Waves

OED DESIGN LEVEL II Dynamic Behaviour of Floating Offshore Systems Paul Westlake 2nd - 6th October 2006
Hydrodynamic Loading Of Offshore Structures
Wave Theories
Design Environment Description
Wave Statistics
Spectral Response
OED Design Level II Confidentiality Category B: Classified Technip, Not to be Disclosed to Third Parties
Wave Theories
Wave Theories
Alternative Approaches To Describing Surface Gravity Waves Deterministic
Probabilistic
Wave Theories
Regular Wave Theories
Design wave approach to calculating loads
Linear Wave Theories
Airy wave theory
widely employed
simple
reasonable accuracy
basis for probabilistic approach
Non-Linear Wave Theories
e.g. Stokes 2nd, 3rd & 5th order
5th order commonly used for high wave heights
Others include trochoidal, solitary and cnoidal wave theories

Wave Theories
Numerical Wave Theories
Deans stream function
Applicable to majority of water depths in which offshore structures
are located
Probabilistic (Random) Wave Modelling
Used where frequency response is of interest e.g.
Floating structures
Riser systems
Usually based on linear wave theory of hydrodynamic load calculation methods

In the following Linear Wave Theory will be used to illustrate aspects
Regular Waves
Basic Wave Terminology
MWL
z H x (t)
D w d u s
Regular Waves
H = wave height from crest to trough (generally not equal to 2a)
a = wave amplitude
= wave length
d = water depth (MWL to seabed), note d is a positive number but co-
ordinate z is negative downwards
w,u = vertical and horizontal wave particle velocities
s = z + d = height above mudline
Linear Wave Theory
Linear Wave Theory

( x t) a o cos ( k x t)
Wave surface elevation:
Linear dispersion relation: g k tanh ( k d )

given:
Solve dispersion relation iteratively for
Initial guess at : 2
k 2
gT
Hence, wave number:
Linear Wave Theory

(x t) a o cos ( k x cosh ( k ( z sinh ( k d ) d)) t)
Wave surface elevation:
Horizontal particle velocity: u( x z t ) ao
cos ( k x
t)
Horizontal particle acceleration: u a( x z t ) ao
cosh ( k ( z
d))
sin ( k x sinh ( k d )
t)
(x t)
u( x z t )
ua( x z t )
10
20 0 45 90 135
180 t deg
225
270
315
360
Surface Profile Horizontal Velocity Horizontal Acceleration
Linear Wave Theory

w( x z t ) sinh ( k d ) ao sinh ( k ( z sin ( k x t) d))
Vertical particle velocity:
Vertical particle acceleration: w a( x z t ) sinh ( k d ) ao
sinh ( k ( z
d))
cos ( k x
t)
20
10
(x t) 0
w( x z t)
wa ( x z t)
10
20 0 45 90
135
180 t deg
225
270
315
360
Surface Profile Vertical Velocity Vertical Acceleration

Linear Wave Theory

Velocity Decay With Depth
0 0
Intermediate Water Depth Kinematics Decay:

Acceleration Decay With Depth
Velocities
10 10 20 20
u ( x z)
ao
cosh ( k ( z d ) )
sinh ( k d )
30 30
w( x z)
40 z m z m 60 50
ao
sinh ( k ( z
d))
40 z m z m 60 50
sinh ( k d )
Accelerations
70
cosh ( k ( z d ) ) sinh( k d )
80
u a( x z)
ao
70
80
90 90
w a( x z) sinh( k d )
ao
sinh( k ( z d ) )
100
2 u( x z ) w( x z)
100
0.5
1.5
HorizontalVelocity Vertical Velocity
Vertical Acceleration Horizontal Acceleration
w a( x z ) u a( x z )
Linear Wave Theory

0 0
Deepwater
10 10 20 20
Kinematics Decay
30 30
40 z m z m 60 50 z m 60 m 50 z
40
70
70
80
80
90
90
100 0
0.5 w a( x z) u a( x z)
100
0.5
1.5
Horizontal Velocity Vertical Velocity
u( x z ) w( x z)
Linear Wave Theory

