katoch dynasty after the battle of Mahabharta. The fort was written about by the scribes of Alexander the Great, thus making it the oldest fort in India . Medieval Delhi developed around Chandni Chowk, the township adjoining the Red Fort while and Kolkata came about around Fort William built by the British. Many small towns ranging from Jhansi to Chandragiri grew around forts. Some towns even acquired the names from the forts. Durg is fort in Hindi. Satara was so named because of the seventeen walls of the fort. Then there are famous monuments in certain cities and towns that overshadow the importance of the forts. Agra Fort pales into comparative insignificance against the glory of the Taj Mahal. Khajuraho temples overshadow Rajgarh Fort. The conquest of, or battles for the forts of India have been significant occasions in Indian history. The capture of Qila Mubarak (Bathinda) in 1004 AD by Mahmud of Ghazniheralded the advent of Islamic rule in India. The struggle of Shivaji against the Mughals in the seventeenth century and his reign occur against the backdrop of forts in the Deccan. The capture of Seringapatam and death of Tippu Sultan in 1799 cemented British rule in South India. The capture of Gawilghur by Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, ended the Maratha threat to British rule in Central India at the time of the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

Prime Minister of India hoists the Indian flag on the ramparts of the historical site, Red Fort, Delhi, On August 15th. The flag of independent India was first unfurled from the ramparts of the Red Fort by none other than Jawahar Lal

Nehru, first Prime Minister of India on the morning of 15 August 1947. This practice of unfurling of flag followed by a speech by the Prime Minister continues each year on Independence Day. Just after World War II, the Red Fort had been the scene of the famous trial of the Indian National Army. remains of buildings What has archaeology got to do with buildings? Archaeology is the study of the material remains and environmental effects of human behaviour: evidence can range from landscapes to microscopic organisms and covers all periods from the origins of human life to the remains of 20th-century industry and warfare. Standing buildings, as much as the remains of their buried counterparts, are witnesses to that past and can tell us much about the technology, social organisations, aspirations and everyday life of their inhabitants. Historic buildings are also essential components of our everyday surroundings. They are part of the familiar and cherished local scene and, together with street patterns and open space, define both the historic development of a settlement and the way we live today. Legislation, archaeology and buildings A small percentage of buildings is protected by listing because of special architectural or historic interest, while some unoccupied buildings are scheduled as ancient monuments (under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 and the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act

1979 respectively). Currently about 500,000 individual buildings are listed a tiny number compared to the total stock. Buildings can be listed at Grade I (of exceptional interest: about 2%); II* (of more than special interest: about 4%) and II (of special interest: 94%). The protection offered by listing is universal and covers the whole building, including the interior it does not differ with the listing grade. Listing a building does not prohibit change. Instead it seeks to manage change by requiring owners to apply for listed building consent for demolition or for works of alteration or extension which would affect the buildings character. Unlike planning permission no fee is payable, and the process of making a listed building consent application gives an owner or developer access to expert conservation advice from the local authority, national and local expert societies and English Heritage. The local planning authority is required to notify the national amenity

The structure of the human alimentary canal The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube which runs from the mouth to the anus .Together with several other organs, including the liver and the pancreas, it makes up the digestive system. The total length of the human alimentary canal is between 5 and 6 m, from anus to mouth. To fit this considerable length into body, parts of the canal are folded and coiled inside the abdomen .The mucus is a substance secreted along the tube by cells lining its walls .Mucus helps food to slide through the canal without doing too much damage to the lining. It also forms a protective covering which keeps the digestive juices, which are inside the lumen of the canal, from coming into contact with the living cells of the walls. Along the whole length of the alimentary canal there are muscles in the walls. These produce waves, of Contraction and relaxation called peristaltic waves, which move food along the alimentary canal and help to mix the contents. Each region of the alimentary canal has it own function and different structure. There are 4 basic layers in the wall of the alimentary canal. Working from the inside these are: a) the mucosa b) the submucosa c) the muscularis externa d) the serosa. Many of this names came from Latin origin. The mucosa is made up of 3 layers. The innermost layer is the epithelium. The structure of the epithelium varies in different parts of the alimentary canal, but it always contains cells which secrete mucus. 42833iem24lnq9k Beneath it is a layer of connective tissue called lamina propria, which means 'closest layer'. And beneath that is a layer of smooth muscle called the muscular is mucosa. The sub mucosa is made up of areole connective tissue. This is an opentextured stretchy tissue, containing many elastic fibred and collagen fibres. Running through it are numerous blood vessels and nerves. The muscularis externa ia made of two layers of muscle. The innermost layer has fibres running around the tube, and is called circular muscle. The outermost layer has fibres running along the tube and it is called longitudinal muscle. The serosa is a very thin layer, made up of connective tissue covered with a single layer of thin, smooth closely fitting cells. en833i2424lnnq We can observe in detail each part of the human alimentary canal structure

in this diagram. The mouth: Taking food into the mouth is called ingestion. We use lips, tongue and teeth. The tongue is also important in tasting food, to tell you whether it is good to eat; if not it will be ejected from the mouth rather than swallowed. The main purpose of the human teeth is to break up large pieces of food, thus beginning the process of the mechanical digestion. This is done by chewing, or mastication. Strong muscle is the jaws move the lower jaw up and down from side to side, grinding the teeth in the lower jaw against those in the upper jaw. The premolar and molar teeth have ridges and grooves, which trap food between them and crush it as chew. Mastication greatly increases the surface area of the food, bringing more of it into direct contact with enzymes in the digestive juice and so speeding up chemical digestion. Three pairs of salivary glands secrete watery liquid saliva, which pours along ducts into the mouth. Like all secretions along the alimentary canal, saliva is mostly water. It contains mucus, which mixes with the food as it is chewed, helping to glue it loosely together into a ball called a bolus. The mucus also makes the bolus slippery, so that is easier to swallow. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of starch. . Thus, digestion by amylase produces maltose and small chain made up of three, four or more glucose molecules on the end of a chain . Thus , digestion by amylase produces maltose and small chains made up three, four or more glucose molecules linked together, but it does not produce individual glucose molecules. Saliva also contains an enzyme called lysozyme. This enzyme, which is also found in tears, can destroy several types of bacteria which can cause infection in the mouth and throat, including Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. The lysozyme, together with a general 'washing' action of saliva, and a small amount of hydrogen carbonate ions in it ( which partly neutralizes acids on teeth ) appear to help reduce the incidence of tooth decay.