Waste Characterisation Literature Review

1
BE-AWARE Work Package 3 Deliverable 3.3
WASTE CHARACTERISATION LITERATURE REVIEW
Mohamed Osmani, Andrew Price, Malcolm Sutherland

(Loughborough University)
Completed November 2006 REVISED MAY 2013: portions of the original document have been scanned
Waste Characterisation Literature Review. Copyright of LabSearch, a working title of Dr Malcolm Sutherland 2013
Executive Summary
This report was completed in fulfilment Deliverable 3 of Work Package 3, of the BE-AWARE protect. The report reviews waste characterisation approaches, technologies and methodologies, and also discusses the requirements for the next stage of Work Package 3. The identification and characterisation of waste materials can be a convex task, requiring careful attention of varying quantises, flows, and the chemical and physical composition Available data may be limited, and studies into a waste stream rely on representative sampling, interviews, and the use of resources such as IT databases or models. The potential for recycling a waste material is also limited by financial costs such as transportation, and the availability of appropriate reprocessing technologies. The following approaches of waste characterisation are discussed: classification: waste materials are generally classified into groups of similar items, such as plastics, wood, bricks, etc.; quantification: waste streams and materials are quantified, by observations or sampling, by interviews or questionnaires, or by simplifying data (for a few sites) for a larger sector or region; composition: waste stream components are studied for their chemical and physical composition, in order to identify any hazardous chemicals or contaminants, or to assess their suitability for recycling; economic aspects: the viability of recycling a material is determined by a range of financial costs, including haulage, capital costs (e.g. purchasing machinery), market value and environmental taxes; and, performance: the potential for recycling a material is also governed by its performancerelated properties, including durability, purity, safety and physical stability,
Waste characterisation arid recycling depends on the use of technological tools, including computer models and databases, and laboratory instruments. Computer databases can be used to assemble and organise extensive data, which can be altered and updated. One important use of a database is to list companies which are producing recycled products, in order to expand the market. Another use is for determining the environmental impact of materials through database-generated results. Computer modelling can be used to study complex processes (such as the transfer of materials and wastes within an industrial sector), and to predict future scenarios (e.g. the changes to financial costs affecting a company if more materials are recycled). Assessment of waste materials can also be performed in the laboratory, e.g. to analyse for hazardous chemicals, and to correlate results with legislative requirements.
Three methodologies used in waste characterisation include sampling techniques, analytical techniques, and the marketing of recycled products. Sampling of waste materials or streams can involve collecting actual samples, or collecting in-formation through interviews and questionnaires. Both methods have disadvantages, e.g. errors can arise from crosscontamination of actual materials; or an interviewee's incomplete knowledge of the materials. The accuracy of data collected through sampling is also limited by time, cost and accessibility to information or the materiaIs. The reliability of waste material analysis can be affected by contamination of the equipment, and by the precision of the data produced. In order for a recyclable material to penetrate the market at a profit, the properties of the material need to be compared with those produced by competitors (especially raw materials). Marketing a recycled material includes surveying customers' opinions; establishing its market value; assessing the level of competition in the market, and examining all the costs involved in producing and selling the material.
CONTENTS
1: Introduction 1.1: Background 1.2: Aims and objectives 2: Waste characterisation techniques 2.1: Introduction 2.2: The definition of Waste Characterisation 2.3: Construction and Demolition waste in the UK 2.4: Quantification 2.5: Classification 2.6: Composition 2.7: Economic aspects 2.8: Performance aspects 3: Waste characterisation technologies 3.1: Introduction 3.2: Databases 3.3: Modelling 3.4: Assessment 4: Methodologies 4.1: Sampling strategy 4.2: Analytical methodology 4.3: Marketing 5: Conclusions and further work 5.1: Summary of findings of the literature review 5.2: Further work References pages 36 - 41 pages 34, 35 pages 27 - 33 pages 20 - 26 pages 7 - 19 pages 5 - 6
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1: Background
This report comprises a literature-based investigation into waste characterisation approaches, technologies and methodologies, as part of Be-Aware Work Package 3. The alms behind Work Package 3 are to develop a detailed knowledge of the types and properties of construction wastes, to investigate their viability tor recycling, and to create a pan-industrial waste exchange. Previous Work Package 3 tasks focussed on targeting, prioritising and mapping waste products across a number of construction sectors. Research for Work Package 3 completed to date is summarised below:
Figure 1: completed Be-Aware WP3 project tasks
Construction waste targeting, prioritising, and mapping activities provided insights into the existing nature of construction waste material recycling in the UK, and highlighted the key barriers associated with waste materials' recycling options. The range of construction waste materials and the significance of some waste streams were identified. The next stage in the Be-Aware project was to gain an understanding of the aspects and methods used in characterising waste. This was accomplished through the collection and review of related literature, the findings of which are summarised in this report.
1.2: Aims and objectives

The aim of this report is to review existing waste characterisation strategies and techniques. The main objectives are to examine current approaches, technologies and methodlogies. These are summarised in Figure 2, and discussed throughout the report. Finally, the main findings are summarised and linked with the next stages in Work Package 3 or the Be-Aware
project. This report also contains recommendations on which waste characterisation issues need to be further investigated, through a waste characterisation survey, and at Workshop 2 (Waste Performance and Economic Assessment) (held in February 2007).
Figure 2: aspects of waste characterisation examined in the literature review
2: WASTE CHARACTERISATION APPROACHES

2.1: Introduction
This chapter discusses the types of Information which need to be collected for a waste characterisation study, The characterisation of waste streams and the estimation of waste flow rates is essential, due to increasing penalties for waste disposal (to landfill), and increasing opportunities in recycling (Gay et al, 1997). To acquire such information, a systematic assessment of waste streams must be undertaken, using different approaches. Waste streams need to be quantified e.g. to assess if generated wastes are abundant enough to be reprocessed (John and Zordan, 2000). The composition of a waste is usually compared with required standards detailed in industrial manuals (e.g. British standards). In addition, economic and performance data (e.g. market value of recycled products, durability of materials) may be collected in order to assess whether or not a recycling strategy may be viable.
2.2: Definition of waste characterisation

