A term paper on:

IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN NEPAL

Submitted to: Associate Prof. Ramananda Yadav. Ph. D. Department of Soil Science and Agri-Engineering Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

Submitted By Krishna Prashad Tiwari M.Sc.Ag (Horticulture) 3rd Semester R 2010-HRT-02M

February, 2012

IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN NEPAL 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of introduction To increase the supply of agriculture production, new technology is being used. This includes genetic modification, chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides in agriculture. The use of chemical provides instant benefits but in long run these chemicals destroy the production capacity of the soil. They also leave negative impact on the life of the human beings, and lead to other environmental problems too. At the same time the genetic modification of the food is also decimating the natural variety of plants. On the other hand urbanization, industrialization and development of various other infrastructures have led to the rapid loss of agricultural land and the production too. The worlds population, which is rapidly increasing, will suffer from this loss. We must not be only commercial for the production of agricultural things as it has long run effects on human life and the environment too. We use various chemical fertilizers so as to yield a good amount of crop but in other hand it will leave a long run effect on human life and the environment. We must not think of agriculture with a commercial mind, viewing it for our individual benefits. Therefore, by proper utilization of natural resources, which are gifts of nature, we should be able to produce high quality agricultural products while compensating for nature. If we do not become timely conscious and become aware of this situation, then it will be beyond the control and will be a great threat to the human existence in this world. Necessary steps must be taken immediately for preserving environment and its creatures by supporting (institutionalizing) organic farming globally. The only way we can save our planet is through sustainable organic agriculture. Nepal is an agriculture-based economy with about 85 % population dependent on agriculture whereas 80 % of the population survives as agriculture labors. The farmers have been doing hard labor but they are not able to improve their quality of living and are compelled to live a miserable life. Nepal has a history of using chemical fertilizers and pesticides for the last 35 years for higher agriculture production yields. Before the use of chemical fertilizers, the quality of rice was very high and full of flavor, while the rice is being cooked in kitchen all the surrounding areas would be full of the aroma. With the use of fertilizer, the quality of rice has deteriorated; the production is high but the quality of taste and even differs in the amount of nutrition it provides to us. Similarly, the use of chemicals in agriculture has been decreasing the quality of our food. Due to the use of synthetic fertilizer and pesticides all agriculture products are being contaminated and being unhealthier. Also, using these kinds of chemical inputs affects the ecosystem and imbalance the ecological cycle. It also has direct effect on climatic change and global warming. 1.2 Concept of organic agriculture According to the International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM), organic agriculture includes all agricultural systems that promote the environmentally, socially and economically sound production of food and fibers (Willer & Yussefi, 2006). These systems take soil fertility as a key to

successful production. By respecting the natural capacity of plants, animals and the landscape, organic farming aims to optimize quality in all aspects of agriculture and environment (Ibid). But organic production is not merely concerned with a product, but also with the whole system used to produce and deliver the product to the ultimate consumer, including chain of custody, handling and processing (Scialabba & Hattam, 2002). Organic farming largely excludes synthetic inputs - pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers and focuses instead on biological processes such as composting and other measures to maintain soil fertility, natural pest control and diversifying crops and livestock. Organic agriculture gives priority to longterm ecological health, such as biodiversity and soil quality, contrasting with conventional farming, which concentrates on short-term productivity gains. There are scientific studies, peer-reviewed and published, documenting organic agricultures positive outcomes. Furthermore, certified organic production is just the tip of the iceberg in terms of land managed organically but not certified as such. De facto organic farming is prevalent in resource-poor and/or agriculturally marginal regions where local populations have limited engagement with the cash economy. Farmers rely on locally available natural resources to maintain soil fertility and to combat pests and diseases. They are showing the way towards sustainable agriculture through sophisticated systems of crop rotation, soil management, and pest and disease control, based on traditional knowledge. Organic farming has its roots in the variously named biodynamic, regenerative agriculture, nature farming and permculture movements which have developed in different countries. Numerous adaptations of the guidelines have taken place, but the common understanding is that: Practicing organic agriculture involves managing the agro-ecosystem as an autonomous system, based on the primary production capacity of the soil under local climatic conditions. Agro-ecosystem management implies treating the system, on any scale, as a living organism supporting its own vital potential for biomass and animal production, along with biological mechanisms for mineral balancing, soil improvement and pest control. .. Farmers, their families and rural communities, are an integral part of this agro-ecosystem. Both sexes are involved on equal terms. (UNDP, 1992) 1.3 Organic farming in Nepalese context A research focused on the problems and potentials of organic agriculture in Nepal basing on the study of stakeholders of organic agriculture found that about 2.5% of households of urban areas are consuming organic products and almost 30% are found to have desire. Most of the organic production and marketing system in Nepal is on the basis of community trust. Market for organic products is quite rudimentary and legal certification hasnt started. There has been lacuna in research on the technologies to support organic agriculture.