0 0
Shallow Water
2 2
Kinematics Decay
4 4
6 z m z m 8 m z m z
10
10
12
12
14
14
0.5
1.5
w a( x z ) u a( x z )
Horizontal Velocity Vertical Velocity
u( x z ) w( x z )
Wave Behaviour
Wave Particle Trajectories In Different Water Depths
Linear Wave Theory
Deep And Shallow Water Approximations:

Criteria Wave Length Formula gT 2 1 2 gT 2
2 2
Approximation
Deep water 2 1 20 d
Intermediate
tanh ( k d )
Shallow water
d 20
gd
Wave Theories
Other Wave Theories:
Stokes 5th order
Extension of linear wave theory
Applicable to extreme wave conditions for offshore structures and is frequently used.
Generally, the higher the order of wave theory the higher the limiting wave height for which it is valid
Cnoidal wave theory
Applicable for extreme waves in shallow water but for majority of design cases d/ < 0.125 so Cnoidal Theory is rarely applied
Stream function
Applicable to majority of water depths but can be slow to compute in deep water where a Stokes solution would be faster
Wave Theories
Validity Of Wave Theories
Different wave theories are valid in different conditions
No single criteria for selecting best theory
A commonly accepted guide is shown on next slide taken from US
Army Shore Protection Manual
A similar selection diagram can be found in Dynamics of Fixed
Marine Structures, Barltrop & Adams
Wave Theories
Design Wave Environment
Design Wave Environment
Two Approaches Single design wave of given height and period Wave spectrum approach
Design Wave Approach Simplicity and ease of response calculations But several design waves of varying period should be used Not ideal for dynamically sensitive systems
Wave Spectrum Approach Accounts for frequency content of sea and its effect on system response More representative of randomness of sea conditions Ideally requires knowledge of measured wave conditions
Wave Spectra
Ocean Waves Are Random
Randomly varying height and period
20
10
10
20 64
128 t
192
256
A Random Sea Surface Can Be Viewed As The Superposition Of
A Large Number Of Regular Sinusoidal Wavelets
Wave Spectra
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique
Convert (t) directly from time to frequency-domain
20
10
10
20 64 t 128
192
256
FFT
4
S pm( S bs( S is(
) ) ) 2
W a v ea m p litu d e (m e tre s )
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
rad s
Wave Spectra
Wave Spectra Can Be Obtained Directly From Measurements Of
Wave Surface - Not Usually Done In Most Practical Cases
More Common To Rely On Mathematically Define Spectral Shapes
Commonly Used Spectra Are
Pierson-Moskowitz
Bretschneider
International Ships Structures Congress (ISSC)
JONSWAP (Joint North Sea Wave Project)
Wave Spectra
Pierson-Moskowitz Spectra (1964)
Describes a fully developed sea
In its original form it is determined by one parameter -wind speed,
Uw
Fetch and duration are considered infinite
Wind must blow over a large area at nearly constant speed and
direction for a long time
Still a much used spectrum despite assumptions
SPM
exp
0.74
Uw g
Wave Spectra
Bretschneider Spectrum (1959 & 1969)
Assumes narrow-banded sea-state
Individual wave heights and periods follow a Rayleigh distribution
Applicable to a fully developed sea
Determined based on Hs and Ts (defined as average period of the
significant waves)
Bretschneider and P-M spectra can be shown to be equivalent

4 4
SB
0.1687Hs
s
5
exp
0.675
Wave Spectra
ISSC Spectrum (1964)
Slightly modified form of Bretschneider
Based on mean wave frequency

4 4
SISSC
5
0.1107Hs
exp
0.4427
Wave Spectra
Jonswap Spectrum (1973)
Specifically developed on North Sea data
A modified P-M spectrum
Accounts for fetch limited conditions
Provides a more sharply peaked spectrum