Yu and MacLaren (1995) defined waste characterisation as the analysis of the composition of the waste stream by material types (such as glass, paper. metal, etc.), or by product types (such as glass containers, magazines, cans, etc.). Moore et al (1998) stated that, "in order to describe waste, two concepts are required: waste stream amounts and the composition of these waste streams. They also stated that waste characterization involves analysing the waste itself; the related construction products on the marvel; and the products of waste reprocessing. Waste characterisation studies can be linked with developing or choosing recycling technologies, and identifying waste materials which can be recovered reprocessed, and sold on the market (Peng et al, 1997).
2.3: Construction and demolition waste in the UK

Construction and Demolition Waste (C&DW) is the largest waste stream being produced in the UK, amounting to over 100 million tonnes per annum (Smartwaste, 2006), and accounting for over 30% of all waste produced in 2004 (DEFRA, 3005). It is also proving to be one of the most potentially recyclable. Halliwell (2006) reported that in 2000, approximately 48% of C&D waste was recycled; another 43% was beneficially re-used; and the remaining 4% was sent to landfill. Several initiatives have been undertaken in recent years by the UK government and by companies to exploit and re-use a range of materials present in C&DW. It is not precisely known what quantities of each type o+ waste material are produced throughout the UK. Data compiled by Poon et al (2004) (Figure 3) detailed the percentage of ordered construction materials for a British case study (office block) construction project ending up as waste. As much as 30% of purchased material (namely plywood and
plasterboard) may leave the construction site as waste, Chen et al (2002) provided more modest predictions, estimating that on average, between 2.5% and 6.0% mass of bricks, blocks, drywall, tiling and wood brought onto British construction sites end up being discarded.
Figure 3: percentages of ordered materials being discarded (by mass) (Poon et al, 2004)
2.4: Quantification
Producing quantified waste data There are two general approaches in quantifying waste (USEPA, 1996): Source-specific: the individual components of a waste stream being sampled, sorted and weighed: and, Material flows method: the collection of data on the rate of production of (combined) wastes and/or saleable products from an operation, and using this to predict individual quantities.
Waste quantification may yield data with wide error margins (USEPA. 1996). The sourcespecific approach might be applicable within a small manufacturing plant, although the data produced may only be relevant to the plant itself, and should not be applied to other manufacturing sites. When predicting the quantities and flow-rates of waste streams across a sector (e.g. concrete production) or geographical area (e.g. England), using quantified data can produce strongly shewed atypical results (USEPA, 1996). The scope of waste quantification data is generally limited by the geographical area of study, the particle size/shape of the material, and by the desired precision o1 results (Yu and MacLaren, 1995).
Units of waste measurement Researchers can use a wide variety of units for quantifying waste. Four reported examples include (Ekanayake and Ofori, 2004): percentage per total waste generated; percentage per total amount of purchased material (e.g. no. of tonnes of spent concrete mix per tonne of raw materials); amount of waste generated at a particular financial cost; and, mass of waste generated per square metre (e.g. on a building site).
Waste stream quantity and flow techniques Measuring the quantity and components of a waste stream will require same site measurements, an audit into the quantities of raw materials ordered by a manufacturer/contractor (e.g. checking order documents}, and making general predictions {e.g. using computer-aided tools/models). At best, such data is often speculative (USEPA, 1996), although general patterns (i.e. which is the largest waste stream) can be deducedTable 1 summarises the three general techniques used for quantifying waste streams:
Table 1: Possible activities undertaken a qualifying waste
General approaches Sample collection/study -
Activities visual characterisation (observation, estimation) collecting representative waste samples on site tracking number of waste carrier vehicles (e.g. number of trucks transporting waste to landfill) questionnaires with managers, engineers, etc. investigating documents (purchases, sales, costs of waste disposal/removal) reading environmental reports produced in-house collecting geographical data (e.g. number of companies in specified region) using conversion factors (e.g. amount of waste produced per unit of product sold)
Contacting/reviewing companies
Database, model
Gay et al, 1993; Yu and MacLaren, 1995; CGS (Gore & Storrie) Ltd, 2000; ESA Association, 2005; Govt of Canada, 2005; Cascadia Group, 2003; Duran et al, 2006; Envirowise, 2006
Sample collection and inspection Sample-based studies can be performed by selecting a random and representative sample of waste that may be directly measured, for example by calculating the mass or volume per disposal truck or container, or even using a large weighing balance (Moore et al, 1995; Engineering Solutions and Design Inc, 2004). IT necessary a waste sample can be crushed,
10
sieved, dried, etc. prior to weighing, in order to generate a reliable measurement, or to separate out specific waste fractions from a mixture (La Cour-Jansen et al, 2004). When measuring waste streams in a broader sense (e.g. industry-wide), general assumptions may need to be made. Cascadia Group (2006) noted that visual estimates of waste production are commonly used, whereby the approximate mass or volume of a material can be recorded by observing how many truck-loads of the material are being collected. Bulk density values of specific materials may be used to convert volume-based units into mass-based units; however, field tests conducted by CGS3 (Gore & Storie) Ltd (2000) revealed that actual densities of demolition waste could differ significantly from predicted average values. Contacting companies and reviewing records Information on quantities of waste arising within a manufacturing plant may be collected through reading company environmental reports, interviewing managers, or sending out questionnaires to companies. These sources of data in turn may be derived from records of ordered materials (i.e. purchase orders); payments to waste disposal contractors (receipts, account books); and the recorded number of finished products purchased, sold or transported on and off the site (Envirowise, 2006). Using databases and models Waste production data may be entered into a computer database or model, based on the assumption that the quantities of waste materials emerging from a region relates to the density and number of relevant companies or sites (Govt. of Canada, 2005). If an approximate quantity of waste produced per unit of usable product is specified, the total production' of waste in a region may be calculated by examining the total sales or purchases made by a company (Gay et al, 1993).
2.5: Classification
Waste characterisation reports often include tables of waste material groups or clusters. Table 2 over-page lists a few examples of categories used by researchers in the field. The defining properties of materials in a category determine how they can be analysed or reprocessed. For example, certain plastics are generally hydrophobic and lightweight, and can be separated from a waste stream by floatation (i.e. the selected plastic items float whilst the rest of the waste sinks (Peng et al, 1997, Pascoe, 2003).
11
Table 2: general categories of waste
2.6: Composition
Waste composition studies differ from quantification studies, whereby sampling and analysis of materials is mandatory. It is usually more costly and time-consuming to determine the precise composition of a waste material or waste stream throughout a region or sector (USEPA, 1996). Nevertheless, the composition must be taken into account in order to (Sfeir et al, 1999): estimate the material recovery potential for recycling; identify suitable or valuable components or chemical constituents; aid in designing and selecting reprocessing equipment; examine the chemical, physical, biological and thermal properties of the waste material/stream; and, comply with environmental, H&S and industrial standards.
12
Material recovery and proportions Several waste characterisation studies reviewed contained tables, listing a wide range of materials found m sampled waste streams, and indicating their proportions (CG&S (Gore & Storie), 2000; DTLR, 2002; ESA Association, 2005; Govt of Canada, 2005; Cascadia Group, 2006; Duran et al, 2006). The recycling potential of a waste stream is governed by (CIRIA, 2004): ease of recycling specific materials; degree of segregation/purity of materials; and, prevailing market value of recycled products. Not every substance or material in a waste stream may be suitable for recycling, and of those which are, the viability of recycling or re-use can vary significantly (CIRIA, 2004). The proportions of different substances or materials within a waste stream need to be identified in order to prioritise which materials should be separated and reprocessed. A material which forms a minor contribution to the waste stream is probably less economical to isolate and recycle, unless it is pure and carries a high marker value. The potential market value of similar materials can vary greatly: for example, recycled ferrous metals may sell for between 3 and 30 per tome, whereas non-ferrous metals, (e.g. brass) could sell for up to 1500 per tonne (CIRIA, 2004). Even the same materials can vary greatly in value, based on its chemical or physical composition; for example, reasonably pure steel scrap is much lower in value than stainless steel (CIRIA, 2004). Only specific materials can be obtained from a particular recycling procedure. An example is the use of a magnet to remove ferrous metal scrap; other metals such as aluminium are non-magnetic (Forton et al, 2006). Selection of re-processing equipment It is important to know the composition of the waste stream, including physical composition such as particle size distribution, in order to select and design the reprocessing equipment. For poorly sorted demolition rubble, a wide range of screens or sieves may be used to separate the material into several different particle size fractions (Peng et al, 1997). Peng et al (1997) detailed the methods used for segregating and reprocessing different fractions from demolition waste (Figure 4 over-page). A mixture of soil, concrete/clay brick rubble, plastics and wood has no value unless the individual materials can be analysed, and thereafter separated and treated. Examination of waste material properties A composition study of a waste should be as complete as possible. In spite of environmental legislation or internal waste management strategies, companies or contractors producing wastes may not have fully analysed their waste streams, and further sampling and analyses may therefore be required. Waste material properties which should be examined are summarised in Table 3 over-page (John and Zordan. 2000).
13
Figure 4: an illustration of separating waste fractions and recycling routes (Peng et al, 1997) Table 3: waste material composition properties (John and Zordan, 2000; Stagenberg et al, 2003)
2.7: Economic Aspects

