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A study of the pyjamas purchasing behaviour of Chinese consumers in Hangzhou, China

Osmud Rahman
School of Fashion, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada

A study of pyjamas purchasing 217

Received October 2006 Accepted February 2007

Xiuli Zhu
School of Fashion, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Zhejiang, China, and

Wing-sun Liu
Institute of Textiles & Clothing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Abstract
Purpose This study aims to explore and understand consumers perceptions and behaviour towards pyjamas in the Peoples Republic of China (China). Design/methodology/approach A quantitative analysis and comparative methods were used for this study. From a large body of literature, seven product attributes were identied and used to measure and evaluate what constitutes consumers purchasing decision for pyjamas. A total of 203 usable surveys were compiled, analyzed and collated. Findings This study shows evidence that consumers are more conscious of the functional values of a low-involvement product than the symbolic values. The results of this survey indicate that comfort, fabric and quality are signicant attributes, whereas country-of-origin and brand are relatively insignicant determinants for purchasing a pair of pyjamas. Research limitations/implications Limitations of this study include the use of a convenience sample of female college students and connement to a specic product pyjamas. The results of this study are useful for fashion designers and marketers to understand Chinese consumers perceptions of pyjamas. Originality/value This study is one of the few consumer research studies on a low-involvement and privately consumed apparel product pyjamas. The ndings of this study provide insight and implications for fashion practitioners to develop their product and business in China. Keywords Clothing, Consumer behaviour, Product attributes, China Paper type Research paper

Introduction The economy of the Peoples Republic of China (China) has been transformed over the years since Deng Xiaoping launched the open-door policy in 1978. This ongoing economic reform has taken various forms such as privatization and joint venture (Fung et al., 2006). Procter and Gamble adopted a joint venture programme in 1988 (Penhirin, 2004), and in 1992 foreign retailers were allowed to enter the Chinese consumer market for the rst time (Delong et al., 2004). Fashion houses are increasingly prominent in
The authors would like to extend special thanks to the students in Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, particularly He Aishaung, who assisted in various ways with the data collection.

Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Vol. 12 No. 2, 2008 pp. 217-231 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1361-2026 DOI 10.1108/13612020810874890

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major cities, for example, Louis Vuitton and Giorgio Armani increased their market prominence in 1992 and 1998 respectively. The GDP of China has had an annual growth rate of 9 percent in the period between 1980 and 2005 (Kasriel, 2005). China is developing from a manufacturing powerhouse to one of the worlds largest consumer markets. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China (2006), the total retail sales of consumer goods reached 3644.8 billion RMB (about US$456.6 billion) in the rst half of 2006, a year-on-year rise of 13.3 percent. Comparisons between different consumer product categories indicate that clothing rose 18.1 percent over the same period of 2005. Research background Pyjamas are often considered a basic commodity or homogenous product (Kotler and Armstrong, 2001) with little generic differentiation. However, consumer perceptions and attitudes toward pyjamas seem to be quite different in todays consumer culture and the meaning of pyjamas has gone through a process of re-signication in the twenty-rst century (Baudrillard, 1998; Brown, 1993). People wear pyjamas for many reasons and they dont necessarily wear them in their bedrooms. For instance, in mainland China, it is not surprising to see individuals walking down the high streets in pyjamas. In the West, they are worn at school on pyjamas day, at slumber parties or for other special occasions. Despite the versatility of pyjamas, some people may never buy nor ever wear pyjamas in their lifetimes. According to our pre-test, some people prefer wearing T-shirts and boxer shorts for sleeping. In this regard we raised a number of questions for this study. Why are pyjamas liked or disliked? What do consumers like/dislike about them? Could pyjamas be used as a symbolic tool to communicate, express and construct an individuals self-image and identity? What role do the intrinsic values and extrinsic values play in the evaluation of pyjamas? In order to answer the preceding questions and to understand this phenomenon, the objective of this research study was set forth to investigate young Chinese female consumers perceptions towards pyjamas. Literature review The Chinese consumer market has undergone a drastic change over the last 20 years. Young people do not view fashion merely as a consumer product; they view fashion as a symbol, as an image, as a whole. According to Gestalts perspective, objects should be perceived as a whole rather than atomistically (Durgee, 1988) clothing consumption is a holistic process rather than linear process. If our study only focused on the consumers perception of functional attributes without considering the impact of the symbolic attributes of a product, this research may not be adequate or complete. Therefore, this paper attempts to examine both functional and symbolic values of consumer perceptions toward pyjamas within a specic sample of young adult females in Hangzhou, China. Based on the Fishbein model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and prior research literature (Table I), seven product attributes were developed for this study: four intrinsic values (style, quality, fabric, and comfort) and three extrinsic values (brand, price and country-of-origin). As Fishbein had proposed, consumers often used both intrinsic and extrinsic cues for product evaluation.

