So, in this video, we are going to talk about signals again but from a very different view point.

From all the previous videos when we talked about circuits, we discovered that if we could express a signal as a superposition of complex exponentials different thinking as a sinusoid, Then solving the circuit was easy. the complex exponential was a natural input to study the, the, circuit, circuit's behavior with. however, sinusoids by themselves are pretty limiting. you need to talk about more general, signals. It still would like to express a signal as a super position, a complex exponentials can we do that? The answer is yes. This, so we're going to begin by talking about periodic signals, something called the Fourier series, and what we're going to discover Which is a very interesting point, is that you can define a signal, as a function in time, or as a function of frequency, and we can get between the two representations of exactly the same quantity, using the Fourier series. And so we're going to start talking about signals and what we call domains, we can talk about them as functions of time or we can talk about them as functions of frequency, whichever seems to be most convenient. But to get started we need to find the Fourier series and understand it a little bit. So, this is the Fourier series for a periodic signal. This is very important. It's periodic with period T. And, Fourier claimed that at the beginning of the nineteenth century, that you could express a periodic signal as a superposition of complex exponentials. The frequency of which was K over T, so this is the Kth harmonic of the fundamental frequency one over T, so the fundamental is the first harmonic, then there's the second. The third and the fourth. You notice, K here goes negative, so we actually talk about the -one harmonic, and -two harmonic, etcetera, and we'll see how to handle that in just a second. The, coefficients of this expansion, are called the Fourier coefficients. So what Fourier claimed is that, if you give me a, time signal. There are s ome coefficients here, C sub k. That allow me to, express. This signal is a weighted superposition of complex exponentials. Now the question is what are those Cks? How do you find them? Well we're gonna use properties of the complex exponential here, of what are called

harmonically related complex exponentials, is extremely important. And, it goes by the technical term, orthogonality. So, I want to consider this interval Between, a complex exponential having a harmonic number of k. And one that has a harmonic number of -l. Well, let's do this interval. So, we have one over t, and we have the interval. I'm gonna merge the two exponentials, and the exponents, okay, and do this intervals very easy we just have to bring down the That the, quantity multiplying t. Put that in the denominator. And the interval gives us back the exponential, of course. So we get one over t. one over j two pi, k. -l T * times the same thing. So now, it's available, that would be zero to two. Well, what do we get when we evaluated at the upper limit here? Well, the T is capital T so these cancel. And what you're left with is e ^ +j two pi * k - l. And, evaluating at zero gives us, one of course. Well, what is e ^ j two pi * an integer? For any integer. Well, I hope you said that the answer is one. So, this term turns out to always be one for any value of K and N. The difference between two integers is another integer. So. You get the J2 pi and integer is gotta be one, so it looks like we get zero for an answer. 1-1 here, that seems to be kind of odd until we realize over here in the denominator that we have a k - l. So, when k = l The numerator here, given by this term, is one, well the denominator is also zero, so we have a problem. Numerator is zero, denominator is zero, what's, how we figure this out. Let's go back and look at the original interval. When k=l, well, rewriting it just like I did before, k=l, this is zero, which makes this one. And so the integral gets very easy. We get the integral of one, from zero to t, that's capital T. Divide by capital T, you get one. So that's why this is true. As long as k does not equal l, then you get, this interval of zero. But when k and l agree, you get one. Okay, well that's a very important property, it's very useful So, suppose I, take my expression for s(t). Alright, and i'm gonna multiply both sides now by that, and integrate. Well, we know over here what happens. Over here the only time you get anything is when k=l, so what happens, all the terms in this sum disappear except for the l, whatever l is, and that leaves us with the following