Most of the farmers are well aware about the negative repercussion of the indiscriminate use of the agro-chemicals in their farm and opined that they would like to shift from inorganic towards organic agriculture; however, marketing for such products is the greatest bottleneck. All domestic organics reach to consumers without labeling. Consumers have a belief that organic food is healthier, less polluted and more natural, than conventionally produced foods. Many of the consumers are of the view that quality of the organic products is good and thats why these products are expensive. Most of them are willing to pay 10-15% of more price to the organic products over inorganic while they are willing to pay 20-30% more price to the organic products if they are labeled. Organic products are usually sold directly from farmers or through specialized shops and restaurants. Organic industry is too small and a long way to go in Nepal. Due to the lack of financial support for conversion, organic farmers rely only on consumers willingness to pay higher prices to obtain compensation for lower yields or higher costs that may arise due to the organic practice. Till date there is a vacuum of government policy to support organic opportunities in the country. Managing own Internal Control Systems better prepares farmers to manage plethora of other standards that are increasingly mandated for the trade. Political commitments such as avoiding conflicting drive to maximize production, hammering proactive policy, providing market incentives and institutionalization of Nepalese organic movement are imperative to further enhance organic sector in Nepal. 1.4 Objectives of the study The major objectives of this study are: To assess the scenario of organic farming in Nepal. To collect the latest information regarding potential achievements on livelihood of Nepalese people. To compile impacts driven due to adoption of organic agriculture in Nepal.

2. METHODOLOGY Since the study is limited to a term paper during a course under graduation in IAAS, the study is completely based on review of national and international articles concerned with the topic of study. Therefore, collection and review of essential materials were performed in February 2012 and the report has been made by compiling essential statements, facts about the changes aroused by organic or sustainable agriculture or permaculture.

3. IMPACT OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE A. MICRO ELEMENTS 3.1 Changes on yields A study on conventional and alternative farming systems for tomatoes over four years indicate that organic and low-input agriculture produce yields comparable to conventional systems. Nitrogen (N) availability was the most important factor limiting yield in organic systems, and can be satisfied by biological inputs. Another experiment examined organic and conventional potatoes and sweet corn over three years. Results showed that yield and vitamin C content of potatoes were not affected by the two different regimes. While one variety of conventional corn out-produced the organic, there was no difference between the two in yield of another variety or the vitamin C or E contents. Results indicate that long-term application of composts is producing higher soil fertility and comparable plant growth. A review of replicated research results in seven different US Universities and from Rodale Research Center, Pennsylvania and the Michael Fields Center, Wisconsin over the past 10 years showed that organic farming systems resulted in yields comparable to industrial, high input agriculture. Corn: With 69 total cropping seasons, organic yields were 94% of conventionally produced corn. Soybeans: Data from five states over 55 growing seasons showed organic yields were 94% of conventional yields. Wheat: Two institutions with 16 cropping year experiments showed that organic wheat produced 97% of the conventional yields. Tomatoes: Fourteen years of comparative research on tomatoes showed no yield differences. The most remarkable results of organic farming, however, have come from small farmers in developing countries. Case studies of organic practices show dramatic increases in yields as well as benefits to soil quality, reduction in pests and diseases and general improvement in taste and nutritional content. For example, in Brazil the use of green manures and cover crops increased maize yields by between 20% and 250%; in Tigray, Ethiopia, yields of crops from composted plots were 3-5 times higher than those treated only with chemicals; yield increases of 175% have been reported from farms in Nepal adopting agro-ecological practices; and in Peru the restoration of traditional Incan terracing has led to increases of 150% for a range of upland crops. Projects in Senegal involving 2000 farmers promoted stall-fed livestock, composting systems, use of green manures, water harvesting systems and rock phosphate. Yields of millet and peanuts increased dramatically, by 75-195% and 75-165% respectively. Because the soils have greater water retaining capacity, fluctuations in yields are less pronounced between high and low rainfall years. A project in Honduras, which emphasized soil conservation practices and organic fertilizers, saw a tripling or quadrupling of yields. In Santa Catarina, Brazil, focus has been placed on soil and water conservation, using contour grass