Researchers Ahmed and dAstous (2004)

Country Beijing, China

Product type T-shirt Bread Coffee

Product attributes COD, COA, store type, price, satisfaction assurance Brand, price, COO, taste, prestige, quality Brand, price, COO, aroma, prestige, and quality Quality, style, personal preferences, trends, price, conformity, easy care, brand Fabric, comfort, size/t, quality, location of manufacturer, colour, how pleasing it was to others, brand name, appropriateness for campus wear, price, style and coordination with other clothing Comfort, t/shape, design/cut, fashion, quality, durability, casualness, good, price, fabric, care, style, workmanship, brand, character, versatility, country-of-brand-origin, authenticity/classic, various feelings Freshness, price, color/texture, safety/hygiene, preservation from decay, brand, leanness Place of production, smell, other

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Ahmed et al. (2002) Singapore

Chen et al. (2004)

China

Childrens wear

Hsu and Burns (2002)

Taiwan and USA

Clothing

Wu and Delong (2006)

Shanghai, China

Denim jeans

Zhou and Hui (2003)

Shenyang, Changchun, Harbin, Dalian, China

Pork sausage

Table I. Prior research studies on the importance of different product attributes as related to different kinds of consumer products

Price, quality and brand During the Cultural Revolution, consumer goods were controlled, determined, produced and supplied by the Chinese Government and the state-owned enterprises. Consumers had limited opportunities, choices and freedom to shop. In 1979, as a result of the Economic Reform policy, the consumer culture began to change. Due to the increasing number of foreign investments, the massive inux of foreign products and the democratization of the retail market, the consumer market was liberalized and transformed from a collective to a differentiated structure. Consumers could nally choose from a variety of products for their consumption that included fashion goods (Rice, 1992; Tong, 1987). With the acceleration and expansion of the shopping experience, Chinese consumers have become more sophisticated but more cautious in their spending (Ho, 1997). They often compare product attributes and benets before they make a purchasing decision. They dont always prefer foreign products to local products. Many consumers often seek the best value from a product - which means paying the lowest price for the highest quality (Fan and Xiao, 1998). Thus, price and quality are still the major purchasing criteria for many consumers, and they often see price as an indicator of quality. This is especially true if price is the only available cue (Olson, 1977) on which to base a purchasing decision.