2
4 2 5 o o 4
exp 2 ( )
o 2 o 2
Sjo
Hs
exp
1.25
3.3 0.09 if
0.07 if
0.0624
o
0.230 0.0336
o
0.185 1.9
Wave Spectra
P-M, Bretschneider And ISSC Spectra Can Be Written As 2
Parameter Spectra
2 parameters are significant wave height and a period

4 c 5 4
Unified form of spectrum: S 4
A
2 Hs
exp A
c
Where:
A = nondimensional coefficient c = characteristic wave frequency (period) Hs = significant wave height
Wave Spectra
The Relationship Between Spectral Peak Frequency And

1
Characteristic Frequency Can Be Shown To Be:
5 c 4A o
The nth Spectral Moment May Be Derived As:

n 4
mn
0
16
N 4
Hs
Wave Spectra
A
c
Model
o m z ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5 P-M 1.0 0.772 0.710 o 4 0.675 s m 1.296 1.0 0.4427 1.167 0.90 0.829 0.921
Bretschneider
ISSC
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
= characteristic frequency
= spectral peak frequency
Table Can be Used to Generate Spectrum Given Hs and Any of The Statistical Frequency Parameters
= significant frequency
= mean frequency
= zero-crossing frquency
Wave Spectra
Example
Hs = 13m , Tm = 12sec
From above table:

0.772
m cpm
A pm
cpm
5 0.404 s
rad
A bs
cbs m cbs
0.675
0.9
0.471
rad s
A is
cis m
0.4427
cis
0.524
rad s
Wave Spectra
40
Plots Overlay Each Other For Given Hs and Mean Period, Tm, P-M, Bretschneider and ISSC are Equivalent
30
S pm (
S bs (
20
S is (
10
0 0.2 0.4
0.6 1 rad s
0.8
1.2
1.4
Wave Spectra
JONSWAP Spectrum with = 3.3 and Hs , Tm as Above, Overlaid on P-M Spectrum
90
80
70
60
S pm (
50
S jo (
40
30
20
10
0 0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Wave Spectra
Area under the Wave Spectrum Represents the Total Wave Energy
in the Sea Surface
It is also the Variance of the Surface Elevation Process

2
S
0
2 2 mo
mo
Note that: Hrms
mn
0
Short Term Wave Statistics
Later we shall see how Wave Spectra are used in Spectral
Response Analysis
Before that, Wave Spectra are used to Calculate some Short Term
Wave Statistic Results
Wave Spectra Characterise the Sea Surface in the Frequency
Domain
To Evaluate Short Term Wave Statistics we are Now Interested in the
Sea Surface Characteristics in the Probability Domain
The Following Assumptions Are Made:
Wave surface process is a stationary random process such that
its statistical characteristics dont change with time
The process is narrow-banded i.e. there are a small number of
dominant frequencies and wave energy is concentrated over a
narrow range of frequencies

It was Shown by Longuet-Higgins(1952), that Individual Wave
Heights Follow a Rayleigh Probability Distribution:

p ( H)
2 Hrms
2H exp Hrms
2
( H)
Pdf of wave height:
Cdf of wave height: P( H) 1
exp
Hrms
Remembering that: H rms
2 mo
Figure Illustrating Rayleigh pdfs and cdfs
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
P ( H)
p ( H)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0 0 1
2 H
5 5
Significant Wave Height - Hs
Average of the Highest 1/3 of Waves in a wave record (sea-state)
Correlates with Wave Heights Reported from Observations
A Statistical Parameter
Not an Identifiable Wave Form Propagating as a Single Physical
Wave
Practice of Reporting Sea Conditions using Hs is Widespread
Hs Used to Define Sea-States Together with a Characteristic Period
e.g. Tz (Mean Upcrossing Period)
In the following we shall see how Hs can be calculated and how its is
used.
Significant Wave Height
Hs = average of the highest 1/3 of all waves in a sea-state
Using the Above cdf, Calculate Ho Above Which Only 1/3 of all
2 2
Waves Lie:
P Ho 3 Hrms 2 1 exp Ho
Ho
1.048 Hrms
Average of the Highest 1/3 Waves is then:

H p ( H ) dH H s p ( H ) dH
H o H o
From Which We Get:
Hs Hs
1.416 Hrms 4.005 M o
PDF and Calculated Ho and Hs From Previous Example:
0.1
0.075
0.05
0.025
0 6
12
18
24
30
p(H) Ho Hs
If We Require A Single Regular Wave For Design Purposes We Need
One With A Low Probability Of Exceedance Within A Given Sea-state
It Can Be Shown That The CDF And PDF Of The Most Probable
Largest Height in N Waves Can Be Written As:
F N( H ) f N( H ) N ( P( H ) )
N 1
( P( H ) )
p( H)
The Most Probable Maximum Value is Obtained From:
H No H rms ln( N)
For N = 1000 Waves:
H No 1.86 H s
But the Probability of Experiencing a Higher Value During the
Same Storm is:
F N H No
0.632
So a Design Value may be Calculated such that it is only Exceeded
Once in Sample of N values:

ln 1 H Nx N H rms ln 1 exp N 1
For N = 1000 Waves:
H Nx 2.63 H s
Plot Showing Hs, HNo and HNx and the PDFs of Individual and Extreme Wave Heights for the Sea-state Defined Above
0.25
0.21
0.17
0.13
0.083
0.042
0 0 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
p(H) fN(H) Hno Hnx Hs

Most Probable Maximum and Design Wave Factors Versus Number
of Waves, N
H No Hs H Nx Hs
3.5
No ( N )
2.5 No( N )
Nx( N )
Nx( N )
1.5
1 100 N
10
3 1 10
4 1 10
Long Term Wave Statistics
Long Term Probability Defines Events and Extreme Values for
a Period of the Order Of 1 - 100 Years as Opposed to a Few
Hours for the Short Term Conditions
Long Term Probability Generally Obtained by Extrapolation
from Many Short Term Observations
Extreme Wave Heights Determined by Extrapolating a
Probability Distribution Fitted to Site Specific Wave Height
Data Measured Over a Few Years
If Each Sea-State is Described by Hs & Tz, how can we Describe the
Variation of Sea-States Over the Long Term?
If Regular Measurements (e.g. 20 minute periods every 3 hrs of Hs)
are Made Over Several Years it is Reasonable to use Statistical
Methods to Estimate Extreme Values of Hs that Occur in say 1, 10, 50
or 100 Years
The Basic Procedure Would Be:
Obtain Hs for each of n measurement periods e.g. Hsi (for i = 1 to N)
Calculate the probability of exceeding each value from:
P(Hs >= Hsi) = (No. of wave heights >= Hsi)/(N+1)
Best fit a standard extreme value probability distribution to the
exceedance prob. data e.g. Weibull, Fisher-Tippet Type II
Extrapolate to the exceedance probabilities corresponding to the
required return period
The Figure Below Shows Such Data Plotted On A Fisher-Tipett Type II
Scale
If the Data Characterises Sea-States of Duration, t, the Required Exceedance Probability Associated with the Return Period, R, can be Calculated From: P(HsR) = 1 t/R
e.g. t = 3hrs, R = 10 years P(HsR) = 1 3/(365*24*10) = 0.99997
This Value is Used to Read the 10 Year Return Hs10 from the Extrapolated Best Fit Distribution
Encounter Probability
Return period is average time between occurrences
There is a certain risk that the design wave with a given return
period, R, will be exceeded during the design life, L
This risk is the encounter probability given by:
E = 1 exp (-L/R)
e.g.
L = 25 years, R = 100 years
E = 0.22
i.e. the probability of encountering the 100 year conditions is 0.22
in a 25 year design life.
If you were to hang around for 100 Years E = 0.632
The Graph Shows Encounter Probability Increase As Design