barriers, contour ploughing and green manures. Some 60 different crop species, leguminous and non-leguminous, have been inter-cropped or planted during fallow periods. These have had major impacts on yields, soil quality, levels of biological activity and water-retaining capacity. Yields of maize and soybeans have increased by 66%. 3.2 Efficient production The worlds longest running experiment comparing organic and conventional farming pronounced the former a success. The 21-year study found that soils nourished with manure were more fertile and produced more crops for a given input of nitrogen or other fertilizer. Nutrient input in the organic systems was 34 to 51% lower than in the conventional systems, whereas mean crop yield was only 20% lower over 21 years, indicating efficient production and use of resources. The ecological and efficiency gains more than made up for lower yields. In the long term, the organic approach was commercially viable, producing more food with less energy and fewer resources. The biggest bonus was improved quality of the soil under organic cultivation. Organic soils had up to 3.2 times as much biomass and abundance of earthworms, twice as many arthropods (important predators and indicators of soil fertility) and 40% more mycorrhizal fungi colonising plant roots. Mycorrhizal fungi are important in helping roots obtain more nutrients and water from the soil. The enhanced soil fertility and higher biodiversity is believed to render the organic plots less dependent on external inputs and provide long-term environmental benefits. 3.3 Improved soil properties Indeed, organic agriculture is helping to conserve and improve farmers most precious resource, the topsoil. To counter the problems of hardening, nutrient loss and erosion, organic farmers in the South are using trees, shrubs and leguminous plants to stabilize and feed soil, dung and compost to provide nutrients, and terracing or check dams to prevent erosion and conserve groundwater. Field experiments conducted at three organic and three conventional vegetable farms in 1996-1997 examined the effects of synthetic fertilisers and alternative soil amendments, including compost. Propagule densities of Trichoderma species (beneficial soil fungi that are biological control agents of plant-pathogenic fungi) and thermophilic microorganisms (a major constituent of which was Actinomycetes, which suppresses Phytophthora) were greater in organic soils. In contrast, densities of Phytophthora and Pythium (both plant pathogens) were lower in organic soils. While the study recorded increased enteric bacteria in organic soils, the researchers stressed that this was not a problem, as survival rates in soil are minimal. Critics of organic farming have disingenuously pointed to the possible human health effects of using manure. But untreated manure is not allowed in certified organic culture, and treated manure (known widely as compost) is safe - this is what is used in organic farming. Unlike conventional regimes (where manure might be used), mandatory organic certification bodies inspect farms to ensure standards are met. Little yield difference was observed in the first year. In the second year, tomato yields were higher on farms with a history of organic production, regardless of soil amendment type, probably due to

the benefits of long-term organic amendments. Mineral concentrations were higher in organic soils whilst soil quality on conventional farms was significantly improved by the addition of organic fertilizer. Another means to restore soil fertility in organic systems is through legumes. A 15-year study compared three maize/soybean agro-ecosystems. One was a conventional system using mineral N fertilizer and pesticides. The other two systems were managed organically. One was manure-based, where grasses and legumes, grown as part of a crop rotation, were fed to cattle. The manure provided N for maize production. The other did not have livestock; N fixed by legumes was incorporated into soil. Amazingly, the 10-year-average maize yields differed by less than 1% among the three systems. Soil organic matter and N content increased markedly in the manure system and, to a lesser degree, in the legume system, but were unchanged or declined in the conventional system. The latter had greater environmental impacts - 60% more nitrate leached into groundwater over a 5-year period than in the organic systems. 3.4 No increased pests Because organic farms dont use synthetic pesticides, critics claim that losses due to pests would rise. However, research on tomato production has found that the withdrawal of synthetic insecticides does not lead to increased crop losses as a result of pest damage. There was no significant difference in pest damage levels on 18 commercial farms, half of which were certified organic systems and half, conventional operations. Arthropod biodiversity was on average one-third greater on organic farms than on conventional farms. There was no significant difference between the two for abundance of pests, but densities of natural enemies were more abundant on organic farms, with greater species richness of all functional groups (herbivores, predators, parasitoids). Thus, any particular pest species in organic farms would be associated with a greater variety of herbivores (i.e. diluted) and subject to a wider variety and greater abundance of potential parasitoids and predators. At the same time, research has shown that pest control is achievable without pesticides, reversing crop losses. For example, in East Africa, maize and sorghum face two major pestsstem borer and Striga, a parasitic plant. Field margins are planted with trap crops that attract stem borer, such as Napier grass. Pests are lured away from the crop into a trapthe grass produces a sticky substance that kills stemborer larvae. The crops are inter-planted with molasses grass (Desmodium uncinatum) and two legumes: silverleaf and greenleaf. The legumes bind N, enriching the soil. But thats not all. Desmodium also repels stemborers and Striga. Korean researchers recently reported that avoiding pesticides in paddy fields encourages the muddy loach fish, which effectively control mosquitoes that spread malaria and Japanese encephalitis. The larvae numbers of the mosquito vectors were significantly lower in organic sites.