The recycled materials market is in competition with the raw materials market, although environmental legislation has altered the market in recent years (e.g. imposing tariffs on raw materials, e.g. aggregates), it is difficult to accurately predict the economic costs and benefits of recycling, compared with raw material production and disposal to landfill (European Commission, 2000). Even if recycling a material is possible, the process may be prohibitively expensive, and can lower the market value (Calcott and Walls, 2005).
14
Recycling costs Before a waste material can be reprocessed, a wide spectrum of internal and external costs must be investigated. Once the waste itself has been analysed, the equipment and procedures required for recycling may be considered. These in turn carry financial costs, which are listed in Table 4:
Table 4: Economic costs to be considered in designing a recycling process (Witburn and Goonan, 1998; Wie et al, 2003)
Limiting factors The exact profit margins involved in recycling a specific material vary greatly and is highly depend on manufacturer plants/construction sites, locations, settings (e.g. rural or urban), the value of the material itself. Although the profitability of recycling differs between company sites, some general trends should be considered in an economic study. Setting The viability of recycling may vary between rural and urban regions. For example, recycling is more profitable in an urban location for the recycling of aggregates for the following reasons (Wilbum and Goonan, 1998): building projects are more numerous and greater in size; natural aggregate sources (i.e. quarries) are distant; waste disposal costs to landfilI are generally higher; and, there is often stricter environmental or H&S regulation on-site, due to a greater density of
15
exposed persons nearby. Economies of Scale It is widely perceived that the larger the recycling facility (and the greater its capacity), the better the profit margin. On the other hand, an extensive recycling operation relies on a copious and regular supply of a waste material. The ideal situation is therefore to recycle a copious supply of waste material at a constant rate (Wilbum and Goonan, 1998). This is seldom possible with a wide range of construction materials, particularly those arising from construction/demolition sites. Generally small quantities of wastes are generated at each construction material manufacturing plant throughout the UK; The waste might not be able to be adequately stored on-site due to restricted space, and health 5 safety regulations (e.g. fire risk mitigation); Halliwell (2006) suggested that the centralised storage depots for construction wastes could be created, where wastes from several local manufacturing plants could be collected, and then sent to recycling centres. Distance The distance between waste sources and reprocessing plants is a strong governing factor behind recycling viability. Waste haulage fees [based on quantities and mileage) therefore need to be estimated (Wie et al, 2003). Where possible, site contractors and products manufacturers will aim to minimise waste production In-situ, or re-use the product in house and on-site. Resources Recycling a specific waste material will only be profitable if the appropriate equipment is accessible, there is adequate land or space, and the employees adequately framed and/or skilled. Additionally, administrative costs (e.g. of recruiting staff), and the depreciation of selected equipment {e.g. working lifetime, maintenance) need to be considered. The costs {and space required) of having the waste material properly stored prior to recycling should also be examined (Wie et al, 2003). Government intervention: taxation and incentives The imposition of environmental taxes is practised by several governments worldwide. In the UK, a range of measures have been taken during the past decade, some of which are listed in Table 5 over-page. State incentives are also being used in the UK to further the development of markets for recycled products. In recent years, some construction companies producing aggregates have received capital grants funding from WRAP, which were invested in machinery and testing programmes for producing recycled aggregates (WRAP, 2005).
16
Table 5: examples of environmental tax measures in the UK (Halliwell, 2006; Osmani and Li, 2006)
Predicting economic costs Construction waste management entail a wide range of activities and essential goods, air of which incur financial costs. Yahya and Boussabaine (2006) summarised these under the title, "Eco-costs", which are reproduced below:
Recycling and reprocessing waste materials can yield financial benefits in addition to environmental Improvements. The balance of economic costs and benefits of recycling were summarised by Begum et al, (2006), and reproduced below:
Although some of these costs such as reduced noise are intangible, the emissions and impact of recycling operations is nowadays matched by the cost of environmental taxes, and
17
installing safety equipment. It is normally assumed that a recycling operation will be conducted over several years. When predicting costs spanning a few years or longer, two essential variables to consider are: (i) the rate of inflation; and, (ii) the fluctuating market value of products/materials. From these, one may be able to predict the Return-On-Investment on the project (i.e. how long it will take to pay off the debts incurred by investment). There are various methods and equations, which could be used for this, although resulting data should be interpreted with caution. One example is Average Cost Estimation, which is the total costs incurred in a given period, divided by the quantity of products produced (e.g. cost per tonne); this does not take into account fixed and variable costs, nor does it consider variable rates of production activity (Stenis, 2000).
2.8: Performance aspects