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However, price, quality and brand are correlated with each other. Consumers dont evaluate a product based only on one single attribute; they consider multiple attributes at the same time. The signicance of one attribute could have an impact on the others. Fan and Xiaos (1998) research in Ghangzhou reviewed similar ndings. Their results indicated that young adult consumers were not very brand conscious, but were more price and quality conscious. They seemed to think high prices signaled high quality, and that high quality would be linked to a well-known brand. Country-of-origin (COO) and low-involvement products Several consumer research publications have indicated that Chinese consumers show a more positive response towards foreign brands than local brands (Ahmed and dAstous, 2004; Delong et al., 2004; Tai and Tam, 1997). The perceptions of the manufacturing countries could inuence consumers purchasing decision of a product. As an example, Ahmed and dAstous (2004) used T-shirts as a vehicle to study the perceptions of COO in China. According to their ndings, Chinese consumers perceptions of country-of-design (COD) and country-of-assembly (COA) are more positive in highly industrialized countries than newly industrialized countries. Delong et al.s (2004) surveys also reveal similar results. They compared and evaluated the perceptions of product attributes of US brands and Chinese brands in Shanghai. US brands were more positively received than Chinese brands in terms of design innovation, workmanship, brand image, service, and product display. COO attributes denitely play an important role in the process of a consumers purchasing decision. However, products that are considered low-involvement, privately consumed or inconspicuous items may not be viewed and evaluated in the same way as a high-involvement, public-consumed or conspicuous product. For example, socks and pyjamas may demonstrate low product involvement for many consumers because these types of products are inexpensive and inconspicuous, as they are normally worn under other apparel product. On the contrary, outerwear may yield high product involvement because of the symbolic attributes it carries (Kapferer and Laurent, 1985). Lascu and Babb (1995) conducted a survey in Poland with results indicating that Polish consumers were less inclined to use COO for their purchasing criterion when they were shopping for less expensive products. In addition, Ahmed et al. (2002) also conducted a survey on low-involvement products, namely bread and coffee, in Singapore. The results revealed that in the presence of other extrinsic cues (price and brand), the impact of COO was relatively weak; and brand name was the most important determinant factor. Balestrini and Gamble (2006) discovered Chinese consumers used COO information when purchasing wine for special occasions but less so for their own private consumption. Style, fabric and comfort If price and quality values are exactly the same, young adult consumers are more favourably inclined to purchase foreign products because of their innovative design, brand image, and workmanship (Delong et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2002). Innovative design is one of the crucial factors behind brand selection (Hong Kong Trade Development Council, 2003, 2004). In fact, innovative design can facilitate differentiation and assimilation of type in the process of social interaction (Braudel, 1981; Pesendorfer, 1995).

Fabric and comfort are often considered as salient factors, especially for certain apparel products such as ski jackets, underwear, and pyjamas. The properties of the fabric have to be carefully selected and evaluated during the process of product design and development, otherwise, the end product may not be able to meet the characteristics of desired serviceability and the customers expectations:
Self-satisfaction is now the number one motivator. . . . it is the principal objective among the young, . . . . It has also become the predominant aspiration among the most afuent. . . . were witnessing the emergence of a Chinese me generation (McEwen et al., 2006, p. 71).

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Fromm (1976) asserted that we are increasingly driven by our mode of existence. Bellk (1998) explicitly stated that our possessions are actually our extended self. Among all our possessions, clothing is probably one of the most expressive of media (McCracken, 1988) for our selves. Barnard indicated that the role of fashion today is the communication of individuality (Barnard, 1996). It is interesting to note that Rice and Lus (1988) study also pointed out that marketing activities in China would be more symbolic and expressive in the coming future. Research methodology This research was undertaken in order to explore the consumption of pyjamas of young adult women in Hangzhou of Zhejiang province. There were at least two reasons why we deliberately selected the young adult female for this study. First, they are fashion conscious and innovative. Second, young people tend to spend more money on fashion product than other age groups. In this paper, simple statistical analysis and comparative methods were used to compile, analyze and collate the ndings of the data. Students were chosen from a major university in Hangzhou as subjects for this research project. A total of 210 female respondents participated in this study and 203 useable sets of responses were collected. Seven completed questionnaires were rejected due to incomplete or improper responses. A signicant majority of the respondents (90.1 percent) belonged to the targeted age group of 16 to 25 years while a small number of respondents (9.9 percent) were older than this age range. A questionnaire was developed to elicit consumer perceptions and expectations towards pyjamas. In order to avoid any potential problems, the questionnaire was pre-tested by ten undergraduate students studying in Hangzhou. Corresponding amendments and minor revisions were made as a result of the pre-test. Questionnaire design The nal version of the questionnaire was developed to collect demographic information, measuring the importance of evaluative criteria and to explore the habitual consumer behaviour of young adult women. For example, a question using the ve-point Likert scale (anchored by strongly disagree to strongly agree) sought to measure consumers behaviour toward pyjamas. Based on the prior publications (Table I), we adopted several of their suggested dimensions and identied seven product attributes for this research study. These attributes were country-of-origin, brand, quality, style, fabric, comfort and price. In view of these prerequisites, questions were developed and respondents were asked to rate each attribute on a four-point Likert scale anchored by very important to least important response ranges according