result, that The c sub l term is = to the original signal * a complex exponential, having a frequency of -l over t, integrate, and / capital T. So the idea is, in order for this. To be true, the c sub ks, the c sub ls, have to be given by this. Or else it cannot be true. This is the way, that given the, periodic signal, as a function of time, I can find, it's kth Fourier coefficient. So there's an equivalence here. Which is an important thing to realize. So. Given the signal, I can find the c sub Ks, by using this expression. And, given the c sub Ks, I can find the signal. I'm using this expression. So I can go back and forth as the arrow suggests here. And between the time domain, expression of the signal is that function of time, and the frequency domain The expression of the signal as a function here after harmonic index, where as a function of K, you have to give me the C sub K's, and then the complex exponentials are understood because we know the period T's. This is going to be a very important concept as we go through. An important result for us. Right now, because of the. Your position property. Well, let's do, let's figure out the Fourier series from, for some simple, wave forms. So here we have our, sine wave. And I've given it a phase this time to make it a bit more general. So the period is one over the frequency. So, this is the fundamental frequency. It's just f zero. And, I could do the integral, but I want to illustrate something by using Euler's formula. So, as we all know, Euler's formula says, tha t a cosine can be written as e ^ Minus, of a complex exponential remaining e to the plus, for a complex exponential. And, the a/2 is the scaling factors you need to make, you need to get it to, work. Well, lets look at the Fourier series, and consider what I call the syemetric terms. So here's the Fourier series, and I'm just writing it out, and I'm gonna pick up the -kth and the kth terms here, and not worry about the other ones. So, this is what I mean by symmetry, I'm picking up the terms where the in, the, harmonic numbers are negatives to each other. Well, notice that this looks a lot like that. And that looks a lot like that. So I think, if we pick k= to one. I think we have found our Fourier series coefficients. All the rest of these are gonna be zero. Because we found how to express the, sine wave by this sum. And that's exactly what the answer is. Is that

the, Fourier coefficients are all zero, except when k=1. And we get these, quantities. For the, harmonic fundamental frequency rather and it's negative counterpart. This is another interesting fact, in that, to, we've seen this already but to express a signal, as would now you'd be needing negative frequency term, in it's pi's a good frequency. And we're gonna see, that their Fourier coefficients are related to each other in a very simple way, which we'll get to in just a second. Now I want to go on to a square wave example now. where were gonna have to do the interval to see what we get. So here's our square wave and, you note that it's a discontinuous function. in fact, I didn't even define what it was, at the point of discontinuity. We'll see that's an interesting point in just a second. And, it turns out in order to do the integral we're gonna need to express it in, mathematically. So, this is a mathematical expression for it. Notice I'm leaving open what it is at t over two. Okay, so to do the integral, what we have to do is split the range of integration up so that within each range we have an m loop formula for what the signal is. So from zero to t/2. It was just A from T/2 to t, it's minus A. So now we can do the integrals, and these integrals are pretty easy to do. I'm going to do the one on the left, so we get 1/T. And, and again we get a, and then we're gonna get one over that exponent is j two pi, k/t * e to the -j2pi kt over t. And I evaluate with that from zero to T/2. Okay at T/2, the let's see the t, t's cancel and that two cancels and so what we're left with is e^-j pi k. Minus one. The, exponential of zero is, is one. What is e^j*pi*k? What is that equal to? It's equal to something very simple. In particular, I would point out, that that's e, to the minus j pi, all to the k. That's the same thing. Well, in some quarters, this is considered one of the most interesting and important formulas in mathematics. E to the - j pi. Even e with the + j pi is -one. So, what we get here is that this is -one to the k. And then you bring on the -one. Turns out this other integral is the same thing except with a - sign, and because of the - sign out here the two terms merge and what we get is the following expression, so. The Fourier coefficient for a square wave is given by this. And