The viability of recycling a material is dependant on the quality of the product being sold, and on the ease and competence of the recycling process. There is also the possibility of lending a waste malarial into a batch of raw material. With plastic materials, this is often the case, since purely recycled plastic is often of a lower market value (Smith, 2001). Performance criteria Key performance aspects to consider for potential waste recycling include (CIRIA, 2000): origin of material; uniformity of material quality; potential tor degradation; potential far swelling; deleterious matter and contaminants; drainage characteristics, and; susceptibility to frost.
Recovering waste materials Most composite building materials are bespoke in their design, and are therefore rarely reused for the same purpose, since it may be difficult to re-calculate their load-bearing and other physical properties as recovered items (Halliwell, 3006}. It may also be difficult and costly to retrieve discarded materials, clean them and re-use them. For example, the reclamation of clay bricks: demolished bricks contain mortar and plasterboard, which must be carefully dislodged, using labour-intensive methods (CIRIA, 200D). Furthermore, waste materials cannot be re-used if their fire- resistant properties are unknown (Halliwell, 2006).
18
Testing performance of waste materials British/industrial standards are always used when examining the performance of construction materials. The list of standards is comprehensive, and addresses a wide variety of characteristics. Appropriate standards should be referenced for a selected waste material. Some examples of the criteria used are listed in Table 6:
Table 6: Examples of British standards tor testing materials (UKAS, 2005)
Category Appearance
Characteristics Colour, fluorescence, fracturing
Examples Efflorescence of clay bricks (BS 3921) Compressive strength of concrete (BS EN 12390: 2002) Acid resistance of paving blocks (BS EN 1344: 2002)
Physical
Strength, durability, density, flexibility, particle size and shape Toxicity, stability, corrosion, moisture content, flammability
Chemical
Further examples in regard to performance aspects of two construction waste materials (waste wood and glass) are given below: Performance of wood-chip mulch from recycled timber Timber frame cut-offs arid waste wood may be used in wood-chip-mulch, which in turn is widely used as a weed-suppressing surface layer in horticulture. Performance aspects relevant to this application include (WRAP, 2006B): durability (recycled timber-based mulches can last 2 - 5 times longer than natural bark mulches due to a lower moisture content); maintenance/replacement (better durability reduces the need to replace the mulch); appearance (e.g. mulch sold to individual customers), and; safety (treated wood might contain potentially hazardous pesticides or coatings such as CCA). Performance of recycled glass cullet The performance requirements affecting the recycling of glass can be very stringent. Although glass bottle recycling is widely conducted, even the trace presence of impurities in the waste glass stream can damage the recycling equipment (e.g. furnace} or contaminate the emerging product (Poulsen, 2003). Another performance issue restricts the use of glass cullet in concrete. Research has been conducted into the problem of alkali-silica reaction in concrete containing recycled cullet, whereby reactions between the glass panicles and cement can cause the concrete lo bulge
19
and fragment (Dhir et al, 2003). Having recycled or reclaimed products certified and tested may incur prohibitive costs; Halliwell (2006) quoted a re-certification testing charge of approximately 1500 for a trussed ratter, whereas original manufacture costs approximately 30.
20
3: WASTE CHARACTERISATION TECHNOLOGIES