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to their own preference. In addition, other questions were developed for this study such as: (1) What do you wear for sleeping? (2) Why do you like or dislike pyjamas? (3) Why do you need to purchase a new pair of pyjamas? (4) How many pairs of pyjamas do you currently own? (5) How often do you shop for pyjamas? Findings and discussions In order to understand our respondents habitual lifestyle and perceptions of pyjamas, two sets of paired statements were used in the questionnaire survey. The rst set related to the perception of pyjamas: . pyjamas are basic needs/necessities; and . pyjamas are unnecessary/non-essential products. The second set related to the versatility of pyjamas: . I dont like to be seen in my pyjamas (e.g. only in the bedroom); and . pyjamas should be versatile (e.g. indoor and outdoor). Respondents were asked to rate each statement on a ve-point Likert scale anchored by the strongly disagree/strongly agree response range. The studys ndings suggest that the majority of respondents viewed pyjamas as an unnecessary product rather than as a basic need or necessity. As indicated in Table II, the mean score of female participants who perceived pyjamas as a basic necessity was 1.85, with only 3.5 percent of the sample supporting this statement. By way of contrast, 75.9 percent of the respondents viewed pyjamas to be an unnecessary product, and the mean score for this statement was 4.12. In terms of versatility, 49.7 percent of the respondents stated that pyjamas should be versatile. However, 39.4 percent of the respondents indicated that they would not like to be seen in pyjamas by others. Next, a distribution of the use of the seven product attributes (country-of-origin, brand, quality, style, fabric, comfort and price) as the respondents purchasing decision criteria were examined. In the questionnaire, respondents were asked to rate every attribute on a four-point Likert ranking scale anchored by a very important to least important response range. The results of our survey indicated that majority of the respondents selected comfort as the most important evaluative criterion for purchasing  3.71) followed by quality (n 200, X  3.41) and decision of pyjamas (n 201, X  fabric (n 197, X 3.40). Based on the mean scores, Table III ranked specic attributes of pyjamas in order of their salience.  1.59) The results of our survey showed relatively low scores for COO (n 192, X  1.90) but slightly higher scores for price attribute (n 198, and brand (n 194, X  2.86). This nding is in line with Balestrini and Gamble (2006)ndings, Chinese X consumers tend to be more concerned with price when they are looking for low involvement and privately consumed products. As Lane et al. (2006) indicated in their study:

Statistics n 203 203 203 203 1.85 4.12 3.17 3.42 0.918 0.917 1.286 1.367 45.3 1.5 13.3 11.8 29.1 2.5 15.8 14.8 22.1 20.1 31.5 23.7 2.5 34 19.7 19.2 Mean S.D. Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree

Valid % Strongly agree 1.0 41.9 19.7 30.5

Total Agree and strongly agree 3.5 75.9 39.4 49.7

Pyjamas are basic needs/necessities Pyjamas are unnecessary/non-essential products I dont like to be seen in my pyjamas Pyjamas should be versatile

Note: Five-point Likert scale: Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Neutral = 3, Agree = 4, and Strongly agree = 5

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Table II. Habitual lifestyle and perceptions of pyjamas

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Chinese consumers often change their minds at the last minute, . . . . they often leave a store with a different brand than the one they intended to purchase. Just as many said they almost always buy whats on sale, even if its not their favorite brand.