when K is an odd number like one, three, etc. this is mine, this is minus one. You get minus one minus one. Gives you a minus two and some things cancel leaving you with this. Oh when k is even, well that's one, and 1-1=0 so you always get zero here. So, the result is that. The spectrum. The coeffi-, Fourier coefficients of a square wave only consist of odd harmonic terms. And furthermore, their harmonics are decaying. As one over k. As the harmonic number gets bigger and bigger. The coefficient amplitude gets bigger, gets smaller and smaller, I'm sorry, smaller and smaller. So, lets plot it, lets see what it looks like. So, here's our, 4a coefficient formula, and, here I'm plotting, the spectrum Of a square root. I'm plotting the magnitude in phase of the Fourier coefficient. This should remind you of what we did for transfer functions where we plotted the magnitude and phase of the transfer function. And so I real ly am thinking about this Fourier coefficient though, as a function of frequency Just like I thought about the transfer function as a function of frequency. And, re-express this axis in frequency in just a second. So, the magnitude. You can see how the, coefficients go down, like one over k, when they're odd. And when they're even, you get zero, which is what the expression says. So this is the odd harmonic structure, if you will, of the superposition of, of complex exponentials that express a square wave. The phase is interesting. The Again, we have, something in Cartisan form, so what's the phase of that? We need to know the phase of 1/J, and there are lots of ways of thinking about that. That's equal to 1/e^j on over to And so when that goes upstairs you get even minus j pi/2 so the phase is minus pi/2 okay? And since that term is the same for all of them the phase is a constant at the odd harmonic terms and at the zero everywhere else because the phase is not You can define when your magnitude is zero, you might as well call it zero. So, that's the spectrum, and a spectrum is a function of frequency. All I've done here, is relabel the axis, to ex, express exactly, what is, the spectrum is a function of F, this is in Hertz. Okay? So, it consists of something, a, complex exponential at 1/t, 3/t, 5/t, etc. So with the period was one millisecond. That'd make the fundamental frequency one kilohertz, so a square wave that has a

period of a millisecond, as Forier series coefficients, has a spectrum in it, kilohertz, three kilohertz, five kilohertz, etcetera. And the amplitude is going down, at one over the harmonic Now it expresses, the superposition of complex exponentials, are what we need, to produce a square wave. Very interesting. And now let's do another example, that's a little bit easier to do. but it's a, this is a very important example it turns just a little bit later in this course. So, it's the periodic pulse sequence. So here's our well-known pulse. It has a duration of delta, and I'm going to repeat it every capital T , to make a, what's called a periodic pulse train. So again, I need a formula for it over The period, and here is our formula for the pulse. which I think is pretty straightforward. And doing the interval is very straightforward. You just plug it in, and you get the following answer. Well, I'd like to plot this like I did for the square wave example. But it isn't obvious to me at all what this looks like. I could just type the expression in to the computer and have it plotted. But I'd rather we get some more understanding here. And I want to show you a cute little trick. This is real important thing to appreciate. And it has to do with this little part of it right here. So, a little math. So, I want you to note, that I have a term that looks like one minus e to the minus j theta. Suppose I factor out, what we call half the phase. So, I am dividing this phase over here by two. And I pull out. That factor. hope you agree that this and this are the same thing. Okay? That cancels that, and now I get my phase back to where it was. Well, that's very exciting because if I divide this by 2j Multiplied by two j. What's that? Well that turns out to be Euhler's formula for a sine wave. And so, after all is said and done, this term here is equal to that. And so there's a sine, buried in there, times a,uh,a complex exponential, a phase term. So. That means, using that result, I can plug that in, simplify the expression. And here's what I get for a final answer. For the Fourier coefficient of a periodic pulse train. It has a sined, what we call a sine x /x behavior, known as the function of k here. We get sine over the argument times the same thing. So if I take this and multiply it by delta and divide it by T, and I'll do the same thing up here, delta over T, then I have something that looks like sine X over X.