3.1: Introduction
A waste characterisation study often addresses a complicated mixture of materials and contaminants being produced from several sources, at varying rates. Within this situation, companies and organisations involved in waste re-utilisation may use advanced techniques, including computer models and databases, in order to study the nature, flow and impacts of waste streams. Materials are also assessed using laboralory analysis according to accredited methods. Data generated from the use of tools and equipment for a project must (Eikelboom et al, 2000): provide adequate information; include limit of detection results which do not approach a specified limit (e.g. maximum permitted concentration of contaminants), provide unambiguous test results; and, possess good repeatability and reproducibility.
3.2: Databases
The purpose of a database is to organise and assemble all relevant waste stream information, thus making it more accessible and easier to analyse. This method is particularly useful for organising the collection and presentation of extensive, highly variable reams of raw data. Databases are also being developed to inform companies on possible recycling options, and suppliers are registering their details through online databases A few examples are briefly discussed in this section. National databases in the UK When selecting a material tor recycling, it is necessary to find out which companies in the local vicinity might process the waste. If a company intends to market a reprocessed waste material, it can now register its details online. Online data-bases of available recycled construction materials and suppliers on the British market have been produced by a number of government agencies, in order to assist building contractors in maximising the use of recycled products. A few examples are listed in Table 7 over-page.
21
Table 7: Construction waste material databases in the UK (sources listed)
Mixed waste stream components Several waste characterisation studies published in the field will contain extensive tables listing a wide range of specific waste materials. A waste management database can hold the following information (Bahu et al, 1997): a general description of the waste and the source company; flows and quantities; chemical composition; storage area and description; movements in and out of site, and a note of haulage containers used; any associated hazards; and, details of consignments leaving the site and their destination, One recent example was a detailed study into the different wastes within construction and demolition waste generated throughout California (Cascadia Consulting Group, 2006). In this study, a computer database covering a wide list of waste materials was created, and data were collected through surveys and sampling of wastes produced in sites within five
22
selected urban districts. Using the database, estimations of the quantities and flows of each waste material were recorded at each of the five sites, and statistical calculations were then performed in order to estimate the waste flows throughout the state of California as a whole. Records of all participating contractors were kept, each containing the raw data produced at their sites. Assessment of waste performance and potential risk Databases may also be used when collecting and analysing an extensive range of environmental data, which is continuously being updated. Such a database may be used lo consider waste materials being recycled or used in different possible scenarios - thus the potential environmental or hearth risks can be assessed. An example may be a database of materials that contain information on the leaching of potentially toxic metals. A flowchart lor creating and using such a database was proposed by Van der Sloot et al (2003), as shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5: flowchart of methodology in creating a database on testing of materials (Van der Sloot et al, 2003}
Life Cycle Analysis is a method of assessing and measuring the told environmental impacts (including toxic wastes, effluent discharge, greenhouse gas emissions, etc. of a material, from "cradle to grave' (i.e. from the extraction of raw materials, to the final disposal of wastes to landfill. Halliwell (2006) described three online databases, which are listed in Table 8 over-page:
23
Table 8: Life-cycle analysis databases (Halliwell, 2006)
3.3: Modelling
Construction waste generation is dynamic, as is its re-use or final disposal. Although computer databases can process extensive reams of data and can be updated, the data contained is static, and it may therefore be difficult to predict future waste stream scenarios. Causes and streams of waste are inter-related and often interconnected. The transfer of money in relation to waste management (taxes, purchases, etc.) is equally complicated (Ehanayahe and Ofori, 2004). Researchers have developed computer models, which emulate such processes. Three examples are discussed: Economic impact modelling If a construction sector-based company decides to recycle its waste or send it to a recycling contractor other businesses linked with the materials and the operation will also profit as well (Goldman and Ogishi, 2001). A study into the economic impacts and benefits of waste recycling (and disposal) in a sector may address this complex network of purchases and spending. Money is transferred from one business to another whenever a waste is disposed, or recycled and sold, or when recycling equipment is purchased or maintained. If a company is selling or recycling a waste, it may interact with several other businesses, which interact with more businesses in turn (Goldman and Ogishi, 2001). Goldman and Ogashi (2001) described a computer model, which simulated the flow of waste materials and money throughout California. They predicted that if waste (including municipal and commercial wastes) could be recycled, the total sales from materials within the system could double, and employment would increase significantly. Likewise, if a construction materials manufacturer could reprocess and sell a recycled waste at a profit, then further investment into recycling could in turn generate further profits. Predictinq the viability of aggregate re-processing Another economic factor-based computer modal was described by Duran et al (2006), based on the transfer of C&DW between construction site contractors and recycling firms. Based
24
on results from questionnaires, the authors entered financial data for the activities of recycling centres. Financial data environmental taxes, environmental incentives, and costs relating to the distances between the construction silo and the recycling centre, were also included in the model. As is the case with any computer model, Duran et al (2006) also specified simplifications {and thus defined the limits) in their model: the construction site contractor always aims to maximise profits; the construction site contractor either chooses a landfill site or the recycling contractor nearby; the aggregates used in the model are not replaced by other materials; no illegal dumping occurs; and, the recycling contractor only charges enough money to cover costs. Inevitably, a computer model cannot predict every possible future scenario - only a probable outcome, as baaed on a list of assumptions, Predicting waste generation and potential recycling options Chandrakanthi et al (2002) described a Canadian computer model, which was used for integrated solid waste planning and analysis. The model was used to predict quantities of waste being generated from a specific building project; quantify re-usable waste fractions; optimise methods for storing and reprocessing the emerging waste; and identify costs of different possible operations. Figure 6 summarises the outputs of their computer model. This was produced by analysing all the different activities on-site, using this information to predict the quantity of waste being produced, and collecting background data on the costs involved in transporting (onsite to recycling bins) and reprocessing/landfilling of the waste.
Figure 6: A simulation model of waste production and management at a construction site, activities included in cost analysis (Chadrakanthi et al, 2002)
25
3.4: Assessment
The suitability (i.e. performance, safety) of waste materials can be assessed using British standards and other industrial testing criteria. If the characteristics of the waste material satisfy such requirements, an assessment of the economic viability of possible recycling projects is also performed, as previously described in Section 2.7. Assessing the suitability of recycling: general considerations When assessing a waste material or the recycling technology required, the following questions should be addressed (CIRIA, 2000): Is the market value of the material comparable with that of t he equivalent primary material? Is the market value of the material suitable to match the costs of having it recycled? Is the material available in sufficient quantities and at appropriate times? Is the material durable? How pure and how safe is the material? What extra maintenance or additional components are required if recycling the material (e.g. adding it to the raw material within a manufacturing plant)? Will using the waste material on-site create additional costs (e.g. increased preparation time)? Is a proposed method of recycling the material the most efficient? Although a wide range of potential recycling options may be recommended for construction or demolition waste materials, in practise, waste recycling may be restricted to a few fractions or materials, A selected waste material needs to be assessed in terms of its potential market value, compatibility with other materials (or machinery), and its composition (Tam and Tam, 2006). Waste materials regulations It is necessary to ensure that the re-use of a waste material is permissible under environmental legislation, and does not present a significant health or environmental hazard. Although construction products themselves do not pose a risk whilst in use, individual materials or wastes generated from the construction industry or demolition may be intermingled with potentially hazardous or damaging residues (USEPA, 2004). Waste materials may generally be classified as hazardous (i.e. must be disposed of), contaminated, or fit for purpose. At present, all Industrial waste (including construction and demolition waste) is classified as Special Waste (nowadays defined as "Directive' waste), and requires examination (Figure 7 and Table 9 over-page).
26
Figure 7: methodology used for classifying materials (as required in the EU) (Environment Agency, 2006) Table 9: materials and properties addressed under the Hazardous Waste Regulations 2005 (Environment Agency, 2006)
Materials included in The List
construction and demolition wastes (including soil) wastes from wood processing wastes from production of panels (e.g. frames) wastes from shaping/cutting of plastics and metals
Hazardous properties (summarised)
flammable, explosive carcinogenic, toxic, mutagenic irritant, harmful to health
The classification of construction waste materials as being either hazardous or nonhazardous is often a matter of judgement, particularly since a waste stream (namely plastics) may contain a range of different materials. Certain materials such as lead piping and asbestos can readily be classified as being hazardous. Assessing the possible contamination of waste materials (from chemicals such as toluene, or mercury from fluorescent bulbs) can be more onerous (USEPA, 2004). A wide range of analytical instruments such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF), gas-chromatography-mass-spectrometry (GCMS) and flame emission spectrometry may be required for testing materials.
27
4: METHODOLOGIES
A waste characterisation research methodology is a logical guideline used to assist those involved in a project. A methodology emphasises that important aspects which need to be considered, rather than outlining a sequence of tasks (John and Zordan, 2000). Three prime issues associated with waste characterisation are addressed in this chapter: - the quality of the data produced, which depends on how the waste stream is sampled; - quality and appropriate use of analytical tools (including computers and lab Instruments), which strongly determines the usefulness of data produced; and, - the development of an effective marketing strategy, which aims at attracting customers/purchasers and generating profit.
4.1: Sampling Strategy