3.5 Higher biodiversity Maintaining agricultural biodiversity is vital to ensuring long-term food security. Organic farms often exhibit greater biodiversity than conventional farms, with more trees, a wider diversity of crops and many different natural predators, which control pests and help prevent disease. Proving with stunning results that planting a diversity of crops is beneficial (compared with monocultures), thousands of Chinese rice farmers have doubled yields and nearly eliminated its most devastating disease, without using chemicals or spending more. Under the direction of scientists, farmers in Yunnan implemented a simple change that radically restricted the incidence of rice blast. Instead of planting large stands of a single type of rice, as they typically have done, they planted a mixture of two different kinds of rice: a standard rice that does not usually succumb to rice blast disease and a much more valuable sticky rice known to be very susceptible. Resistant plants not only blocked the airborne spores, but as more farmers participated, positive effects began to multiply. Not only were spores not blowing in from the next row, they were no longer coming from the next farmers field either, rapidly halting the diseases spread. The sticky rice plants, which rise above the shorter, standard rice plants, enjoyed sunnier, warmer and drier conditions that also discouraged the growth of ice blast. Furthermore, empirical evidence from a study conducted since 1994 shows that biodiverse ecosystems are 2-3 times more productive than monocultures. In experimental plots, both aboveground and total biomass increased significantly with species number. The high diversity plots were fairly immune to the invasion and growth of weeds, but this was not so for monocultures and low diversity plots. Thus, biodiverse systems are also less prone to weeds! 3.6 GHGs emissions Organic agriculture not only have enabled agriculture-influenced ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate change but also offers potential to reduce the emissions of agricultural greenhouse gases. Mitigation is a process of reducing Green House Gases (GHGs) which are responsible for change in climate and climatic variability. The main GHGs include methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. Organic agriculture not only have enabled ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate change but also offers potential to reduce the emissions of agricultural greenhouse gases. In organic agriculture, soil fertility is maintained mainly through farm internal inputs (organic manures, legume production, wide crop rotations etc.); energy-demanding synthetic fertilizers and plant protection agents are rejected; and there is less or no use of fossil fuel. The carbon sink idea of the Kyoto Protocol (Article 3.4) may therefore

Fig: Sources of GHGs

partly be accomplished efficiently by organic agriculture (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). In order to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector, suggestions by IPCC (2007a) included improving crop and grazing land management to increase soil carbon storage; improving nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to reduce N; and dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use (IPCC, 2007b). 3.7 Change in cash crop income Engagement in certified organic cash crop production has improved household food access by increasing household income that may be used to access more food through the market which may be either through the organic price premium, by reducing the unit cost of production, or because it enables the adoption of a new cash crop not formerly produced by the household. The little research done to date suggests that organic farmers in developing countries can increase their income by 30%-200% after the organic conversion period (Onduru et al, 2002; Parrot et al, 2006). 3.8 Sustainable farming with better soil environment Research published in Nature investigated the sustainability of organic, conventional and integrated (combining organic and conventional methods) apple production systems in Washington from 1994-1999. All three gave comparable yields, with no observable differences in physiological disorders or pest and disease damage. The organic system ranked first in environmental and economic sustainability, the integrated system second and the conventional system last. A sustainable farm must produce adequate highquality yields, be profitable, protect the environment, conserve resources and be socially responsible in the long term. Specific indicators used were soil quality, horticultural performance, orchard profitability, environmental quality and energy efficiency. Soil quality ratings in 1998 and 1999 for the organic and integrated systems were significantly higher than for the conventional system, due to the addition of compost and mulch. There were satisfactory levels of nutrients among all three systems. A consumer taste test found organic apples less tart at harvest and sweeter than conventional apples after six months of storage. 3.9 Value of the trade Estimating the volumes and value of products traded is difficult as no countries separate organic products in their trade statistics can be found. Segger (1997) estimated total current global trade in organic produce to be US$11 billion, over US$4 billion of which takes place in the USA and US$4.5 billion in Europe. With growth rates of 25-30%, he expected global value of organic trade to reach US$100 billion by 2006. IIED (1997) estimated that the value of the organic premium to developing countries in 1997 was US$500 million. The data clearly tells the value of trade is increasing rapidly, and is far more than the market inflation.