224

In other words, price has a signicant impact on the purchasing intentions of Chinese consumers. As shown in Table IV, 55 percent (n 83) of our respondents spent, on average, 50 RMB or less on a pair of pyjamas. Due to the low price and the high value of locally manufactured products, most of the respondents preferred local brands to the foreign brands. Brand attributes became less signicant in the presence of other available cues. Our research ndings suggested that Chinese young adult consumers are more conscious of the price of pyjamas than the brand name. As shown in Table V, a number of correlation tests were carried out on the various extrinsic and intrinsic cues. The results displaying the correlation between all three extrinsic cues including brand, price and COO was relatively weak. On the contrary, the results of the correlation between quality, fabric and comfort were strong and positive. The Pearsons correlation coefcient of comfort and quality was 0.527, fabric and quality was 0.533, and fabric and comfort was 0.444. In total, 78.6 percent of the respondents ranked comfort as the most important criterion, followed by quality and fabric. Interestingly, according to the results of the open-ended question, which addressed whether respondents liked or disliked pyjamas, a number of respondents disliked them for the same reason comfort. They found wearing pyjamas to be uncomfortable, hot, and restrictive. In other words, if pyjamas could not provide the essential comfort values or satisfy an individuals needs, many young consumers would never consider purchasing a pair for their own use. Based on some of the respondents answers, the fabric softness, breathability and warmth were important factors for the selection of pyjamas. This nding was in line with the survey conducted
n Comfort Quality Fabric Price Style Brand Country-of-origin 201 200 197 198 200 194 192 Missing 2 3 6 5 3 9 11 Mean 3.71 3.41 3.40 2.86 2.85 1.90 1.59 S.D. 0.645 0.673 0.683 0.696 0.735 0.724 0.688

Table III. Perceptions of product attributes of pyjamas

RMB (Reminbi)/US$ 0-50 RMB (about US$ 0-6.27) 51-100 RMB (about US$ 6.39-12.67) 101-150 RMB (about US$ 12.8-18.8) 151-200 RMB (about US$ 18.92-25.06) Over 200 RMB (over US$ 25.06) Valid total Missing (those who did not wear pyjamas) Total

Frequency 83 56 6 5 1 151 52 203

Valid % 55.0 37.1 4.0 3.3 0.7 100

Table IV. The price respondents would pay for a pair of pyjamas

Style 1

Comfort

Brand

Quality

Price

Fabric

Country 2 of-origin

Style

Comfort

0.2499 0.0004 1

Brand

0.0879 0.2229 2 0.1233 0.0867 1

Quality

0.2914 , 0.0001 0.5273 , 0.0001 0.0024 0.973 1

Price

0.1455 0.0412 0.0085 0.9049 2 0.1483 0.0395 0.0841 0.2384 1

Fabric

0.1735 0.0147 0.4444 , 0.0001 2 0.1281 0.0766 0.5331 , 0.0001 0.0485 0.5001 1 0.0485 0.5001 2 0.0176 0.8077 2 0.2098 0.0035

Country-of-origin

0.2499 0.0004 0.0879 0.2229 0.2914 , 0.0001 0.1455 0.0412 0.1735 0.0147 2 0.0687 0.3437 2 0.1233 0.0867 0.5273 , 0.0001 0.0085 0.9049 0.4444 , 0.0001 2 0.2912 , 0.0001 0.0024 0.973 2 0.1483 0.0395 2 0.1281 0.0766 0.3843 , 0.0001 0.0841 0.2384 0.5331 , 0.0001 2 0.2146 0.0028

2 0.0687 0.3437 2 0.2912 , 0.0001 0.3843 , 0.0001 2 0.2146 0.0028 2 0.0176 0.8077 2 0.2098 0.0035 1

Table V. Pearson correlation coefcients of extrinsic and intrinsic cues based on 99% statistical signicance; . 0.01 not signicant

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by Wu and Delong (2006), that comfort was rated the most commonly noted attribute in their study of Western branded jeans in Shanghai. According to the results in Table VI, and in respect of the question: What do you wear for sleeping?, 66.5 percent of the respondents chose pyjamas, 12.3 percent preferred T-shirts and shorts, 11.3 percent chose underwear, and only 2 percent did not wear anything at all. Most of the respondents preferred wearing pyjamas and yet many of them never considered pyjamas to be a basic necessity (as shown in Table II). At least two possible explanations should be proposed for this result. First of all, individuals have many choices other than pyjamas. They can wear other forms of clothing such as T-shirts and shorts, tank tops and briefs, or underwear. Secondly, some individuals did not have extra money to spend on this type of garment. According to the results of the question of Why do you dislike pyjamas?, a few respondents said, I dont want to waste my money. Some people would rather spend their money on other consumer products or services instead. Many people did not purchase pyjamas every season because they seldom wore out quickly or went out of style. As indicated in Table VII, the mean score of the number of times spent on shopping for pyjamas per year was 1.88 (n 132). On average, our respondents owned  3.24) each. three to four pairs of pyjamas (n 163, X As Park et al. (1991) asserted, functional values are related to specic and practical consumption conditions, whereas symbolic values are related to self-image and social identity. In general, young Chinese people are more concerned with their public/social self-image than their private/individual selves. Consumers seldom use any privately consumed, low-involvement or inexpensive products such as toothpicks, toothpaste, socks or pyjamas to develop and construct their self-identity. If a product is a privately consumed item, it doesnt create symbolic activities that foster interactions with other individuals. We can thus infer that the symbolic values of a product could be perceived differently across product types. Although we might see people walking down the high streets in pyjamas, most of the Chinese respondents in this study were still wearing pyjamas indoors or only for sleeping. As indicated in our survey (Table II), most of the  3.17, 40.9 percent) outside of the respondents did not like to be seen in pyjamas (X
Frequency Valid Nothing T-shirt and shorts Pyjamas Underwear Other Total System 4 25 135 23 16 203 0 203 Valid % 2.0 12.3 66.5 11.3 7.9 100.0