Detailed surveys of waste streams and their processing stages are timeconsuming and difficult to conduct, and results will therefore carry a significant margin of error (Gay et al, 1997). The analyst cannot collect or analyse all the material from a waste stream, and the source company may not accurately quantify its waste streams either. Representative sampling of materials therefore needs to be conducted (Bahu et al, 1997), and estimations need to be made on total waste quantities, flow rates and composition. Sampling strategy and record-keeping A sampling procedure includes initial planning, identifying suitable waste streams, completing the field documentation, collecting samples, and/or having samples packaged and stored prior to analysis (Popek, 2003). Physical samples should be identified with unique sample numbers; they must be efficiently tracked, and should not be crosscontaminated by different samples. Records should include (sample collection) time, location, contact details (e.g. company, site manager), and the type of sample (collected or discussed) (Popek, 2003). Sampling errors The sources of error from the sampling procedure include (Popek, 2003): - errors due to the variability of the waste stream (composition, rate of production, etc); - errors due to the population variability (i.e. is the sample from one source similar to those from other sources?); - sampling design error; and, - errors in sample collection and storage.
28
The first two types of error are quantitative; both can therefore be controlled using an appropriate random sampling strategy, and statistical methods can be used to assess the margins of error. The third and fourth sources of error are qualitative, and may be harder to measure. Sampling design errors can arise if available information on the waste is limited and if some sources of waste are not identified (Popek, 2003). A researcher should consider the varying rates and sources of waste production. He/she should define how often or how much of a waste strewn should be sampled, define a sample size, and decide how many replicates of a sample are collected (Gay et al, 1993). Nevertheless, sample collection is limited by time, coat and the mass of the collected samples themselves. Several waste characterisation studies recommended that waste samples weighing between 90kg and 180kg should be collected from a mixed waste stream; this would require special collection and transport of samples. Multiple sampling of the same waste streams over many weeks and months is often too expensive and timeconsuming for most projects (Yu and MacLaren, 1995). Researchers involved in waste characterisation use representative sampling (Bahu et al, 1997), whereby a restricted number of sites are selected at random, and collected data is used to represent the entire waste stream (Govt of Canada, 2005). Cascadia Consulting Group Inc (2003) reported on a survey of landfill waste, whereby equal numbers of samples were collected during summer and winter months; during each period, the timing and order of visits to sites was randomly planned. At each site, 14 replicates were collected, and information on the numbers and types of haulage vehicles was also obtained, in order to predict flows and quantities of waste- Random samples were collected, whereby waste in a ripping area was poured into 16 disposal banks, and site personnel chose two batches at random. Average waste composition was estimated using variance and confidence intervals. Whole waste stream and individual materials It is important to consider both the sampling of individual materials, and wrote waste streams (Bahu et al, 1997). If a whole waste stream can be recycled, a recycling company will encounter tower capital costs from purchasing processing equipment. On the other hand, some individual materials in a waste stream may carry a high market value, and are therefore worth isolating.
4.1: mixing of samples