3.10 Household food security and expenditures This section concerns how the income from organic farming was spent, who controlled it (men or women), and how it contributed to household food security in terms of amounts and quality of food purchased. In this regard we examine differences in men and womens priorities and perceptions. We also examine changes in womens personal cash income since organic conversion because such changes affect food consumption in proportion to how much of these incomes women spend on food. Income earned by women Few married women are operating their own pineapple plot in Terai region and some hilly districts of Nepal (in addition to the family plot controlled by the husband) that allowed them to earn personal income from pineapple sales. Apart from households headed by widows or divorcees, most households in these areas, income is being governed by married women. In all cases this was from a plot much smaller than that operated by the husband. It is noteworthy that the women had not experienced a reduction in their personal income as a result of the increased emphasis on pineapple growing (by their husbands) since organic certification, although this issue was not investigated in depth. Ranking of how the revenue from pineapple is spent by the household (overall ranking from four focus groups)

Source: focus group interview, October 2006 (EPOPA, 2007) Similarly, coffee (the organic coffee) is being planted and marketed by many cooperatives in local level or in international market in Nepal, the special pocket areas are Gulmi, Kabhrepalanchok, Syngja, Arghakhachhi, Sindhupalanchok, and Dhading districts. As many males migrate seasonally to India or to foreign countries for income generation or males may be involved in other agricultural works rather intensively in organic coffee production; females are the regular farmer of the commodity.

Ranking by men and women of how the income from coffee is spent by the household

The impact of income from coffee production and marketing is mainly goes to females in the case of smallholders. The table below shows the impact of such income on livelihood of the household. 3.10 Change in farming system Two types of transition to sustainable agriculture have been assessed: from modern or conventional high-external input agriculture (such as farming in Green Revolution lands or in the industrialized countries); and from traditional, rainfed agriculture where cereal yields have largely remained constant over centuries. As these transitions are recent (within the past ten years), they provide compelling evidence that similar improvements could occur elsewhere and that they could be repeated on a larger scale. The yield improvements by adopting organic farming differ according to whether agricultural systems are in high-yielding (HY), medium-yielding (MY) and low-yielding (LY) countries. There are currently 56 LY countries, 65 MY countries and 46 HY countries (countries with a very small area under cereals were not included in the analysis).

Changes in coffee management practices due to organic conversion

B.

The greatest increases following a transition to sustainable agriculture are in rainfed agriculture in the lowest yield countries, where the average new yields for wheat, maize and sorghum-millet are of the order of double the yields of conventional or pre-sustainable agriculture.

B. MACRO ELEMENTS 4. ECOSYSTEMS GOODS AND SERVICES Organic agriculture provides a basis for maintaining environmental goods and services at the farm and landscape level. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (2008), organic agriculture provides the following environmental goods and services. Organic agriculture promotes ecological resilience, improved biodiversity, healthy management of farms and the surrounding environment, and builds on community knowledge and strength. Hence, organic agriculture has been proved to be effective for enhanced

adaptive capacity of farmers adversely affected by climate change.