And this has got a name, this is called the sinc function. And I need to know what a sinc function looks like. And, here's the plot of a sinc function. very important, for us, it turns it's going to reoccur in this course a lot. So, sinc function, the reasons come through as zero of course. Because of the sinc, this amplitude is dying like one over X. At the origin, that's the interesting part, notice you get zero for zero. And you have to use L'Hopital's rule to figure it out, and you'll quickly discover that it's equal to one, so this is a plot of our, sinc function, one at the origin and then, it looks like a sinusoid with the amplitude going down at one over x, so that means we can plot. Now, our spectrum, for a, periodic pulse sequence. Again I'm plotting, this in terms of harmonic number, and frequency is k/t. So the t is understood. And I'm, this plot applies, for this special case, where the pulse width is one-fifth of the period. Just, a special case to plot it. And now, we get, we see that all the, the Fourier coefficients are non zero, except in the case where they, are harmonically related to one over, delta over T. And that's the way, because of this sync behavior. Right? It goes to zero at some places. Okay. So there's our sync function. Except we're plotting the magnitude, so those negative parts in the previous slide go above the axis, and we have to change the phase. But, the point is, again, the spectrum of periodic pulses. Consist of a lot of, of harmonic terms whose amplitudes are generally decaying but now they, they ripple up and down depending on what the values are but generally they are going down. The phase is interesting. it turns out it looks like the phase should. A linear function, where the phase is just that argument. But, but is multiplying J. And it looks like it's linearly decreasing. It's got a negative slope. It looks like it should do that forever. And why do I have this funny plot where it pops. It looks like it's doing what it's supposed to, then it pops up and does it again. And that has to do with a complication of the sync function. In this area where it goes negative, that adds a phase of pi to the in the phase term, right, because you can, a magnitude cannot go negative, so that pops into the phase. Well, the next va lue on this straight line is going to be minus pi. I add a phase of pi because it's going negative,

and it pops it back So that's what all these have to do with these are returning to their original values because of the phase. and insert the phase of the sinc coming into play, as a kinda of a subtle phase. It may be real value but it still has a phase. Negative numbers have a phase of minus of not of pi. And -pi depending on how you want to think of it. Okay. So, lets think about this now. We have a signal, that's in both the time domain and the frequency domain. I can, express it, as a super position of, Of sine itself of rather complex exponentials. Can i really do that, are they really equal to each other. So, i need to explore them in more details and what I am going to do is, look at Get what's called a finite approximation of this term, and see what happens as I let K get B. So, if we start with our square wave and look at it for some value K, well, this finite sum shouldn't look like a square wave. But as I take more and more and more and more turns in, it had better become the square way or I cant write, this equality is just wrong. Well let's see what happens, and this get interesting. So if you only go out to the. K=1 term, which is the first harmonic, you see that you get the sine wave like you should, you should. And it kind of looks like a square wave, but it's not certainly not equal to it. As k gets big, I go down to the 49th term here. You see that it's coming closer and closer. To the square waves. Really very interesting. You should plot this for yourself sometime. It's really quite exciting how it works. However, Josiah Gibbs, an American mathematical physicist pointed out something. He noticed. See these little bumps up, up here? And it may look like, they're diminishing. The ripples inside here definitely are getting smaller. But those little bumps, which he called ears, they're known as Gibbs' ears, don't go away. And it turns out they will always be there. And they get closer and closer t o the, point of discontinuity. Turns out the discontinuity's our problem. Well, let's think about this. if we start with a discontinuous signal, like a square wave. Well complex exponentials are all continuous. How can a sum of continuous things add up to be a discontinuous thing? How can this be true? And so we've got to call in to question the fact that this may not Work right. Does the gray seies really work? Well, it turns out, when Fourier presented his work in the theory of heat,

to the French Academy of Sciences, he, his work was examined by, three mathematicians Lapluass. Legendre and Lagrange, three mathematicians you may have heard of, pretty, and they awarded him the prize for the best piece of work, but they really called into question what happens when s is discontinuous. It seemed like it'd work, like I showed you, but there's these little points And these, the skid here that things don't quite work right. How do you justify that? Well, we have to get, go off and do a little, do a little bit of mathematics. And it's pretty easy, so, it's been shown, that if you have an s(t) that's continuous, like a sine wave Or something else that's a, periodic, and has to be periodic. If it's continuous, the Fourier series, the technical word is converges for each t. In other words, this side and this side are equal, for every value of t, as long as s is continuous. The issue comes when it's discontinuous. And, if s of t has discontinuities, like the square wave, or the periodic pulses we looked at, the Fourier series does not converge, at the points of discontinuity. It turns out, that for a square wave, I've plotted a square wave here. for second, and you can evaluate the complex exponentials, all at T over two, and add them up, and it turns out, it's gonna give you a value, even though for the square wave, I didn't assign a value, and the value it's gonna assign It turns out, is the, is the, average of the values on either side of the discontinuity, so it's gonna assign a value of zero to what happens at precisely T over two, even though I didn't define it, of course, so it doesn't converge. It gives a value, but it may not be the value that you'd want. So, how do we think about this. Well, do wanna point out something. So, if you look at the difference between the signal you have and this finite gray series approximation You look at the power in that error. And you take the limit as k goes to infinity. It turns out you can prove that you always get zero. So, this is the error in your, your approximation. Case, k term approximation. And it turns out that error, as the number of terms gets big, has no power, has no energy, there's no, there's no difference between the two in terms of power. So, mathemeticians said, it does really Work, except you have to change your definition of, equality to mean this, okay? Two things are equal if their, the difference