A mixture of wastes (especially demolition waste) will vary greatly in particle size, particle/object shape, and density. If studying such a complex waste stream, good mixing of the waste prior to obtaining samples should be performed, especially if the purpose of the project is to select appropriate waste segregation equipment (e.g. screens) (Bahu et al, 1997).
29
Sample data from surveys Yu and MacLaren (1995) compared the use of Direct Waste Analysis (DWA, e.g. field visits and sample collection) with surveys, in order to estimate waste production. The use of surveys can incur considerably lower costs, when compared with sample collection and laboratory analysis; respondents will also understand the nature of the waste stream, such as seasonal variation in the rate of production. Nevertheless, the method has its limitations: most respondents will not answer long, detailed questionnaires this reduces the quantity (and reliability) of the overall data gathered; respondents may often discuss quantities In terms of volume; converting such data into mass flows does not take the density of the materials into account; and, respondents often make rough estimates.
4.2: Analytical methodology

Once samples are collected, at least a few preparation steps may be taken before test results can be generated. The reliability of results depends on how carefully a sample is stored, processed into an analyzable form. And analysed (i.e. how reliable the analytical instrument is). The results generated may be used as raw data. or may require one or more calculations in order to express results using specific units. Waste material testing and analysis must produce results which are accurate, and which do not reflect contamination of the sample, or interferences affecting the data output (Manahan, 2001). The storage, preparation and analysts of samples must meet required standards; whenever possible, and an accredited laboratory facility should be used. Replicates (at least duplicates) of samples should be processed and analysed using precisely the same method, ideally at the same time. Data alongside sample results should include (US Dept of Energy, 1996): detection limit studies (and statistical methods of determining this); studies into the predicton and bias of results; blank results to check for contamination in equipment and reagents; and, proof that no cross-contamination has occurred. Two examples of lasting methods and their analytical standards are discussed below: Testing hardened concrete (BS EN 12390) The compressive strength of concrete has been tested for many years using concrete cores, by crushing them using a core compressor, illustrated in Figure 8 over-page. BS EN 12390 (2004) provides a comprehensive list of instructions which address: the shape, dimensions and other requirements of specimens: producing and curing specimens; and,
30
assessing the compressive strength, and calibrating the compressive strength testing equipment.
Figure 8: a concrete core compressor machine (Qualitest, 2006)
Examples of requirements listed in BS EN 12390 include the following: specimens must be tested for compressive strength al 20C (10 C): specimens must be tested using a strain-gauged column which is 100mm diameter and 200mm high; specimen cubes must be characterised by a completely horizontal surface at both ends, and must stand perfectly straight; and, the force Indicator on the machine must produce results with an accuracy error of less than 3% (maximum). Leaching of trace metals from waste materials A revised standard addressing leaching tests from solid waste material samples (or construction materials containing wastes) was recently published by the Environmental Agency (2004). The NEN7375 leaching lest involves preparing a sample cube (e.g. concrete containing recycled aggregate), and immersing this in water over a period of 64 days (Figure 9, over-page as per the usual). Trace metals teach into the surrounding water, and leachates are collected at set intervals during the experiment. Analytical requirements for the experiment include: specifications of sample size and dimensions (cube, >4cm); use of distilled water to minimise contamination; replacing the water and collecting water samples at specific intervals; pH measurements of the water (whereby the pH meter must possess an accuracy of 0.05 units); and,
31
checking that none of the equipment used releases trace metals into the water or sample (or absorbs metals).
Figure 9: the NEN7375 leaching test in operation (Van der Sloot, 2005). Concrete cubes are immersed inside water tanks (towards the left).
4.3: Marketing
Marketing is often perceived to be the advertising, promoting or sealing a new product or service. However, this interaction with potential customers comprises only the final stage of a long and carefully co-ordinated strategy. The whole marketing process begins with a company manager (or management team) deciding what they are going to produce and sell, and assessing whether or not their organisation is capable of meeting the challenge. Marketing activities Marketing activities are needed to assess the level of organisational competition and the level of customer demand. These require time, financial and resources investment in the marketing process, in addition to anticipation of early setbacks line product may not sell quickly at firsts and marketing methods may have to be improved. Most importantly, there is a need to assess the price tag on recycled wastes if compared with materials readily available in the market. Indeed, if a recycled material is not significantly cheaper or higher quality than the equivalent conventional material, it may not a successful marketable product (WRAP, 2006). The volatility of the market, and the attitudes of customers should be Investigated through background research and possibly by conducting surveys (e.g. questionnaires with potential buyers). An internal audit of the company's resources, staff skills and budget should then be conducted, in order to predict whether or not the business is capable of entering the market, and what resources (e.g. machinery, recruiting specialist staff) are needed (WRAP, 2006).
32
Once these studies prove lhat the company is capable of producing a marketable product, an adequate budget must be assigned for promoting, designing and producing the product. Thereafter, the process of advertising, networking and demonstrating the product can be undertaken (WRAP, 2006), It has been reported that several potentially successful recycling technologies and their emerging products may not become profitable. Environmental and technical excellence alone may not lead onto creating a new market. Successful marketing and its resulting profits depends on market's confidence, networking between recyclers and client companies and consumers. Communication with government agencies, research institutions and community groups can also be beneficial. All interested parties should collaborate in developing, evaluating and enhancing a recycling process (John and Zordan, 2000). The Break-Even Point In order for a company to predict the profitability of reprocessing a waste material, the Break-Even Point needs to be estimated. As soon as the operation commences, the company might initially be incurring a loss, since sales will be modest at first, before increasing over lime. Reprocessing costs occur in two categories: variable costs (i.e. the more sales, the more labour and energy consumption required); and fixed costs (rent, business tax, depreciation of equipment). Over time, the profits generated should exceed the sum of both types of cost, as shown in Figure 10 (Stenis, 2004; WRAP, 2006):
Profits Break-even point Variable costs
Fixed costs
Time
Figure 10: progression of sales towards the Break-even Point (Stenis, 2000)
Promotion of recycled products by WRAP The Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP) is directly involved in developing new markets for recycled products in the UK. Its objectives include: (i) creating confidence in markets; (ii) investing in waste recycling and marketing projects; and (iii) ensuring that waste materials are adequately sorted, collected and recycled. The organisation has funded a range of projects and worked with local councils; two examples are listed in Table 10 (over-page).
33
Table 10: Examples of marketing activities undertaken by WRAP (2005)
Marketing and product design of recycled plastics When developing and marketing a recycled product, it is necessary to: acquire background knowledge on types and uses of a product; compare benefits of the new product with established products; conduct a market survey, in order to assess peoples' interest; establish a price (which will attract customers); and evaluate the size of the market; evaluate and characterise the waste material feedstock; get quotations on the recycling equipment needed; and , examine all costs involved in recycling (Pringle and Barker, 2004). Using all the above data, a product can tie successfully marketed, given that survey and characterisation results are favourable. Pringle and Barker (2004) described a marketing method of promoting the recycling of shredded HDPE, in order to produce and sell plastic fencing posts for agricultural use. The main stages are summarised in Figure 11:
Figure 11: Methodology for marketing recycled plastic fencing (Pringle and Barker, 2004)
34
5: CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK

5.1: Summary of findings in the literature review
This report discussed the approaches, technologies and methodologies of waste characterisation. Waste characterisation approaches address the type of information which is required. Waste streams and materials must be quantified, classified, and analysed tor their physical and chemical composition. Their performance characteristics must also be studied, along with the economic factors affecting their potential for being recycled and sold on the market. Waste characterisation studies are dependent on technological tools, including computer databases, computer models, and laboratory instruments. Databases can be used to assemble extensive information on waste streams and details such as composition; they can also be used to list and promote companies selling recycled construction materials; Computer models enable researchers to predict future scenarios (e.g. the economic changes if more recycling is conducted), or to map waste stream movements. Laboratory instruments can be used to assess waste materials: one example is the analysis of "dangerous substances' classified in the EU as hazardous. Three methodologies of waste characterisation were also addressed. These strategies were sampling, analytical techniques and marketing. Sampling of waste materials must be carefully designed, since only a few representative samples from a large waste stream may be collected. Data may also be collected through surveys which are more cost-effective, but which may yield limited data (as potential interviewees may not be interested in participating). Analytical techniques include sample preparation and analysis in the laboratory. Sample contamination, the accuracy of data output from the instruments, and the precision and accuracy of data generated, need to be considered. A marketing strategy is also important, in order to bring a new recycled product to the attention of customers, contractors and other clients. Further work Within the context of the Be-AWARE project, information regarding waste quantities, costs, their present recycling status and/or recycling potential has been collected through waste mapping interviews, and the first Be-Aware workshop. The next stage involves data collection in regard to the performance and economic aspects of waste materials So far, only nine waste mapping data sets of construction product manufacturers have been produced, hence more waste mapping information will be captured through interviews across four sectors: plastic; timber and wood; cement and concrete; and bricks and blocks. Issues regarding the economic and performance aspects of waste materials, that need to be addressed during the next Be Aware project stage include:
35
the existing and potential markets for recycled products in the UK; the technologies used to reprocess or re-use waste materials; performance-based factors affecting the recycling and sale of reprocessed products: o contamination, hazards, impurities; o degraded properties (e.g. strength, appearance); o working lifetime of products; o incompatible materials, limited technology; o ease of segregating/retrieving material for recycling or reuse; economic factors affecting the reprocessing and sale of materials: o existing market opportunities for recovered materials; o viability of acquiring and using certain recycling processes; o regulation and classification of materials as wastes - and costs of having a recycled product accredited as fit-for-purpose; and, o the limits to distance of transporting materials.
These issues will be addressed through a waste characterisation survey and facilitated activities of the second Be Aware workshop (Workshop 2: Performance and Economic Assessment which was held on 5th February 2007).
36
REFERENCES
Note: websites are no longer accessible
37
38
39
40
41

Waste Characterisation Literature Review

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Waste Characterisation Literature Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

1

BE-AWARE Work Package 3 Deliverable 3.3

WASTE CHARACTERISATION LITERATURE REVIEW

Mohamed Osmani, Andrew Price, Malcolm Sutherland

Figure 1: completed Be-Aware WP3 project tasks

1.2: Aims and objectives

Figure 2: aspects of waste characterisation examined in the literature review

2: WASTE CHARACTERISATION APPROACHES

2.2: Definition of waste characterisation

2.3: Construction and demolition waste in the UK

General approaches Sample collection/study -

2.7: Economic Aspects

2.8: Performance aspects

Characteristics Colour, fluorescence, fracturing

3: WASTE CHARACTERISATION TECHNOLOGIES

Materials included in The List

Hazardous properties (summarised)

flammable, explosive carcinogenic, toxic, mutagenic irritant, harmful to health

4.1: Sampling Strategy

4.1: mixing of samples

4.2: Analytical methodology

Figure 8: a concrete core compressor machine (Qualitest, 2006)

Profits Break-even point Variable costs

5: CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK

You might also like