Table VI. Type of garment typically wear to sleep in

Missing Total

n Table VII. Ownership of and shopping for pyjamas How many pairs of pyjamas do you currently own? How often do you shop for pyjamas per year? 163 132

Missing 40 71

Mean 3.24 1.88

home. If friends came to visit, pyjamas were rarely worn to greet them. In most cases, other casual attire was worn instead. The ndings revealed that Chinese young adult females viewed pyjamas as functional (style, fabric, comfort and quality) rather than symbolic (brand, COO, price). Conclusion and implications It was evident from the ndings that most of the young adult female consumers did not perceive or consider pyjamas to be basic necessities. If the values of owning pyjamas are non-existent, a percentage of consumers will not even consider making a purchase. According to the results of our survey, the consumption of pyjamas could be summarized according to three primary motives. First, some respondents bought them as replacement items, and did not shop for them on a regular basis. Second, some respondents bought pyjamas only when they were on sale or they were part of a promotion. These consumers were more value conscious. Third, some respondents purchased new pyjamas because of their style, design, colour and fabric. In China, many individuals like to put on pyjamas as soon as they get home. They wear them while watching television, reading the newspaper, playing games or working on the computer at night. However, some individuals only wear pyjamas for sleeping and they do not want to be seen in pyjamas by other people. Although young people in China are constantly impacted by Western culture and modern taste, they are still greatly inuenced by their traditional values (McEwen et al., 2006; Zhou and Belk, 2004). Some feel it is indecent or obscene if they go outside wearing pyjamas, while others do not see pyjamas as a fashion item. They see pyjamas as being utilitarian or as a commodity. Thus, the symbolic values of pyjamas is perceived to be relatively low as compared to other apparel products. In general, consumers are willing to spend money on prestigious and publicly consumed products than products that are to be consumed in a more private context. In Hangzhou, the price of pyjamas is relatively low when compared to many other apparel products. It seems consumers are reluctant to spend an excessive amount of money on them. As may be seen from our survey, 92.1 percent of respondents (n 151) spent no more than 100 RMB (Table IV) on their purchases. Overall, the consumers of the second-tier cities (e.g. Nanjing, Chengdu, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Shenyang, Tianjin and large provincial centres) were more sensitive to price and less receptive to brand names than the consumers in the rst-tier cities (Carew, 2006). As a consequence of traditional Chinese values, Chinese consumers are price conscious and value orientated. They tend to shop around, compare prices and evaluate various attributes before they make a nal purchase decision, even if the product is one with which the consumer has relatively low involvement (Gong, 2003). If they are not contented with the current consumer products, they would prefer to save their money for other purchases. Although Chinese consumers are conscious of price and function, they can spend a substantial amount of money on desirable products. In particular, Chinas youth are more optimistic about their future and are more willing to spend a high proportion of their income on consumer goods. They are relatively more open-minded and receptive to new products and brands. Therefore, fashion practitioners should think beyond the utilitarian cues. For example, the Nokia cell phone company has emphasized fashion over function in the last few years. As a result, Nokia has successfully generated