between the two has no power, and this is called, convergence in mean-square, or mean-square equality. And it really is the power in the error that becomes the important thing. So, for all intents and purposes, the Fourier series really does work. It's just that it doesn't quite work at points of discontinuity. But we don't care about points of discontinuity anyway. What do I care? But it is equal. So the Fourier series really does work. A far as were concerned. Alright. So, let's look at the properties of the forier coefficients. So, again, here's my time domain, if you will. That, representation of the signal as a function of t. Here's my frequency domain, representation as the function of k, which governs the, the Fourier coefficients, and here's how you get between the two. And lets look at the properties. So, first of all, if S of T is real valued, you can show that the harmonics that are neglies of each other are complex conjugates of each other. We have seen this before. This says that the real part Of c minus k, is equal to the real part, of c k. And that the imaginary part, of c of minus k, is equal to the minus, the negative dimension part of c k. And so this was conjug ate symmetry. That we talked about before. The real part is even. The imaginary part is odd. And so you can show that the Fourier coefficients evade is. And I think, if you check all the previous examples we've worked on, they've had this property. Furthermore, if s(t), itself, is real and even. It's an even, signal about the origin. Then the, c, c sub -k-=c sub k. Which means the c sub k's are always real, and they're also even, that's what even means. So, you have really an even, for the signal, the 4a coefficients are also real and even. And if you have an odd, signal, that's, a real value, and odd, and that's what odd means, it turns out the coefficients are also odd, but they're pure imaginary. Okay? That's what it takes to be consistent with this, this result. Up here, okay? So very important symmetries that you can use to simplify your life, and essentially, what I'm doing is figuring out what the negative frequency axis is from the positive frequency axis. So I can fill in what happens At negative harmonic numbers, negative frequency from what's having, happening at the positive indices. And one little cute property here, that's very important, suppose I delay the signal,

what is its Fourier coefficient gonna be? So, the idea is that I have let's say a square wave Okay. And, it turns out it, to make it periodic, we've gotta do that. And now, when I delay it, let's say by a little bit, so it does this. You would think that the Fourier coefficients would be related somehow, and it turns out they are, through this linear phase right here. The, phase turns out to be depending on the delay. And then the frequency of the Fourier coefficient enters in but it looks like a linear delay. I mean linear phase. Delay in time signal corresponds to multiplying the spectral Version of the signal by a linear phase. It's linear because, this argument up here, which is two pi, I'm gonna write it a different way, tao*k, is a linear function of k. Okay, well, through the Fourier series, we can study a signal in both time and f requency. They're equivalent to each other. We can go back and forth. And this is gonna be a very convenient thing for us to use to explore how signals ought, what their structures are and how systems operate on them. So the periodic signals, the Fourier series is the way we obtain the signal's spectrum. The signals can exist in either time or frequency domains. This is really important thing. You may start, we have started with signals as being defined as functions of time and we used the interval here to figure out what. What it's spectrum is. I'm going to give you an example in the next video, where we start with the super position, and that's the natural thing to do. Now we're start with a frequency domain specification to signal, and see how it's built, what the result of the signal is. So, either one, it's perfectly valid. And this is very exciting, and will help us figure out how signals and systems work in modern information systems.