Organic agriculture and environmental goods and services

5. SUSTAINABLE FOOD SECURITY The sustainable production of food is the first pillar of food security. In this section we address two fundamental questions:

to food security, particularly at the local level, or can current and future populations be fed by sustainable agriculture? The Sustainable Agriculture Programme of IIED has examined the extent and impact of sustainable agriculture in a selected number of countries, and used this empirical evidence to estimate sustainable agricultures potential contribution to global food production. Whilst we were aware that many projects and programmes had improved agricultural yields, these data have never been collated in one place. The government and non-government programmes and projects have included in this analysis share important common characteristics. They have: -conserving technologies in conjunction with group or collective approaches to agricultural improvement and natural resource management; -centred activities at the centre of their agenda - hence, these activities are occurring on local peoples terms, and so are more likely to persist after the projects and programmes have ended; -for-work to buy the participation of local people, or to encourage them to adopt particular technologies, and thus improvements are unlikely to fade away or simply disappear at the end of projects or programmes;

-processing, marketing, and other off-farm activities, thus creating employment and income-generating opportunities and retaining the surplus in the rural economy. 6. IMPLICATIONS AT NATIONAL LEVEL IN NEPAL Despite the alarming impacts-both potential and realized of climate change on agriculture, there is hardly any information available related to climate change, agriculture and organic agriculture in Nepal. Organic agriculture is beginning to gain attention both in the Government and in the nongovernment sector these days. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoAC) through its district level offices has started working in organic agriculture but the efforts are still not adequate. The ministry has already finalized the organic agriculture standard for certification for Nepal. The Government of Nepal through the Ministry of Environment Science and Technology

(MoEST) is going to prepare a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) for Nepal. Though it is not yet clear how the government is going to prepare the NAPA, the involvement of MoAC and other non-governmental organizations in the process of NAPA formulation is vital for the integration of organic agriculture and adaptation related issues.

7. COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS Organic agriculture is based on ecological processes; knowledge of the agro-ecosystem is thus a pre-requisite to any organic farm. Farmers with a traditional knowledge base are potentially better able to develop ecological processes to respond to the effects of climate change and some other changes in soil environment and farm productivity. Community knowledge represents a process of learning as much as a single body of information. Traditional knowledge is not just a system for the present, but a source of institutional memory about what practices have worked best over time. Such knowledge has been described as a reservoir of adaptations, a whole set of practices that may be used again if the need arises (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). Organic agriculture has promoted improved soil quality and efficient water use, agro-ecosystems and strong community knowledge processes which in turn help to improve farm resilience against the adverse impacts of climate change and strengthen farms adaptive capacity.

8. CONCLUSION The impact of organic agriculture in Nepal has been reviewed and some major and some minor changes have been known due to the adoption of organic agriculture in Nepal. The major elements that has made changes over the social and environmental aspects of Nepal and Nepalese agriculture economy are: changes in income of farmers due to premium price of organic product, changes in soil environment especially improving the soil flora and fauna activity and making soil more productive lessening the soil pollution, changes in household economy, changes in female income and expenditure pattern, improvements in biodiversity, reduction of agricultural input costs, and utilization of local resources. The macro elements changes due to the adoption of organic agriculture are social change, cropping pattern shifts, farm environment improvements, farmer health hazard reduction, and so on.

REFERENCES Willer, H. & M. Yussefi (eds.) 2006. The world of organic agriculture: Statistics and emerging trends 2006. IFOAM (Bonn) and FiBL (Frick). Scialabba, N.E. and C. Hattam (Eds). 2002. Organic agriculture, environment and food security. FAO, Rome. UNDP (1992). Benefits of Diversity: An Incentive Towards Sustainable Agriculture. United Nations Development Programme, New York. Onduru D. D., J. M. Diop, E. Van Der Werf, & A. De Jager. 2002. Participatory onfarm comparative assessment of organic and conventional farmers' practices in Kenya. Biological Agriculture & Horticulture, Vol. 19 (4): 295-314. Parrott, N. & B. van Elzakker. 2003. Organic and like-minded movements in Africa: development and status. (IFOAM, Tholey-Theley) Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008. Organic agriculture and climate change. Retrieved on Jan 10, 2009 from: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4137E/y4137e02b.htm#89. IPCC, 2007. Third assessment report mitigation IPCC, Switzerland. IPCC, 2007. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Summary for Policymakers. Retrieved on Nov 10, 2008 from: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-spm.pdf. Segger, P. (1997) In: The Future Agenda for Organic Trade - IFOAM Conference Proceedings. September 1997. IFOAM (1997) Organic agriculture worldwide - Directory of the member organisations and associates of IFOAM, 1997/98. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. Germany. IIED (1997) Changing consumption and production patterns - Unlocking Trade Opportunities. International Institute for Environment and Development, UK Lamber-Madore, J (1997) Organic Cotton Production in Mozambique - IAM Feasibility Study Agro Eco Consultancy.