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substantial sales in the Chinese market using this particular strategy. Therefore, apart from price, quality and function, fashion designers should focus on the design and the symbolic image of pyjamas in order to shift the current paradigm. Affordable fashion or affordable luxury will be the key for Chinese consumer market. Many young Chinese consumers are seeking fashionable and affordable products with the best values. If pyjamas can offer the above benets to consumers, then the frequency of sales will be increased, and those who do not generally purchase pyjamas will consider wearing these garments. According to the results of our survey, most of the respondents did not perceive brand as a signicant purchasing criterion for pyjamas, and brand was ranked as the second least important evaluative criterion. The challenge for fashion practitioners will be building the brand image and adding symbolic value to this low involvement and privately consumed product for the Chinese market. As stated earlier, many consumers rarely use pyjamas as a communication tool to express their self-image. However, it is believed that this current norm and consumers perceptions can be changed. As an example, many consumers consider soap to be utilitarian, a product that cleanses their bodies. Ivory soap has successfully built symbolic meaning into their product by emphasizing an Ivory girl complexion. Thus, consumers have ocked to purchase, the product not merely looking for the soaps functional benets but rather seeking the desirable appearance promoted by the company (McEnally and de Chernatony, 1999). In China, self-satisfaction and self-expression have become the predominant motivators of young and afuent consumers (McEwen et al., 2006). In the study of self in China, the most notable characterization is the collectivist idea (Hofstede, 1980), Markus and Kitayama (1991, pp. 277) further contend an interdependent self among the Chinese, whereby members (of the culture) may be expected to promote others goals, to express opinions appropriate to their group and position, and to strive to t in and belong. Ones private self is not as important as the public self. This is further supported by Pellows (1996) study in China, in which privacy could be viewed as secrecy and even a taboo in the culture. Expanding upon this idea in relation to our topic at hand, pyjamas could be considered to be a product related more to ones individuality, the private self, which could explain the low involvement usage of the product at this moment. However, It is envisioned that traditional cultures are in a process of negotiation and change with world globalization, which could dramatically alter perceptions of common products and their use. As Zhou and Belk (2004) asserted, over the last ten years during the economic boom, that the Chinese have increased their material consumption as their economy prospers. Todays Chinese consumers are savvy with the purchase and utilization of modern products. In order to elevate pyjamas into a high involvement product, the symbolic value should be promoted through image building with reference to the socio-cultural environment (Elliott and Wattanasuwan, 1998; Holt, 1997) of Chinese consumers. For example, since the symbolic meanings are inter-texturalized, the salient of family value in Chinese culture should be considered in the process of selling and promoting pyjamas in China (Elliott, 1997; Holt, 1997). In order to develop a brand image for pyjamas, advertising should play a more important role. In addition to informing consumers of the functional values of a product, it should simultaneously imbue symbolic value and meaning relevant to consumers needs.

In general, the Fishbein model has helped to gain insights into the behavioral intentions of female Chinese consumers and the effects of attitude and socio-cultural norms, especially in relation to the collectivist value of the setting. Rapid economic growth will continue to transform the Chinese consumer market in the future. There is no one-size-ts-all strategy for this divergent and complicated market. For a product to be successful in todays Chinese milieu, fashion designers and practitioners must pay attention to the intrinsic and extrinsic cues that determine the marketability of pyjamas. Marketers should constantly monitor and identify what constitutes the shifting paradigm of consumer taste and habit. Market research is also needed to discover what elements could trigger particular cognitive and affective responses among young adult Chinese consumers. Limitations and further research There were several limitations to this study. First, the data was collected exclusively from a convenience sample of young adult female college students thus, the sample was skewed towards younger people. This may not represent the buying behaviour of the Chinese population as a whole. Second, a specic pair of garments pyjamas was selected for the purpose of the study. Therefore, the validity of consumers perceptions of low-involvement and privately consumed products may be less signicant. Lastly, only one second-tier coastal city (Hangzhou) was surveyed which may limit the generalization of the results. Although this research provides important insights to fashion practitioners on product design and marketing, further research covering a larger group of urban cities, sampling different products, including other age groups or gender in the survey would strengthen the external validity of future studies.
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