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1
Life/Return Period Ratio ( = L/R) Increases
E = 0.632
E( )
10
Spectral Analysis
Spectral Analysis
Response-Amplitude Operators
Amplitude of structure response normalised w.r.t. the wave
amplitude
For a linear system the normalised response doesnt vary with
wave amplitude for a given frequency
RAO is unique to the structure and response quantity of
interest
The normalised response function constructed for a range of
wave frequencies is called the response-amplitude operator
Also called transfer function because it allows the transfer of
exciting waves into responses of the structure
Spectral Analysis
Response-Amplitude Operators Cont/d
RAOs can be produced from measurements made in model tests
Test performed in regular waves and scaled up to full-scale RAOs
They can also be calculated using such methods as diffraction
analysis which is often used for floating systems
Spectral Analysis
Response-Amplitude Operators Cont/d
If a structure is free to move in waves its motion may be critical
near resonance
Important to study overall response of structures to the design
wave spectrum
It is important to have knowledge of the phase relation between
wave excitation and response
Need to preserve the correct phases when modelling combined
motions particularly in time domain simulations
Spectral Analysis
Example Of Seafastening Of Equipment On Barge
Spectral Analysis
Steps Are: Evaluate barge design motions, velocities and accelerations Done using RAOs & wave spectrum data for design Hs & Tz conditions RAOs either available from model tests or, in this case, calculated by diffraction analysis Results will be at barge c.o.g. and will need to calculate motions at location of equipment Use design condition motions to calculate support reactions for equipment items Large items may need structural modelling as reactions likely to be affected by deck and even hull girder stiffness Design seafastening to suit derived reactions
Spectral Analysis
m/m
Spectral Analysis
Deg/m
Spectral Analysis
deg/m
Spectral Analysis
Hs = 11.1m Tp = 12sec
S(w)
Spectral Analysis
Frequency Domain Spectral Response Analysis Is Based On The
Following Fundamental Relation:
S x( )
H x( )
S ( )
where: S ( ) = wave spectrum
H x( ) = transfer function (Response Amplitude Operator) for quantity of interest
S x( ) = response spectrum for quantity of interest
Above Applies If Response Quantity Can Be Derived From A Linear
System Analysis
Spectral Analysis
To Calculate Velocities And Accelerations For A Given Mode Of
Response The Above Relationship Is Modified
Velocity spectrum is given by:
Sv
Hx
Acceleration spectrum is given by:
Sa
Hx
Spectral Analysis
m/m
Spectral Analysis
m/m
Spectral Analysis
m/m
Spectral Analysis
The Following Relationships Are Used To Calculate The Design
Response Values:
Area under spectrum:
mo
0
Sx
Significant response:
2 mo
Most probable max. response:
X max
1.86 X s
Spectral Analysis
By Calculating The Area Under The Response Spectra The Design
Response Values Can Be Derived
Heave (m)
Pitch (deg)
R o ll (d eg )
Spectral Analysis
Investigate behaviour over Tz range indicated by wave scatter table
Rockwater 2 - Kenz EHC 250/4500 Main Hoist Maximum Absolute Vertical Velocity Amplitude Long Crested Seas
0.800
0.700 180 150 120 90 60 30 0
0.600
0.500
0.400
Amplitude [m/s]
0.200
0.100
0.000 6 Tz [secs] 7 8 9 10 11 12
Relationship with significant wave height is linear
Amplitude [m/s]
0.300
Spectral Analysis
Kikeh Suction Pile Installation
Spectral Analysis
Steps Are: Evaluate crane tip vertical motion, velocity and acceleration Ship RAOs & local wave scatter data for Hs & Tz required RAOs provide pure translational and rotational motions at G Resultant motion at crane tip combination of heave, roll and pitch
Use response to calculate hydrodynamic loadings on the pile Need stiffness of hoisting system Added mass and damping coefficients of pile also required
Excessive loadings or slack wire conditions predicted Check on crane dynamic amplification factor Avoid snap forces
Spectral Analysis
Absolute vertical motion = heave Xtip * roll + Ytip * pitch

Rockwater 2 - Kenz EHC 250/4500 Main Hoist Absolute Vertical M otion RAO
1.20
1.00 180 150 120 90 60 30 0
0.80
s 3 RAO [-]
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00 0.00 0.40 0.60 0.80
0.20
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
Wave Frequency [rads/sec]
Spectral Analysis
Spectral moments provide statistical responses

0.050
R1 / n n
0.045 0.040 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 0.00
n 2m0 2
LN(n) 1 ERF LN (n)
dM0/d dM1/d dM2/d dM4/d
Tp Tz 2
dMn /d
[m 2s/rad, m 2, m2rad/s, m2rad 3/s3]
ER N LN( N ) LN( N )
2m 0
0.2886
m2 m4 m0 m2
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20 [rads/sec]
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
Assumes response is Rayleigh distributed
Ensure frequency distribution adequately defines peaks and tails

Spectral Analysis
Statistical properties vary with incident wave direction

Rockwater 2 - Kenz EHC 250/4500 Main Hoist Absolute Vertical Motion Peak Period
10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 Long Crested Seas Short Created Seas
Rockwater 2 - Kenz EHC 250/4500 Main Hoist Maximum Absolute Vertical Motion
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500 6.00 Long Crested Seas 5.00 Short Created Seas 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 0 15 30 45 60
0.400
Amplitude [m]
0.200
0.100
0.000
Period [Secs]
0.300
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135 Predom inant Wave Heading Relative to Ship []
150
165
180
Predom inant Wave Heading Relative to Ship []
And wave spreading reduces vertical response for beam seas
But increases it in quartering seas
Dynamic Behaviour of Floating Offshore Systems
End of Presentation

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OED DESIGN LEVEL II Dynamic Behaviour of Floating Offshore Systems Paul Westlake 2nd - 6th October 2006

Hydrodynamic Loading Of Offshore Structures

Design Environment Description

Hydrodynamic Loading Of Offshore Structures

Alternative Approaches To Describing Surface Gravity Waves Deterministic

Regular Wave Theories

Design wave approach to calculating loads

Linear Wave Theories

Airy wave theory

basis for probabilistic approach

Non-Linear Wave Theories

e.g. Stokes 2nd, 3rd & 5th order

5th order commonly used for high wave heights

Others include trochoidal, solitary and cnoidal wave theories

Numerical Wave Theories

Deans stream function

Applicable to majority of water depths in which offshore structures

Probabilistic (Random) Wave Modelling

Used where frequency response is of interest e.g.

Usually based on linear wave theory of hydrodynamic load calculation methods

In the following Linear Wave Theory will be used to illustrate aspects

Basic Wave Terminology

H = wave height from crest to trough (generally not equal to 2a)

d = water depth (MWL to seabed), note d is a positive number but co-

ordinate z is negative downwards

w,u = vertical and horizontal wave particle velocities

s = z + d = height above mudline

Hydrodynamic Loading Of Offshore Structures

Linear Wave Theory

Linear Wave Theory

Wave surface elevation:

Linear dispersion relation: g k tanh ( k d )

Solve dispersion relation iteratively for

Hence, wave number:

Linear Wave Theory

Wave surface elevation:

Horizontal particle velocity: u( x z t ) ao

Horizontal particle acceleration: u a( x z t ) ao

Surface Profile Horizontal Velocity Horizontal Acceleration

Linear Wave Theory

Vertical particle velocity:

Vertical particle acceleration: w a( x z t ) sinh ( k d ) ao

Surface Profile Vertical Velocity Vertical Acceleration

Linear Wave Theory

Intermediate Water Depth Kinematics Decay:

HorizontalVelocity Vertical Velocity

Vertical Acceleration Horizontal Acceleration

Linear Wave Theory

Velocity Decay With Depth

Vertical Acceleration Horizontal Acceleration

Horizontal Velocity Vertical Velocity

Linear Wave Theory

Velocity Decay With Depth

Vertical Acceleration Horizontal Acceleration

Horizontal Velocity Vertical Velocity

Wave Particle Trajectories In Different Water Depths

Linear Wave Theory

Deep And Shallow Water Approximations:

Other Wave Theories:

Stokes 5th order

Extension of linear wave theory

Cnoidal wave theory

Validity Of Wave Theories

Different wave theories are valid in different conditions